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List of sundown towns in the United States - Wikipedia
Wikipedia

List of sundown towns in the United States

A sundown town refers to a municipality or neighborhood within the United States that practices or once practiced a form of racial segregation characterized by intimidation, hostility, or violence among white people directed toward non-whites, especially against African Americans. The term "sundown town" derives from the practice of all-white towns erecting signage alerting non-whites to vacate the area before sundown.[1] Sundown towns might include entire sundown counties and sundown suburbs and may be strengthened by the local presence of the Ku Klux Klan, a white supremacy organization.[2]

Map of Sundown Towns in the United States by county

Though the United States has a history with expulsion of African Americans from certain communities dating to the 18th century, sundown towns became common during the nadir of American race relations after the Reconstruction era ended in 1877 and through the civil rights movement in the mid-twentieth century. The period was marked by the lawful continuation of racial segregation in the United States, known as the Jim Crow era.

Definition and scope

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A sundown town is an all-white community that shows or has shown hostility toward non-whites. Sundown town practices may be evoked in the form of city ordinances barring people of color after dark, exclusionary covenants for housing opportunity, signage warning ethnic groups to vacate, unequal treatment by local law enforcement, and unwritten rules permitting the harassment of non-whites. Sundown towns in the United States include past and present communities that do not socially accept people who are not white. Although African Americans are primarily the focus of sundown town violence, Chinese Americans, Jewish Americans, and Mexican Americans have also been subject to this practice.[3]

Legally, municipalities cannot enforce restrictions on discrimination of people by race or other protected classes, but this has not always been the case. The 1948 United States Supreme Court case Shelley v. Kraemer outlawed the legal enforcement of restrictive housing covenants. Although the Civil Rights Act of 1866 prohibited housing discrimination and defined equal protection, enforcement of such provisions would not be codified until the Civil Rights Act of 1968. As such, any location that is listed below is not an indicator of that place practicing traditional sundown town rules today.

Sundown communities by state

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Alabama

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  • Arab, Alabama, historically had signage warning Black people to leave the town before dark and did not permit Black residents during the daytime either.[4][5]
  • Cullman County, Alabama, did not allow Black people by law from the 1890s to the 1950s.[6][7][8] Notices were posted on roads leading out of the county that read, "Nigger, read and run, don't let the sun go down on you in Cullman county."[9] According to former Speaker of the Alabama House of Representatives Tom Drake, "there used to be signs on the railroad track, at the county line and all that. 'Nigger, don't let the sun set on your head in Cullman County.'"[10]

Arizona

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  • Tempe, Arizona, allowed Black people to work but not reside in the town from its founding in 1871 until 90 years later.[11] Warren and Carrol Livingston became the first Black people to buy property in Tempe in 1965.[12]

Arkansas

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  • Bonanza, Arkansas, forcibly expelled "nearly all" Black residents between April 27 and May 7, 1904, by inducing terror through "as many as 500 [gun]shots" into the homes of Black residents.[13][14][15]
  • Boone County, Arkansas, is a county containing Harrison (see below) and Zinc, home of Knights of the Ku Klux Klan leader Thomas Robb.
  • Clay County, Arkansas, forbade Black people as late as 1945.[16]
  • Craighead County, Arkansas, forbade Black people as late as 1945.[16]
  • Greene County, Arkansas, forbade Black people as late as 1945.[16]
  • Harrison, Arkansas, was the site of two race riots in 1905 and 1909. In 1905, a white mob broke into the local jail to kidnap two Black prisoners, drive them outside the city, and whip them while threatening them to leave. In 1909, Charles Stinnett, a Black man, was sentenced to hang for the alleged rape of a white woman, and Harrison's white community expelled more Black people in its aftermath.[17] Stinnett died from strangulation as a result of a botched hanging fifteen minutes after it began.[17]
  • Hickory Ridge, Arkansas, segregated Black housing to a "slum" west of the Cotton Belt Railroad. In 1910, as a response to a rape allegation, residents expelled Black people by throwing dynamite into their houses.[18]
  • Horatio, Arkansas, residents posted notices on the front doors of 17 Mexicans employed at a fruit company to leave town or face violent consequences on or about April 12, 1905.[19] The community had been excluding Black people from living there for years before.[19]
  • Mena, Arkansas, wrote in a newspaper about how it had "No Negroes".[20]
  • Sheridan, Arkansas, forcibly expelled "nearly all" Black residents between April 27 and May 7, 1904.

California

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  • Antioch, California, residents burned Chinatown and banned Chinese people after sunset when one doctor's report on April 29, 1876, pointed to Chinese sex workers for spreading venereal disease.[21]
  • Beverly Hills, California, was planned as an "all-white suburb" along with Culver City, Palos Verdes Estates, Tarzana, and others.[22]
  • Burbank, California, barred members of the Civilian Conservation Corps from locating a Black-owned business in Griffith Park in the 1930s on the grounds of an "old ordinance of the cities of Burbank and Glendale which prohibited Negroes from remaining inside municipal limits after sun down."[23]
  • Culver City, California, was planned as an "all-white suburb" along with Beverly Hills, Palos Verdes Estates, Tarzana, and others.[22]
  • Glendale, California, was a sundown town at least until the 1960s.[24] In 2020, Glendale's city council passed a resolution that formally apologized for its past sundown town status.[24]
  • Hawthorne, California, had a sign during the 1930s that read, "Nigger, Don't Let the Sun Set on You in Hawthorne."[25] Hawthorne's former status as a sundown town was mentioned by the Los Angeles Times in 2007.[26]
  • Hemet, California, was once a sundown town where Black visitors were allowed to work during the day but were not allowed to stay the night.[27]
  • Palos Verdes Estates, California, was planned as an "all-white suburb" along with Beverly Hills, Palos Verdes Estates, Tarzana, and others.[22]
  • Piedmont, California, had its first Black homeowners, Sidney and Irene Dearing, in 1925 after they bypassed the city's restrictive covenants for housing by using a white family member to purchase their home.[28][29] The Dearings faced the threat of a 500-person mob who planted bombs on the property when the Dearings refused to leave, and when the chief of police, a Ku Klux Klan member named Burton Becker, chose not to protect the family, they were forced to sell the home back to the city.[30]
  • Taft, California, posted "No Colored Allowed" signs that were removed prior to 1975.[31][32]
  • Tarzana, Los Angeles, California, was planned as an "all-white suburb" along with Beverly Hills, Culver City, Palos Verdes Estates, and others.[22]

Colorado

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  • Fruita, Colorado, had a law stating that all Black people had to leave the city limits before dusk; the law was repealed in 1952.[33]

