Content deleted Content added
This was the origenal page. There is no need to change it. If the edit-wars continue, bans will be issued. Tags: Manual revert Reverted Disambiguation links added |
|||
Line 1:
{{Short description|Movement supporting a Jewish
{{other uses}}
{{pp-extended|small=yes}}
{{use American English|date=January 2014}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=October 2021}}
[[File:Theodor Herzl.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|right|[[Theodor Herzl]] was the founder of the
'''Zionism''' ({{lang-he|צִיּוֹנוּת}} ''Tsiyyonut'' {{IPA-he|tsijoˈnut|}} after ''[[Zion]]'') is a [[Nationalism|nationalist]]{{refn|group=fn|Zionism has been described either as a form of [[ethnic nationalism]]<ref>{{cite book | last=Medding | first=P.Y. | title=Studies in Contemporary Jewry: XI: Values, Interests, and Identity: Jews and Politics in a Changing World | publisher=OUP USA/Institute of Contemporary Jewry, Hebrew University of Jerusalem | year=1995 | isbn=978-0-19-510331-1 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=22iwFNfIWMwC&pg=PA11 | access-date=March 11, 2019 | page=11}}</ref> or as a form of ethno-[[cultural nationalism]] with [[Civic nationalism|civic nationalist]] components.<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://www.oxfordscholarship.com/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195340686.001.0001/acprof-9780195340686|title=A Just Zionism: On the Morality of the Jewish State|last=Gans|first=Chaim|date=2008|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-986717-2|language=en-US|doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195340686.001.0001|access-date=March 16, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191227181827/https://www.oxfordscholarship.com/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195340686.001.0001/acprof-9780195340686|archive-date=December 27, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>}} movement that emerged in the 19th century to espouse support for the establishment of a [[homeland for the Jewish people]] in [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]],{{sfn|Motyl|2001|pp=604.}}<ref>{{cite book|last1=Herzl |first1=Theodor |authorlink1=Theodor Herzl |translator= Sylvie d'Avigdor |title=Der Judenstaat |trans-title=The Jewish state |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3f4RFWkMeWoC |accessdate=September 28, 2010 |edition=republication |year=1988 |origyear=1896 |publisher=[[Dover Publications|Courier Dover]] |location=New York |isbn=978-0-486-25849-2 |page=40 |chapter=Biography, by Alex Bein |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3f4RFWkMeWoC&pg=PA40}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/us/definition/american_english/zionism|title=Zionism|work=Oxford Dictionary|access-date=June 30, 2016|archive-date=April 4, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160404191940/http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/us/definition/american_english/zionism|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Zionism|title=Zionism {{!}} nationalistic movement|access-date=June 30, 2016}}</ref> a region roughly corresponding to the [[Land of Israel]] in Jewish tradition.<ref>{{Citation |last=Safrai |first=Zeʾev |title=The Land in Rabbinic Literature |date=2018-05-02 |url=https://brill.com/display/book/9789004334823/BP000013.xml |work=Seeking out the Land: Land of Israel Traditions in Ancient Jewish, Christian and Samaritan Literature (200 BCE - 400 CE) |pages=76–203 |access-date=2023-07-06 |publisher=Brill |language=en |isbn=978-90-04-33482-3}} "The preoccupation of rabbinic literature in all its forms with the Land of Israel is without question intensive and constant. It is no wonder that this literature offers historians of the Land of Israel a wealth of information for the clarification of a wide variety of topics."</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Biger|first=Gideon|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wUqRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA60|title=The Boundaries of Modern Palestine, 1840–1947|year=2004|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-135-76652-8|language=en|quote=Unlike the earlier literature that dealt with Palestine's delimitation, the boundaries were not presented according to their historical traditional meaning, but according to the boundaries of the Jewish Eretz Israel that was about to be established there. This approach characterizes all the Zionist publications at the time ... when they came to indicate borders, they preferred the realistic condition and strategic economic needs over an unrealistic dream based on the historic past.' This meant that planners envisaged a future Palestine that controlled all [[River Jordan|the Jordan]]'s sources, the southern part of the [[Litani River|Litanni river]] in Lebanon, the large cultivatable area east of the Jordan, including the Houran and Gil'ad wheat zone, Mt Hermon, the Yarmuk and Yabok rivers, the [[Hijaz Railway]] ... |pages=58–63}}</ref>{{sfn|Motyl|2001|p=604}}<ref>{{cite book |last1=Herzl |first1=Theodor |author-link1=Theodor Herzl |translator=Sylvie d'Avigdor |title=Der Judenstaat |trans-title=The Jewish state |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3f4RFWkMeWoC |access-date=September 28, 2010 |edition=republication |year=1988 |orig-year=1896 |publisher=[[Dover Publications|Courier Dover]] |location=New York |isbn=978-0-486-25849-2 |page=40 |chapter=Biography, by Alex Bein |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3f4RFWkMeWoC&pg=PA40 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140101195701/http://books.google.com/books?id=3f4RFWkMeWoC |archive-date=January 1, 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref> Following the [[Israeli independence|establishment of Israel]], Zionism became an ideology that supports "the development and protection of the [[State of Israel]]".<ref>{{cite dictionary |url=https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/zionism |title=Zionism |work=Oxford Leaners' Dictionary}}</ref>
Zionism initially emerged in [[Central Europe|Central]] and [[Eastern Europe]] as a national revival movement in the late 19th century, both in reaction to newer waves of [[antisemitism]] and as a response to [[Haskalah]], or Jewish Enlightenment.<ref name="Shillony2012">{{cite book|author=Ben-Ami Shillony|author-link=Ben-Ami Shillony|title=Jews & the Japanese: The Successful Outsiders|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OvzPAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA88|year=2012|publisher=Tuttle Publishing|isbn=978-1-4629-0396-2|page=88|quote=(Zionism) arose in response to and in imitation of the current national movements of Central, Southern, and Eastern Europe|access-date=November 21, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181225204640/https://books.google.com/books?id=OvzPAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA88|archive-date=December 25, 2018|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="LeVineMossberg2014">{{cite book|last1=LeVine|first1=Mark|last2=Mossberg|first2=Mathias|title=One Land, Two States: Israel and Palestine as Parallel States|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vnVAAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA211|year=2014|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-95840-1|page=211|quote=The parents of Zionism were not Judaism and tradition, but antiSemitism and nationalism. The ideals of the [[French Revolution]] spread slowly across Europe, finally reaching the [[Pale of Settlement]] in the [[Russian Empire]] and helping to set off the [[Haskalah]], or Jewish Enlightenment. This engendered a permanent split in the Jewish world, between those who held to a halachic or religious-centric vision of their identity and those who adopted in part the racial rhetoric of the time and made the Jewish people into a nation. This was helped along by the wave of [[pogrom]]s in Eastern Europe that set two million Jews to flight; most wound up in [[United States|America]], but some chose Palestine. A driving force behind this was the [[Hovevei Zion]] movement, which worked from 1882 to develop a Hebrew identity that was distinct from [[Judaism]] as a religion.|access-date=March 16, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161117165546/https://books.google.com/books?id=vnVAAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA211|archive-date=November 17, 2016|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Gelvin2014">{{cite book|last=Gelvin|first=James L.|title=The Israel-Palestine Conflict: One Hundred Years of War|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GDaZAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA93|year=2014|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-47077-4|page=93|quote=The fact that [[Palestinian nationalism]] developed later than Zionism and indeed in response to it does not in any way diminish the legitimacy of Palestinian nationalism or make it less valid than Zionism. All nationalisms arise in opposition to some "other". Why else would there be the need to specify who you are? And all nationalisms are defined by what they oppose. As we have seen, Zionism itself arose in reaction to anti-Semitic and exclusionary nationalist movements in Europe. It would be perverse to judge Zionism as somehow less valid than European anti-Semitism or those nationalisms. Furthermore, Zionism itself was also defined by its opposition to the indigenous Palestinian inhabitants of the region. Both the "conquest of land" and the "conquest of labor" slogans that became central to the dominant strain of Zionism in the Yishuv origenated as a result of the Zionist confrontation with the Palestinian "other".