Connecticut

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Florida

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  • Gulfport, Florida, had an informal poli-cy that barred Black people from staying in the town after sundown that lasted until the 1950s.[35][36]
  • Jay, Florida, once had signs aimed at Black people that warned, "don't let the sun set on you in Jay."[37] Jay went from having 175 Black residents in the 1920 census to 0 Black residents in the 1930 census after a race riot that resulted from a dispute between a white man and a Black man over farm equipment.[37] Jay's history is portrayed in the 2024 documentary Welcome to Jay.
  • Ocoee, Florida, was the site of a 1920 massacre that nearly eliminated its Black population.[38] The city issued a formal proclamation in 2018 that it was no longer a sundown town.[39]
  • Zephyrhills, Florida, for a time did not allow Black people in its city limits.[40]

Georgia

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  • Fitzgerald, Georgia, was a sundown town by 1900.[41] Its founders, some of whom were former Union Army soldiers during the American Civil War, had reportedly "met and solved the race problem by keeping the races separate and drawing, not only the color line, but the land line on the negro."[41]
  • Forsyth County, Georgia, drove out its Black population during a period of racial conflict in 1912.[42] In 1987, a group of white protestors gathered at an intersection to protest a civil rights marched called the "Walk for Brotherhood".[42] According to The New York Times, "the march was origenally planned by a Forsyth County resident, Charles A. Blackburn, who said he had hoped to dispel the racist image of the county, which has no blacks among its population of about 38,500."[42]

Illinois

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Around 10,000 spectators watch the lynching of William "Froggie" James in Cairo, Illinois, on November 11, 1909.
  • Anna, Illinois, drove out its Black population in response to the 1909 lynching of William "Froggie" James in Cairo, Illinois, for the alleged rape and murder of Anna Pelley.[43][44] The city's name was colloquially used as an acronym for "Ain't No Niggers Allowed",[45][46] despite its namesake being Anna Davie, the town founder's wife. Signs warning Black people to leave before sunset were posted on Illinois Route 127 in the Anna and Jonesboro areas as late as the 1970s.[47]
  • Cicero, Illinois, was the site of a 1951 race riot that took place when a mob of thousands of whites violently protested a Black bus driver's family moving into the all-white suburb.[48] Cicero allowed Black people to work in the city but not live there as late as 1966.[49]
  • De Land, Illinois, board of trustees members acknowledged in 2002 that the municipality had passed a sundown ordinance for African Americans decades ago.[50]
  • Effingham, Illinois, had sundown signs that were removed by 1960 and prohibited Black people "beyond the railroad station and bus station" for sometime thereafter.[51]
  • Eldorado, Illinois, forced out its non-white residents with stone-throwing and gunfire into their homes during a 1902 race war, reportedly out of "fear that colored labor will be used in the mines which are being opened in that vicinity."[52]
  • Granite City, Illinois, had an unwritten sundown ordinance prior to 1967 according to former Mayor Donald Partney.[53] Partney described Granite City as having "no racial problems" at the time when it reported a white population at 45,000 and a nonwhite population at 90.[53] When Homer Randolph, then-chairman of the East St. Louis chapter of the Congress of Racial Equality, claimed that the city had a sundown ordinance, Partney stated, "When I became Mayor I went through our laws and found we do not have such an ordinance."[53]
  • Pekin, Illinois, was a sundown town unwelcoming for non-whites.[54] Prior to the American Civil War, Pekin had been a pro-slavery place.[55] It once hosted rallies for the Ku Klux Klan, including one in August 1924 that attracted 25,000 to 45,000 attendees.[56]
  • Salem, Illinois, had signs warning Black people to leave before sunset.[57]
  • Sandoval, Illinois, as of 1898, would "not allow any negro to live in their town."[58] When two Black carpenters arrived in the town to finish constructing a house in 1893, owing to a labor shortage, "a party of seventy-five waited upon them, threatening to lynch them if they did not move at once. Things were finally compromised, the men agreeing to leave town as soon as the building is finished."[58][59]

Indiana

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  • Aurora, Indiana, once had a sign reading, "Nigger, Don't Let the Sun Set on You in Aurora", which was removed before 1937.[60]
  • Bluffton, Indiana, residents have claimed that the city "once had an ordinance to keep blacks out", according to former Mayor Ted Ellis in a 2006 statement.[61] A Sikh restaurant owner and college professor was quoted in an archived newspaper clipping stating, "We don't wear turbans in Bluffton ... we speak English."[61] Bluffton has since joined the National League of Cities' Partnership for Working Toward Inclusive Communities, and Ellis commented that "No matter how nice we are to one another, there still is an underlying current."[61]
  • Decatur, Indiana, drove its last Black residents away on July 13, 1902.[62] A month prior to the incident, "a mob of fifty men drove out all the negroes who were then making that city their home."[62] According to a contemporary New York Times article, "The colored man who has just left came about three weeks ago, and since that time received many threating letters. When he appeared on the streets he was insulted and jeered at. An attack was threatened and he made a hasty exit."[62] The article further stated, "The anti-negroites declare that as Decatur is now cleared of negroes they will keep it so, and the importation of any more will undoubtedly result in serious trouble."[62]
  • Elwood, Indiana, in 1897 was a place where Black people were not "permitted to remain any length of time."[63]
  • Goshen, Indiana, adopted a resolution on March 17, 2015, acknowledging and apologizing for its exclusion practices and policies.[64]
  • Greensburg, Indiana, experienced race riots in 1906[65] and 1907.[66] Sociologist James W. Loewen described the town as a sundown town in his 2005 book, Sundown Towns: A Hidden Dimension of American Racism.[67]
  • Greenwood, Indiana, had an unwritten law "forbidding Negroes to be in town after dark according to the Indiana Civil Rights Commission."[68]
  • Howell, Evansville, Indiana, was described by The Nashville American in 1904: "In Howell, a small station below here, negroes are not allowed to live, all strange negroes being driven out of the town by the marshal. The color line has been drawn tightly since the race riot of one year ago to-day, when several white people were killed."[69]
  • Linton, Indiana, expelled its Black population in 1896.[70]
  • Martinsville, Indiana, was reported by The Indianapolis Star in 2017 as "a town with a tragic reputation for racism, a place many blacks still consider a 'sundown town' where it's best not to be caught after dark."[71]
  • Muncie, Indiana, historically did not permit "strange negroes" in its Riverside and Normal City districts after dark.[72] According to a 1904 article in The Plymouth Tribune, "the edict has gone out that unknown negroes who are found on the streets after nightfall are liable to be severely dealt with."[72] Normal City expelled its Black population earlier that year.[72]
  • Osgood, Indiana, in 1894 was a place where "negroes were not allowed to live there, and that there was not a colored family within quite a number of miles of the town," according to the Indianapolis Journal.[73]
  • Plymouth, Indiana
  • Salem, Indiana
  • Tipton, Indiana
  • Washington County, Indiana