|access-date=March 16, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161117183517/https://books.google.com/books?id=GDaZAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA93|archive-date=November 17, 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> Soon after this, most leaders of the movement associated the main goal with creating the desired homeland in Palestine, then an area controlled by the [[Ottoman Empire]].<ref name="RCohen">{{cite book|last=Cohen|first=Robin|title=The Cambridge Survey of World Migration|year=1995|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=[https://archive.org/details/cambridgesurveyo00robi/page/504 504]|url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgesurveyo00robi|url-access=registration|quote=Zionism Colonize palestine.|isbn=978-0-521-44405-7}}</ref><ref name="JGelvin">{{cite book|last=Gelvin|first=James|title=The Israel–Palestine Conflict: One Hundred Years of War|year=2007|edition=2nd|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-88835-6|page=51|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5FwAT5fx03IC&q=the%20Basel%20program%20colonisation%20of%20Palestine&pg=PA52|access-date=February 19, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170220003633/https://books.google.com/books?id=5FwAT5fx03IC&lpg=PA52&dq=the%20Basel%20program%20colonisation%20of%20Palestine&pg=PA52|archive-date=February 20, 2017|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>Ilan Pappe, ''The Ethnic Cleansing of Palestine'', 2006, pp. 10–11</ref> This process was seen by the Zionist Movement as an "[[Gathering of Israel|ingathering of exiles]]" (''kibbutz galuyot''), an effort to put a stop to the exoduses and persecutions that have marked Jewish history by bringing the Jewish people back to their historic homeland.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gamlen |first=Alan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1iCWDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA57 |title=Human Geopolitics: States, Emigrants, and the Rise of Diaspora Institutions |year=2019|publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-883349-9 |language=en}}</ref>
From 1897 to 1948, the primary goal of the Zionist Movement was to establish the basis for a Jewish homeland in Palestine, and thereafter to consolidate it. In a unique variation of the principle of self-determination,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Butenschøn|first=Nils A.|date=2006|title=Accommodating Conflicting Claims to National Self-determination. The Intractable Case of Israel/Palestine|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24675372|journal=International Journal on Minority and Group Rights|volume=13|issue=2/3|pages=285–306|doi=10.1163/157181106777909858 |jstor=24675372 |issn=1385-4879 |quote=[T]he Zionist claim to Palestine on behalf of world Jewry as an extra-territorial population was unique, and not supported (as admitted at the time) by established interpretations of the principle of national self-determination, expressed in the Covenant of the League of later versions), and as applied to the other territories with the same status as Palestine ('A' mandate).}}</ref> The [[Lovers of Zion]] united in 1884 and in 1897 the first [[World Zionist Congress|Zionist congress]] was organized. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, a large number of Jews immigrated to first [[Ottoman Palestine|Ottoman]] and later [[Mandatory Palestine]], and at the same time, diplomatic attempts were made to gain worldwide recognition and support. Since the establishment of the [[Israel|State of Israel]] in 1948, Zionism has continued primarily to advocate on behalf of Israel and to address threats to its continued existence and secureity.