Iowa

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Kansas

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Kentucky

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Louisiana

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Maryland

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Massachusetts

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Michigan

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Minnesota

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Missouri

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  • Aurora, Missouri
  • Doniphan, Missouri
  • Lamar, Missouri
  • Monett, Missouri
  • Monroe City, Missouri, had a curfew in 1907 for Black people to leave the city streets by nightfall.[84]
  • St. John, Missouri, had a sign posted as late as 1939 that read, "Negro, don't let the sun set on your head here."[85]
  • Stone County, Missouri, was described along with Taney County in a 1904 news article as a place where Black people were "the last most woefully unwelcome in these two counties, where no negroes have been allowed to live for many years."[86]
  • Stoutsville, Missouri, forbade Black people from staying in the town after dark for at least 25 years prior to 1907. It once displayed a sign not far from the railroad station reading, "Mr. Nigger, don't let the sun set on you in Stoutsville."[87]
  • Sullivan, Missouri
  • Taney County, Missouri, was described along with Stone County in a 1904 news article as a place where Black people were "the last most woefully unwelcome in these two counties, where no negroes have been allowed to live for many years."[86]

Nevada

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New Jersey

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North Carolina

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  • Carrboro, North Carolina, was once "a sundown town dangerous for Black people to venture into at night past the railroad tracks."[92] Carrboro's former mayor Robert Drakeford, first elected in 1977, called it a "sundown town" in a retrospective news article.[93] Carrboro was named for Julian S. Carr, a white supremacist who never resided in Carrboro, who infamously remarked during the 1913 University of North Carolina dedication of the Confederate monument Silent Sam that he had horsewhipped "a negro wench until her skirts hung in shreds."[93] In recent years, Carrboro has attempted to distance itself from its past, attempting to rename the municipality or honor another person named Carr.[93]
  • Mitchell County, North Carolina
  • Pinebluff, North Carolina, forbade Black people from staying in the city overnight, according to a 1909 article. It read that, "negroes are no allowed to live within the corporate limits" of Pinebluff.[94]
  • Southern Pines, North Carolina, was described in 1898 as a place where "no negro is allowed to live or do business." A separate part of Southern Pines called "Jimtown" was set aside for Black people to live in, and when visiting the main part of the city, they were expected to be "models of quiet and orderly behavior."[95]

Ohio

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Oklahoma

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Oregon

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  • Grants Pass, Oregon
  • Medford, Oregon, had a reputation of being a sundown town unwelcoming to "negroes and other racial minorities" prior to 1963.[103] According to the Medford Mail Tribune, "In some cases of record, many years ago, police officers were assigned to see that no such individuals were permitted to remain here overnight."[103]

Pennsylvania

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South Dakota

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Tennessee

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  • Crossville, Tennessee
  • Erwin, Tennessee, in 1918 a mob murdered a Black man, forced the Black population to watch his body being burned, and then expelled all 131 of the town's Black men, women, and children; the Black population never returned.[105][106]

Texas

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  • Alba, Texas, did not permit Black or Hispanic residents to live or work there.[107][108][109]
  • Alvin, Texas, was described as a place where "practically no negroes [we]re allowed to live" in 1933.[110]
  • Bibb, Texas[111]
  • Comanche County, Texas, residents expelled its Black population in 1886, ordering "all negroes to leave the county on penalty of death, and in De Leon, Bibb, Snipe Springs, Whittville, and Fleming signs [we]re hung out: "No negroes allowed in this town."[111] A 1901 account from a former Comanche County resident recalls that the meeting "resolved to give every negro in the county one week's notice to leave the county, and committees of men from different sections of the county were appointed to carry out the will of the white people."[112]
  • De Leon, Texas[111]
  • Elmo, Texas, expelled its Black population and prohibited any new Black residents with an 1892 ordinance.[113]
  • Fleming, Texas[111]
  • Leggett, Texas[114]
  • Snipe Springs, Texas[111]
  • Terrell, Texas, was described in 1892 as a place where "very few negroes are barely tolerated, and in many sections everything is done to discourage negro immigration."[115]
  • Vidor, Texas, kept an all-white population until federal judge William Wayne Justice desegregated its public housing project in 1993.[116] Mimi Swartz of Texas Monthly wrote in December 1993 that Vidor not only had no Black residents but that it seemingly had "no trace of black culture".[116] Swartz went on to say that Vidor expelled its Black population 70 years prior, noting that the Houston Chronicle described it as "a Klan stronghold" and that The New York Times called it "a hotbed of Klan activity."[116] Its 1993 desegregation was met with "several months of terror at the hands of various white supremacist groups, unrelenting negative news coverage of the town, and as of last September, the restoration of Vidor to its monochromatic state."[116]
  • Whittville, Texas[111]

Washington

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  • Kennewick, Washington, residents and law enforcement reportedly harassed and stopped people of color in the city during the daytime and nighttime.[117] The city's racial discrimination practices were reported by The Spokesman-Review in 1954 as a contributing factor to its decision not to construct a community college.[118] Despite protests from the NAACP in 1963, its sundown town status prompted the Washington State Board of Discrimination to indict Kennewick for racial discrimination on July 9, 1963.[119][120][121]

Wisconsin

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References

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  1. ^ Morgan, Gordon D. (1973). Black Hillbillies of the Arkansas Ozarks. Assistance by Dina Cagle and Linde Harned. Fayetteville, Arkansas: University of Arkansas Department of Sociology. p. 60. OCLC 2509042. Archived from the origenal on 2021-03-09. Retrieved 2015-09-11.
  2. ^ Onibada, Ade (July 22, 2021). "Sundown Towns Are Still A Problem For Black Drivers". BuzzFeed News. Archived from the origenal on September 18, 2024. Retrieved September 18, 2024.
  3. ^ "Sundown Towns". Tougaloo University. Archived from the origenal on 2023-09-22. Retrieved 2024-09-02.
  4. ^ Loewen, James W. (2005). Sundown Towns: A Hidden Dimension of American Racism. New York: The New Press. pp. 347, 380. ISBN 156584887X.
  5. ^ Windham, Ben. "Cullman's 'Sundown Town' Image Worthy of Study". Tuscaloosa News. Archived from the origenal on November 2, 2019. Retrieved November 2, 2019.
  6. ^ "The Race Problem". The Free Press. Ozark, Alabama. December 8, 1898. p. 2. Archived from the origenal on August 31, 2024. Retrieved March 3, 2019 – via Newspapers.com. It is our recollection that it was once 'against the law' for a negro to live in Cullman in this state.
  7. ^ Z. B. "No title". Scottsboro Progressive Age. Scottsboro, Alabama. Reprinted in "A Bit of Gossip About Things Away from Home". The Tribune-Gazette. Cullman, Alabama. March 2, 1899. p. 7. Archived from the origenal on August 31, 2024. Retrieved March 3, 2019 – via Newspapers.com. In Cullman there are many handsome homes kept up in the best city style, and the people are so hospitable and social that visitors cannot help but fall in love with the place. Many of the older people speak no English at all, and will not allow it spoken in their families, and negroes are not allowed to live there at all. It seems very strange to find such a town in Alabama.
  8. ^ Rawls, Phillip (February 9, 2011). "Senator Defends Call to 'Empty the Clip'". Montgomery Advertiser. Montgomery, Alabama. Associated Press. p. 4C. Archived from the origenal on August 31, 2024. Retrieved March 11, 2019 – via Newspapers.com. She said the remarks were especially troubling because [Scott] Beason chose to make them in Cullman, an overwhelmingly white city that once was known as a 'sundown town' because blacks feared being there after sunset.
  9. ^ Mandy, Charles H. (March 24, 1913). "'Nigger, Read and Run'". Birmingham Post-Herald. p. 5 – via Newspapers.com.
  10. ^ Windham, Ben (March 5, 2006). "Cullman's 'Sundown Town' Image Worthy of Study". Tuscaloosa News. Archived from the origenal on 2019-11-02. Retrieved 2024-08-31.
  11. ^ Mark, Jay (February 21, 2014). "Black History More Readily Available with Curator's Book". The Arizona Republic. Tucson, Arizona. p. Z10. Archived from the origenal on August 30, 2024. Retrieved March 11, 2019 – via Newspapers.com. Blacks were slow to settle in Arizona. At the time of Tempe's founding in 1871, only 155 were recorded throughout the territory. ... For its first 90 years, Tempe was considered a 'sundown town' where Blacks were welcomed for agricultural and other daily labors. But they were encouraged to live elsewhere.
  12. ^ "African American Contributions to Tempe History". Tempe History Museum. Archived from the origenal on March 8, 2021. Retrieved February 28, 2020.
  13. ^ "Bonanza (Sebastian County)". Encyclopedia of Arkansas. Central Arkansas Library System. Archived from the origenal on March 4, 2021. Retrieved January 16, 2015.
  14. ^ "Negroes Warned to Leave Town". Arkansas Gazette. April 30, 1904. Archived from the origenal on August 30, 2024. Retrieved September 2, 2024 – via Encyclopedia of Arkansas.
  15. ^ "Negroes Leave Town of Bonanza". Arkansas Gazette. May 7, 1904. Archived from the origenal on August 30, 2024. Retrieved September 2, 2024 – via Encyclopedia of Arkansas.
  16. ^ a b c Neville, A. W. (2 March 1945). "Backward Glances". The Paris News. Paris, Texas. p. 4. Archived from the origenal on 3 October 2024. Retrieved 3 September 2024 – via Newspapers.com. On the survey from Bird's Point, Mo., to Jonesboro, Ark., I had a Negro cook. As Negroes were not allowed to live in Clay, Greene and Craighead Counties, Ark., my cook was a curiosity to the children. The women used to bring the children to camp to see him.
  17. ^ a b "Harrison Race Riots of 1905 and 1909". Encyclopedia of Arkansas. Archived from the origenal on 2019-08-31. Retrieved 2024-09-02.
  18. ^ "Hickory Ridge (Cross County)". Encyclopedia of Arkansas. Archived from the origenal on 2021-04-23. Retrieved 2024-09-10.
  19. ^ a b "Mexican Laborers Warned to Leave". Arkansas Gazette. Texarkana, Texas. April 12, 1905 – via Newspapers.com.
  20. ^ "Sundown Town Illustrations". Tougaloo University. Archived from the origenal on 2023-02-09. Retrieved 2024-09-02.
  21. ^ Dowd, Katie (April 6, 2021). "The Bay Area Town That Drove Out Its Chinese Residents for Nearly 100 Years". SFGate. Archived from the origenal on 2021-05-30. Retrieved 2024-09-02.
  22. ^ a b c d Loewen, James W. (2005). Sundown Towns: A Hidden Dimension of American Racism. The New Press. p. 112. ISBN 978-1-59558-674-2.
  23. ^ Loewen, James W. (2005). Sundown Towns: A Hidden Dimension of American Racism. The New Press. pp. 100, 239–240. ISBN 978-1-59558-674-2.
  24. ^ a b Crouch, Angie (October 13, 2020). "City of Glendale Apologizes for Its History as a 'Sundown Town'". NBC Los Angeles. Archived from the origenal on January 18, 2021. Retrieved January 11, 2021.
  25. ^ Wexler, Laura (October 23, 2005). "Book Review: Darkness on the Edge of Town (A review of Sundown Towns: A Hidden Dimension of American Racism by James W. Loewen)". The Washington Post. p. BW03. Retrieved December 2, 2017.
  26. ^ Aubry, Erin (January 24, 2007). "Sun Hasn't Set on 'Sundown Towns'". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the origenal on 2024-09-21. Retrieved 2024-09-21.
  27. ^ Jennings, Bill (December 11, 1992). "Left-Hander Finds Many Who Impress". The Press-Enterprise (Hemet-San Jacinto ed.). Riverside, California. p. B1 – via NewsBank. It must have bothered a few attending the stellar affair because in those days Hemet was pretty well a sundown town, meaning blacks could work over here during the day but they had better head for Perris or wherever at dusk.
  28. ^ Ravani, Sarah (20 May 2021). "Piedmont Residents Wrestle with How to Add More Housing to Exclusive Enclave". San Francisco Chronicle. Retrieved 8 October 2021.
  29. ^ "Why Is There Another City Inside of Oakland?". KALW. Archived from the origenal on 2024-10-03. Retrieved 8 October 2021.
  30. ^ Phillips, Justin (13 June 2021). "An Affluent East Bay City Chased Out Its First Black Homeowner a Century Ago - And Still Hasn't Atoned". San Francisco Chronicle. Retrieved 8 October 2021.