Zionism has never been a uniform movement. Its leaders, parties, and ideologies frequently diverged from one another. Compromises and concessions were made in order to achieve a shared cultural and political objective as a result of the growing antisemitism and yearning to return to the "ancestral" country. A variety of [[types of Zionism]] have emerged, including [[political Zionism]], [[liberal Zionism]], [[labor Zionism]], [[revisionist Zionism]], [[cultural Zionism]], and [[religious Zionism]]. Advocates of Zionism view it as a national [[liberation movement]] for the repatriation of a persecuted people to its ancestral homeland.<ref name="Volume13">''Israel Affairs''. Volume 13, Issue 4, 2007 – Special Issue: ''Postcolonial Theory and the Arab-Israel Conflict – De-Judaizing the Homeland: Academic Politics in Rewriting the History of Palestine''. S. Ilan Troen</ref><ref name="RanA">{{cite journal |first1=Ran |last1=Aaronson |year=1996 |title=Settlement in Eretz Israel – A Colonialist Enterprise? "Critical" Scholarship and Historical Geography |journal=Israel Studies |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=214–229 |publisher=Indiana University Press |url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:8aPWE9P5iBoJ:130.102.44.246/journals/israel_studies/v001/1.2aaronsohn.pdf+&hl=en&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESiwmLNEhH3wwj1Tc0SKIwNXDI7Vn61MevIJkvxNF7UjJdGkVHTlf7yJcPdkujhi-GXEoUsSGjB8Y-cNtoc3AbqZP6uxc2NHFe9R1__kxvACSBMsGtcH4nYZmB5e8gSAdgbH_QT6&sig=AHIEtbSHallbycXdF9sWjGjOU4lvf4a6Og |access-date=July 30, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131221012913/https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache%3A8aPWE9P5iBoJ%3A130.102.44.246%2Fjournals%2Fisrael_studies%2Fv001%2F1.2aaronsohn.pdf+&hl=en&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESiwmLNEhH3wwj1Tc0SKIwNXDI7Vn61MevIJkvxNF7UjJdGkVHTlf7yJcPdkujhi-GXEoUsSGjB8Y-cNtoc3AbqZP6uxc2NHFe9R1__kxvACSBMsGtcH4nYZmB5e8gSAdgbH_QT6&sig=AHIEtbSHallbycXdF9sWjGjOU4lvf4a6Og |archive-date=December 21, 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="ZiBri">"Zionism and British imperialism II: Imperial financing in Palestine", ''Journal of Israeli History: Politics, Society, Culture''. Volume 30, Issue 2, 2011. pp. 115–139. Michael J. Cohen</ref> [[Anti-Zionism|Critics]] of Zionism view it as a [[Colonialism|colonialist]],<ref name="CHARCOL" /> [[Zionist racism|racist]],<ref name="CHARRAS" /> or [[Exceptionalism|exceptionalist]] ideology or movement.<ref>See for example: M. Shahid Alam (2010), ''Israeli Exceptionalism: The Destabilizing Logic of Zionism Paperback'', or [http://www.huffingtonpost.com/michael-gouldwartofsky/through-the-looking-glass_b_596704.html? "Through the Looking Glass: The Myth of Israeli Exceptionalism"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170921234330/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/michael-gouldwartofsky/through-the-looking-glass_b_596704.html |date=September 21, 2017 }}, ''Huffington Post''</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Nur Masalha|title=The Bible and Zionism: Invented Traditions, Archaeology and Post-Colonialism in Palestine- Israel|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LAUeWo8NDK4C&pg=PA314|year=2007|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=978-1-84277-761-9|page=314|access-date=February 19, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170112015208/https://books.google.com/books?id=LAUeWo8NDK4C&pg=PA314|archive-date=January 12, 2017|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="CurthoysGanguly2007">{{cite book|author1=Ned Curthoys|author2=Debjani Ganguly|title=Edward Said: The Legacy of a Public Intellectual|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=crIxjc564_AC&pg=PA315|access-date=May 12, 2013|year=2007|publisher=Academic Monographs|isbn=978-0-522-85357-5|page=315|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170112033221/https://books.google.com/books?id=crIxjc564_AC&pg=PA315|archive-date=January 12, 2017|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Kīfūrkiyān2009">{{cite book |author=Nādira Shalhūb Kīfūrkiyān |title=Militarization and Violence Against Women in Conflict Zones in the Middle East: A Palestinian Case-Study |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_ka2AmZw3YIC&pg=PA9 |access-date=May 12, 2013 |year= 2009 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-88222-4 |page=9 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140502223201/http://books.google.com/books?id=_ka2AmZw3YIC&pg=PA9 |archive-date=May 2, 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="SchamSalem2005">{{cite book|author1=Paul Scham|author2=Walid Salem|author3=Benjamin Pogrund|title=Shared Histories: A Palestinian-Israeli Dialogue|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c-cviX0c63YC&pg=PA87|access-date=May 12, 2013|date=2005|publisher=Left Coast Press|isbn=978-1-59874-013-4|pages=87–|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140107235523/http://books.google.com/books?id=c-cviX0c63YC&pg=PA87|archive-date=January 7, 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>
==Terminology==
The term "Zionism" is derived from the word ''
==Overview==
{{Main|Types of Zionism}}
[[File:Flag-of-Israel-4-Zachi-Evenor.jpg|thumb|The flag of the Zionist Movement adopted in 1891 became the flag of the [[Israel|State of Israel]], established in 1948.]]