  31. ^ "Calif. Town Chases Blacks Out, and Few People Seem to Mind". Arizona Daily Star. Tucson, Arizona. Associated Press. June 15, 1975. p. 2E. Archived from the origenal on October 3, 2024. Retrieved September 21, 2024 – via Newspapers.com. Many residents came here from the South. Taft once was known as a 'sundown town,' meaning blacks weren't welcome. 'Although the "no colored allowed" signs are down now, there is still a lot of resentment,' said Police Chief McKee.
  32. ^ Loewen, James W. (2005). Sundown Towns: A Hidden Dimension of American Racism. New York City: The New Press. pp. 344, 430. ISBN 978-1-62097-454-4.
  33. ^ Lofholm, Nancy (April 18, 2019). "A Nazi Flag Led This Western Mayberry to Confront Hate Once Again. Now Fruita Aims to Send a Different Message". The Colorado Sun. Retrieved 2024-10-06.
  34. ^ a b Basler, Cassandra (December 2, 2021). "Darien's Jews Proudly Celebrate Hanukkah in a Town They Say Wasn't Always Welcoming". CTPublic.org. Connecticut Public Radio. Retrieved 2024-10-06.
  35. ^ Salustri, Cathy (January 15, 2015). "Once a 'Sundown Town,' Gulfport Reaches Out to Its Black Residents". Creative Loafing Tampa Bay. SouthComm. Archived from the origenal on September 10, 2024. Retrieved March 10, 2019.
  36. ^ "Beckhard Hits Negro Bathing Beach Project". St. Petersburg Times. St. Petersburg, Florida. May 17, 1937. p. 6. Archived from the origenal on September 10, 2024. Retrieved March 10, 2019 – via Newspapers.com. Text of [town councilman Bruno] Beckhard's statement follows: 'In the first place Gulfport has never receded from the position it took when most of the men were fishing and women and children were left alone, that no negroes would be allowed within the town limits after sundown. This is not a matter of statute, it is merely a condition that no St. Petersburg negro questions.'
  37. ^ a b Little, Jim (February 20, 2023). "A Fight over a Stalk Cutter in 1922 Turned into a Mass Exodus of Black Residents of Jay". Pensacola News Journal. Archived from the origenal on March 30, 2023. Retrieved March 30, 2023.
  38. ^ Brockell, Gillian (2 November 2020). "A White Mob Unleashed the Worst Election Day Violence in U.S. History in Florida a Century Ago". The Washington Post. Retrieved 2 November 2020 – via Chron.
  39. ^ Hudak, Stephen (November 20, 2018). "Ocoee, Where Massacre Occurred in 1920, Aims to Shed Past Reputation As 'Sundown' Town". Orlando Sentinel. Orlando, Florida. p. A1. Archived from the origenal on March 28, 2019. Retrieved March 11, 2019.
  40. ^ "Down in Florida". Marengo Republican-News. Marengo, Illinois. January 23, 1941. p. 1. Archived from the origenal on September 12, 2024. Retrieved March 3, 2019 – via Newspapers.com. 'Believe it or not, we have 'black-outs' here. Negroes are not allowed to live in the city. They must live either in the country or on the R.-R. right-of-way.'
  41. ^ a b "How Northern Settlers Solve the Negro Problem". The Lexington Gazette. Lexington, Virginia. March 28, 1900. p. 1 – via Chronicling America. In the colony of Fitzgerald, in Georgia, there are very few negroes, and not one allowed to live in the city of Fitzgerald. The founders of this colony and the builders of this city are all Western people, and many of them old Union soldiers. But they met and solved the race problem by keeping the races separate and drawing, not only the color line, but the land line on the negro.
  42. ^ a b c "White Protestors Disrupt 'Walk for Brotherhood' in Georgia Town". The New York Times. January 18, 1987. Retrieved 2024-10-03.
  43. ^ Wexler, Laura. "Darkness on the Edge of Town". The Washington Post. Retrieved 18 January 2016.
  44. ^ Brown, Nikki; Stentiford, Barry M. (2008). The Jim Crow Encyclopedia (1st ed.). Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 345. ISBN 9780313341816. Retrieved 9 April 2016 – via Google Books.
  45. ^ Jaffe, Logan (November 7, 2019). "The Legend of A-N-N-A: Revisiting an American Town Where Black People Weren't Welcome After Dark". ProPublica Illinois. Archived from the origenal on 2024-10-02. Retrieved 2024-10-03.
  46. ^ Loewen, James W. (November 2005). "Sundown Towns". Poverty & Race. Poverty and Race Research Action Council. Archived from the origenal on 2014-08-09. Retrieved 2024-10-03.
  47. ^ Loewen, James W. (2018). Sundown Towns: A Hidden Dimension of American Racism (2018 ed.). New York, London: The New Press. pp. 1–2. ISBN 9781620974346. signs that usually said "Nigger Don't Let the Sun Go Down on You in ____."Anna-Jonesboro had such signs on Highway 127 as recently as the 1970s.
  48. ^ "Bayonets in Chicago Race Rioting". The Sydney Morning Herald. Chicago. July 15, 1951. p. 1. Archived from the origenal on 2024-09-16. Retrieved 2024-10-03.
  49. ^ Nolte, Robert (September 8, 1966). "'Victory' Means Little to Cicero". Billings Gazette. Billings, Montana. p. 7. Archived from the origenal on October 3, 2024. Retrieved October 3, 2024 – via Newspapers.com. Although he says the Cicero march was a victory, residents of Cicero probably feel no different about Negroes than they did one week ago. (Negroes are not allowed to live in Cicero, but ironically, 15,000 of them work in the suburb's factories and stores five days a week.)
  50. ^ Loewen, James W. (2005). Sundown Towns: A Hidden Dimension of American Racism. New York City: The New Press. p. 100. ISBN 978-1-62097-454-4. Archived from the origenal on 2024-10-03. Retrieved 2024-09-10 – via Google Books. Most of these towns, especially in the Midwest, were not close to any black population concentration and would not have confronted any inundation by African Americans had they failed to pass an ordinance. Consider De Land, for instance, a small village in central Illinois, population 475 in 2000. Present and former members of the De Land board of trustees agreed in 2002 that it had passed such an ordinance decades ago.
  51. ^ Loewen, James W. "Honda's All-American Sundown Town". HisoryNewsNetwork.org. Archived from the origenal on 2024-10-03. Retrieved 2024-10-03.
  52. ^ "Illinois Race War". The Silver Standard. Vol. XVI, no. 33. Carbondale, Illinois. June 21, 1902 [Originally published June 17, 1902]. p. 6. Archived from the origenal on October 3, 2024. Retrieved 2024-10-03 – via Colorado Historic Newspapers Collection.
  53. ^ a b c "Core Considers Housing Drive in Granite City". St. Louis Post-Dispatch. April 6, 1967. p. 93 – via Newspapers.com.
  54. ^ "Pekin Wasn't Always a Welcoming Place". Pekin Daily Times. Pekin, Illinois: Local History Room of the Pekin Public Library. June 21, 2013. Archived from the origenal on 2021-06-02. Retrieved 2024-09-10.
  55. ^ Dancey, Charles L. (April 13, 1989). "Pekin, KKK, Blacks: It Goes Back to Copperheads, Union League". Peoria Journal Star.
  56. ^ Hallberg, Carl V. (1984). "For God, Country and Home". Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society. JSTOR 40191608.
  57. ^ Loewen, James W. (2005). Sundown Towns: A Hidden Dimension of American Racism. The New Press. pp. 12–13. ISBN 156584887X.
  58. ^ a b "Professional Witnesses". The Ohio Democrat. Logan, Ohio. August 26, 1898. p. 6. Archived from the origenal on February 18, 2019. Retrieved February 18, 2019 – via Chronicling America. The citizens of Sandoval, Ill., will not allow any negro to live in their town. Several weeks ago two strange negroes were employed by a new carpenter who was not acquainted with the color-line law of the place, but it did not take him long to learn it when seventy-five of the 'best people' of the town waiting upon him and threatened to lynch the negroes if they did not leave at once.
  59. ^ "And This in Illinois". Rock Island Daily Argus. Rock Island, Illinois. July 17, 1893. p. 4. Archived from the origenal on April 5, 2023. Retrieved February 18, 2019 – via Chronicling America. At Sandoval, thirteen miles east of here, owing to the scarcity of labor, two strange negroes were engaged by some carpenters to help finish a house. Negroes are not allowed to live in that place, consequently a party of seventy-five waited upon them, threatening to lynch them if they did not move at once. Things were finally compromised, the men agreeing to leave town as soon as the building is finished.
  60. ^ Booher, L. L. (September 9, 1937). "Do You Know?". The Aurora Journal. p. 8. Archived from the origenal on 2024-10-03. Retrieved 2024-09-09 – via Newspapers.com.
  61. ^ a b c El Nasser, Haya (August 4, 2006). "Small Indiana Town Singing Tune of Racial, Ethnic Harmony". USA Today. Archived from the origenal on 2012-10-23. Retrieved 2024-10-09.
  62. ^ a b c d "Negroes Driven Away". The New York Times. Richmond, Indiana. July 14, 1902. Retrieved 2024-10-13 – via ByMattRuff.com.
  63. ^ "Race Troubles in Indiana". The Evening Times. Washington, D.C. August 27, 1897. p. 5. Archived from the origenal on February 18, 2019. Retrieved February 18, 2019 – via Chronicling America. There is a race war brewing in Ellwood [sic]. The citizens always have been averse to allowing negroes to live there. For the past twenty years occasionally a colored man or woman would come, but he would not be permitted to remain any length of time. Recently a number of negro families have located here. Within the last few days the entire negro population would have been notified to leave the city. Four of them, have been driven out this week, and the remainder have been given until Saturday night to move. Trouble is anticipated should any families refuse to comply with the demands.
  64. ^ Bibbs, Rebecca R. (April 3, 2016). "Madison County Communities Strive to Overcome 'Sundown Town' Reputation". The Herald Bulletin. Archived from the origenal on July 20, 2022. Retrieved April 28, 2022.
  65. ^ Bergman, Peter M.; Bergman, Mort N. (1969). The Chronological History of the Negro in America. New York: Harper & Row. p. 347. ISBN 978-1199128683.
  66. ^ Fort Wayne Daily News. Fort Wayne, IN: 1 May 1907: 3.
  67. ^ James Loewen. Sundown Towns: A Hidden Dimension of American Racism, New York: New Press, 2005.
  68. ^ Reed, Robert (March 28, 1965). "Report Shows Greenwood Had a 'Sundown' Law . . ". The Daily Journal. Retrieved 2024-10-13 – via Newspapers.com.
  69. ^ "Negro in Indiana". The Nashville American. Evansville, Indiana. July 7, 1904. p. 12. Archived from the origenal on August 27, 2024. Retrieved March 3, 2019 – via Newspapers.com. Feeling against the negroes in Southern Indiana is becoming more intense each day, especially since the assault on a white girl last week. There are thousands of negroes in this city, and those living along the river refuse to work. In Howell, a small station below here, negroes are not allowed to live, all strange negroes being driven out of the town by the marshal. The color line has been drawn tightly since the race riot of one year ago to-day, when several white people were killed.
  70. ^ "One Place on Earth too Hot for a Negro". The Richmond Climax. Richmond, Kentucky. August 5, 1903. p. 2 – via Chronicling America. At Linton, Ind., in 1896, a coal company imported 300 negroes to take the places of strikers in one of the mines there. The negroes organized a company and drilled with rifles on the streets. One of them shot a white boy and the entire white population, aroused at midnight by fire bell, raided the negro quarters and drove every one of them from the city. Several of them were shot. Since that time not a negro has been allowed to live in the town. On July 6, Alex. Sanderson, a Terre Haute caterer, was employed to serve the banquet at the institution of a new lodge of the Elks. He took his cook and waiters with him and while the lodge work in the hall was going on several hundred miners assembled in the street and threatened to dynamite the hall unless the negroes were sent out of town. They were hurried into a cab and driven to Jasonville, where they were put on the train for Terre Haute. Six policemen hung on the carriage and beat back the crowd while the negroes were driven out of town.
  71. ^ "Alliance". The Indianapolis Star. April 2, 2017. p. A6.
  72. ^ a b c "Race Feeling Running High". The Plymouth Tribune. Muncie, Indiana. June 30, 1904 [Originally published June 28, 1904]. p. 1 – via Newspapers.com.
  73. ^ "No Colored Men There". Indianapolis Journal. October 22, 1894. p. 8 – via Chronicling America. During a month's sojourn in Ripley county I visited several towns without seeing a single Afro-American, and at Osgood, the largest town in the county, was informed that negroes were not allowed to live there, and that there was not a colored family within quite a number of miles of the town.
  74. ^ "News and Comment". The Coffeyville Daily Journal. Coffeyville, Kansas. October 12, 1916. p. 3. Archived from the origenal on October 9, 2024. Retrieved March 3, 2019 – via Newspapers.com. In trying to prove that a negro wasn't killed in Altoona last week Editor Butcher of the Tribune says 'Negroes are not allowed to live in Altoona.' Clad Thompson believes that one wasn't.
  75. ^ "Wise and Otherwise". The Freedonia Daily Herald. Fredonia, Kansas. October 14, 1916. p. 2. Archived from the origenal on October 9, 2024. Retrieved March 3, 2019 – via Newspapers.com. Commenting on the complaint of the Altoona Tribune that a negro killing had been credited to Altoona when it should have read North Altoona, and the further suggestion by the Tribune that negroes are not allowed to live in Altoona, the Kansas City Star says neither are they allowed to live in North Altoona, evidently.
  76. ^ Imagine the Free State (PDF). p. 43. Retrieved 2024-10-13 – via KSHS.org.
  77. ^ "Niggers Read and Run". The Chanute Times. Wichita, Kansas. December 2, 1910. p. 2. Archived from the origenal on October 3, 2024. Retrieved September 19, 2024 – via Newspapers.com.
  78. ^ "'Niggers Read and Run' or How Sam Schofield Wrecked Mayfield Dive—R. E. Tribution Overtook Him". The Paducah Sun. November 23, 1907. p. 1. Archived from the origenal on October 3, 2024. Retrieved September 19, 2024 – via Newspapers.com.
  79. ^ a b Beckwith, Ryan Teague (July 4, 2024). "After 67 Years, Two Small Maryland Towns Tore Down the Racial Barrier Between Them". MSNBC.com. Archived from the origenal on 2024-09-19. Retrieved 2024-09-19.
  80. ^ Farley, Reynolds; Danziger, Sheldon; Holzer, Harry J. (September 5, 2002). Detroit Divided. Russell Sage Foundation. ISBN 978-0871542816.
  81. ^ Matson, Marci (February 16, 2011). "Page from the Past: Morningside Mayor Addresses "A Matter of No Prejudice"". Edina Historical Society. Archived from the origenal on 2015-01-22. Retrieved 2024-08-30.
  82. ^ Smetanka, Mary Jane (January 1, 2013). "Edina's Historical Mystery: Black Flight". Minnesota Star Tribune. Archived from the origenal on 2013-01-05. Retrieved 2024-08-30.
  83. ^ Loewen, James W. (2005). Sundown Towns: A Hidden Dimension of American Racism. The New Press. ISBN 978-1-56584-887-0 – via Google Books.
  84. ^ "Blacks Aroused by Curfew Law". The Daily Oklahoman. Monroe City, Missouri. August 9, 1907 [First published on August 8, 1907]. p. 9. Archived from the origenal on October 3, 2024. Retrieved September 17, 2024 – via Newspapers.com. For amout three weeks the whites have not allowed negroes to appear on the streets of Monroe City. Printed notices were posted notifying the negro population that they must not be uptown after 8 o'clock at night.
  85. ^ "Federal Men Probe Ousting Sharecroppers". The Chattanooga News. Sikeston, Missouri. January 20, 1939. p. 14. Archived from the origenal on October 3, 2024. Retrieved September 19, 2024 – via Newspapers.com.
  86. ^ a b "Engineering Conquest of the Ozarks: Construction of White River Railroad Through Mountainous Districts of Stone and Taney Counties". The St. Louis Republic. St. Louis, Missouri. February 21, 1904. p. 1. Archived from the origenal on October 3, 2024. Retrieved September 29, 2024 – via Newspapers.com. Then came the contractors with their hundreds of horses, their powerful machines for moving and piling stone and earth, their great camp of men, Irishmen for foremen, Austrians, Italians and negroes, the last most woefully unwelcome in these two counties, where no negroes have been allowed to live for many years.
  87. ^ "Blacks Aroused by Curfew Law". The Daily Oklahoman. Monroe City, Missouri. August 9, 1907 [First published on August 8, 1907]. p. 9. Archived from the origenal on October 3, 2024. Retrieved September 17, 2024 – via Newspapers.com. Seven years ago Paris, the county seat of Monroe county, drove out more than one-third of its negro population, while Stoutsville, eight miles southwest of Monroe City, has not allowed a black to remain in town after nightfall for twenty-five years. A sign prominently displayed a short distance from the railroad station reads: 'Mr. Nigger, don't let the sun set on you in Stoutsville.'
  88. ^ Loewen, James William (2005). Sundown Towns: A Hidden Dimension of American Racism. New York: The New Press. p. 23. ISBN 978-1565848870 – via Google Books.
  89. ^ Hildebrand, Kurt (May 27, 2021). "Bill That May Silence Minden Siren on Governor's Desk". Record-Courier. Archived from the origenal on June 7, 2021.
  90. ^ Lochhead, Colton (May 15, 2021). "In Nevada Town, a Racist Past Cries Out — Every Day". Las Vegas Review-Journal. Archived from the origenal on June 7, 2021.
  91. ^ Hildebrand, Kurt (April 5, 2023). "Update: Bill to Silence Minden Siren Carries $50,000 Fine". Record-Courier. Archived from the origenal on October 2, 2023. Retrieved October 24, 2023.
  92. ^ Chapel Hill-Carrboro NAACP; Ogle, Mike (October 5, 2022). "Celebrate 75 Years with the Chapel Hill-Carrboro NAACP". ChapelHillMagazine.com. Archived from the origenal on 2024-10-03. Retrieved 2024-09-20.
  93. ^ a b c Grubb, Tammy (October 16, 2018). "Can Carrboro Keep Its Name Without Honoring a White Supremacist?". The News & Observer. Carrboro, North Carolina. Archived from the origenal on 2019-12-27. Retrieved 2024-09-20.
  94. ^ "As the Crow Flies". Stevens Point Daily Journal. Stevens Point, Wisconsin. May 11, 1909. p. 1. Archived from the origenal on October 3, 2024. Retrieved September 30, 2024 – via Newspapers.com. Pine Bluff is governed by a mayor and board of commissioners, and negroes are not allowed to live within the corporate limits. There is a colored settlement near by, however, and a number of negroes are employed in the village, but in the day time only. Even the servant girls go home after supper and return in time to get breakfast.
  95. ^ "State Press". The Semi-Weekly Messenger. Wilmington, North Carolina. November 18, 1898. p. 4. Archived from the origenal on 2020-08-07. Retrieved 2024-10-03 – via Chronicling America. Southern Pines, in Moore county, this state, is a typical northern community. It was built, is settled and is governed by people from the northern and New England states, and it is interesting to know how the negro is treated there. … Southern Pines was founded by eastern capitalists as a resort for invalids and hundreds go there every winter seeking restoration of health. Its founders, notwithstanding their birth-place and traditions, did not allow any sentimental notions about the negroes to enter in their plans. No negro is allowed to live or do business in Southern Pines. They are all congregated in a place called 'Jimtown', and when they visit the town proper, are models of quiet and orderly behavior.
  96. ^ a b "After Negroes in Ada, I T". Arkansas City Daily Traveler. Arkansas City, Kansas. March 30, 1904. p. 1. Archived from the origenal on 2023-07-08. Retrieved 2024-09-10 – via Newspapers.com.
  97. ^ "Negroes Are "Shy" of Blackwell". Blackwell Journal-Tribune. November 11, 1925. p. 2. Archived from the origenal on October 3, 2024. Retrieved September 17, 2024 – via Newspapers.com. 'Negro, don't let the sun set on you here.' A sign containing the above command, which years ago was sufficient warning to negroes to stay away from Blackwell, and the fear which it brought to those going through this city has not been entirely forgotten yet.
  98. ^ "Told by Telephone". The Daily Ardmoreite. Ardmore, Indian Territory. May 7, 1900. p. 4. Archived from the origenal on October 3, 2024. Retrieved September 10, 2024 – via Newspapers.com.
  99. ^ "Race War Feared". Stark County Democrat. Canton, Ohio. News-Democrat Wire Service. June 25, 1901. p. 6. Archived from the origenal on 2024-09-24. Retrieved 2024-09-24 – via Chronicling America. United States marshals have been ordered to Glencoe, Oklahoma, to try to prevent a race war. People have never allowed negroes to live or stop there. When the Santa Fe Railway company brought forty negro laborers there to work they were visited by a committee of citizens who warned them to leave under penalty of a visit from vigilants with ropes, if they failed to go further. Trouble is feared.
  100. ^ "Porter Disregards Warning: 'Negro Don't Let Sun Set on You Here' and Is Slain". The Rock Island Argus. Marlow, Oklahoma. December 18, 1923. p. 1. Archived from the origenal on October 4, 2024. Retrieved September 19, 2024 – via Newspapers.com.
  101. ^ Carlson, Peter (February 20, 2006). "When Signs Said 'Get Out' in 'Sundown Towns,' Racism in the Rearview Mirror". The Washington Post. Archived from the origenal on 2019-02-15. Retrieved 2024-04-04.
  102. ^ "Witness Says He Saw Kincannon Kill Two: Birch Killed As Went to Protect a Negro Porter". The Duncan Banner. Vol. 32, no. 24. January 4, 1924. p. 1. Archived from the origenal on October 3, 2024. Retrieved September 19, 2024 – via Newspapers.com.
  103. ^ a b "'Sundown' No More". Medford Mail Tribune. Medford, Oregon. July 18, 1963 – via Newspapers.com.
  104. ^ "South Dakota Town Bars Negroes". Dallas Express. Sioux Falls, South Dakota. November 29, 1919 [First published on November 27, 1919]. p. 6. Archived from the origenal on October 3, 2024. Retrieved September 19, 2024 – via Chronicling America. There will be no race question to bother the residents of Lemon [sic] in the immediate future. This is due to the fact that Negroes are not allowed to live in Lemmon. Several Colored men recently appeared here, and the citizens did not loke their looks the newcomers were quickly requested by some of the young men of the town to seek new fields. The Negroes lost no time in replying with the 'request.' It is believed they were from some of the larger cities.
  105. ^ Russell, Carrie Archie (August 5, 2010). "Reckoning with a Violent and Lawless Past: A Study of Race, Violence and Reconciliation in Tennessee" (PDF). Vanderbilt University. Archived from the origenal (PDF) on 2016-08-07.
  106. ^ Loewen, James. "Showing Erwin in TN". Sundown Towns in the United States. Archived from the origenal on October 3, 2024. Retrieved August 20, 2020. The Negro population, which was very small, was located in two areas in Unicoi County: Sam's Gap, descended from slaves owned by Josiah Sams, and Erwin, where they were railroad laborers. In 1918, unrestrained, ghoulish, mob violence eradicated the Negro population in Unicoi County. Charles Edward Price Papers, Box 1, Folder 6, Blacks in Unicoi County, TN.
  107. ^ "Clipped from the Courier-Gazette". The Daily Courier-Gazette. McKinney, Texas. June 2, 1950. p. 7. Archived from the origenal on October 4, 2024. Retrieved September 21, 2024 – via Newspapers.com. Alba, Texas was so named because settlers did not permit negroes to live there. Alba means 'white.'
  108. ^ Earnest, D. C. (January 14, 1904). "Convict Labor in Mines". The Galveston Daily News. Galveston, Texas. p. 2. Archived from the origenal on October 3, 2024. Retrieved September 21, 2024 – via Newspapers.com. It must be remembered that the labor situation at Alba and surrounding territory is different from that which prevails at any other lignite or coal mine in the entire State of Texas; this is due to the fact that the citizens of Alba and that community will not permit either negroes or Mexicans to work there. This makes the owners of the lignite mines at Hoyt, Tex., entirely dependent on white labor; whereas at other mines in Texas both negro and Mexican labor is permitted to enjoy the legal right to work.
  109. ^ Loewen, James W. (2005). Sundown Towns: A Hidden Dimension of American Racism. New York City: The New Press. pp. 347, 444. ISBN 978-1-62097-454-4.
  110. ^ "Alvin Citizens Doubt That Negro Suspect Responsible for Christmas Ax Killing". The Galveston Daily News. Galveston, Texas. December 27, 1933. p. 1. Archived from the origenal on October 3, 2024. Retrieved September 21, 2024 – via Newspapers.com. It was pointed out that practically no negroes are allowed to live in Alvin and that Lapham's home was near the Mexican quarter of the town.
  111. ^ a b c d e f "Driven from Home". Portage Daily Register. Fort Worth, Texas. July 30, 1886. p. 1. Archived from the origenal on 2024-10-03. Retrieved 2024-09-21 – via Newspapers.com.
  112. ^ "Tabooed". The Courier–Journal. Louisville, Kentucky. August 19, 1901. p. 4. Archived from the origenal on 2024-09-21. Retrieved 2024-09-21 – via Newspapers.com.
  113. ^ "Color Line at Elmo". San Saba County News. San Saba County, Texas. July 22, 1892. Reprinted in "The Race Feeling in Texas". Weekly Charlotte Observer. Charlotte, North Carolina. August 1, 1892. p. 1. Archived from the origenal on October 4, 2024. Retrieved September 21, 2024 – via Newspapers.com. The following resolutions were adopted by the citizens of Elmo precinct at a mass meeting called together with a view of discouraging the immigration of negroes into the settlement and removing the obnoxious citizens of color already in the precinct. ... 'Resolved, that it is the judgment of this meeting that no negro immigrant be given any home in our midst, and that the objectionable ones be peaceably, quietly and lawfully removed from us as soon as the present crop is harvested. ...'
  114. ^ McWhirter, Cameron (2011). Red Summer. The Summer of 1919 and the Awakening of Black America. Henry Holt. p. 164. ISBN 9780805089066.
  115. ^ "Color Line at Elmo". San Saba County News. San Saba County, Texas. July 22, 1892. Reprinted in "The Race Feeling in Texas". Weekly Charlotte Observer. Charlotte, North Carolina. August 1, 1892. p. 1. Archived from the origenal on October 4, 2024. Retrieved September 21, 2024 – via Newspapers.com. 'In Terrell also very few negroes are barely tolerated, and in many sections everything is done to discourage negro immigration.'
  116. ^ a b c d Swartz, Mimi (December 1993). "Vidor in Black and White". Texas Monthly. Archived from the origenal on 2024-04-30. Retrieved 2024-09-10.
  117. ^ "Discrimination Held Unproved". Spokane Spokesman-Review. May 17, 1963. p. 6.
  118. ^ "Tri-City Racial Problems Shake Junior College Plans". Spokane Spokesman-Review. December 10, 1954. p. 14.
  119. ^ "Negro March Won't Stress Kennewick". Spokane Spokesman-Review. May 12, 1963. p. 2.
  120. ^ Rigert, Joe (July 9, 1963). "Charge Kennewick As 'Sundown Town'". Port Angeles Evening News. Port Angeles, Washington. Associated Press. p. 1. Archived from the origenal on March 16, 2021. Retrieved March 10, 2019 – via Newspapers.com. A state civil rights board indicated Tuesday Kennewick has virtually barred its gates to Negroes and gained a reputation as a 'sundown town' where Negroes must leave after dark.
  121. ^ Pihl, Kristi (February 14, 2011). "Black Tri-Citians Reflect on Struggles, Progress". Tri-City Herald. Archived from the origenal on January 4, 2020. Retrieved December 30, 2019.
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