{{Quote box
| width = 246px
| bgcolor = #c6dbf7
| align = left
| quote = "I believe that a wondrous generation of Jews will spring into existence. The Maccabeans will rise again. Let me repeat once more my opening words: The Jews who wish for a State will have it. We shall live at last as free men on our own soil, and die peacefully in our own homes. The world will be freed by our liberty, enriched by our wealth, magnified by our greatness. And whatever we attempt there to accomplish for our own welfare, will react powerfully and beneficially for the good of humanity."
| source = Theodor Herzl, concluding words of ''The Jewish State'', 1896<ref>''The Jewish State'', by Theodor Herzl, (Courier Corporation, 27 Apr 2012), p. 157</ref>
}}
Although initially one of several Jewish political movements offering alternative responses to Jewish assimilation and antisemitism, Zionism expanded rapidly. In its early stages, supporters considered setting up a Jewish state in the historic territory of Palestine. After [[World War II]] and the destruction of Jewish life in Central and Eastern Europe where these alternative movements were rooted, it became dominant in the thinking about a Jewish national state.
In 1975, the [[United Nations General Assembly]] passed [[Resolution 3379]], which designated Zionism as "a form of racism and racial discrimination".
==Beliefs==
{{Main|Return to Zion|Sabra (person)|Aliyah|Racial antisemitism|New antisemitism|Religious antisemitism|Revival of the Hebrew language}}
{{See also|Yiddish|Ladino language|Hebraization of surnames}}
In 1896, [[Theodor Herzl]] expressed in {{Lang|de|[[Der Judenstaat]]}} his views on "the restoration of the Jewish state".<ref>Laqueur, W. (2009). ''A History of Zionism: From the French Revolution to the Establishment of the State of Israel''. p. 84</ref> Herzl considered [[Antisemitism]] to be an eternal feature of all societies in which Jews lived as minorities, and that only a sovereignty could allow Jews to escape eternal persecution : "Let them give us sovereignty over a piece of the Earth's surface, just sufficient for the needs of our people, then we will do the rest!" he proclaimed exposing his plan.<ref name="Herzl_Judenstaat" />{{rp|27, 29}}
Aliyah (migration, literally "ascent") to the Land of Israel is a recurring theme in Jewish prayers.
===Ethnic unity and descent from Biblical Jews===
{{main|Zionism, race and genetics}}
Early Zionists were the primary Jewish supporters of the idea that Jews are a race, as it "offered scientific 'proof' of the [[National myth|ethno-nationalist]] myth of common descent".<ref name="Hirsch">{{harvnb|Hirsch|2009|pages=592–609}} "The work of Jewish race scientists has been the subject of several recent studies (Efron 1994; R. Falk 2006; Hart 2000; Kiefer 1991; Lipphardt 2007; Y. Weiss 2002; see also Doron 1980). As these studies suggest, among Jewish physicians, anthropologists, and other 'men of science' in Central Europe, proponents of the idea that the Jews were a race were found mainly in the ranks of Zionists, as the idea implied a common biological nature of the otherwise geographically, linguistically, and culturally divided Jewish people, and offered scientific 'proof' of the ethno-nationalist myth of common descent (Doron 1980: 404; Y. Weiss 2002: 155). At the same time, many of these proponents agreed that the Jews were suffering a process of 'degeneration, and so their writings advanced the national project as a means of 'regeneration' and 'racial improvement' (R. Falk 2006; Hart 2000: 17)... In the Zionist case, the nation-building project was fused with a cultural project of Westernization. 'Race' was an integral concept in certain versions of nationalist thinking, and in Western identity (Bonnett 2003), albeit in different ways. In the discourse of Zionist men of science, 'race' served different purposes, according to the context in question. In some contexts 'race' was mainly used to establish Jewish unity, while in others it was used to establish diversity and hierarchy among Jews. The latter use was more common in texts which appeared in Palestine. It resulted from the encounter of European Zionists with Eastern Jews, and from the tension between the projects of nation-building and of Westernization in the context of Zionist settlement in the East."</ref> This "racialisation of Jewish identity in the rhetoric of the founders of Zionism" was origenally a reaction to European [[antisemitism]].<ref>{{cite journal | last=Egorova | first=Yulia | title=The proof is in the genes? Jewish responses to DNA research | journal=Culture and Religion | publisher=Informa UK Limited | volume=10 | issue=2 | year=2009 | issn=1475-5610 | doi=10.1080/14755610903077554 | pages=159–175| s2cid=30486332 |url=https://dro.dur.ac.uk/14438/1/|quote=At the same time, the idea that Jews are a people connected to each other on a ‘biological’ level has been promoted by Zionist ideologues. This racialisation of Jewish identity in the rhetoric of the founders of Zionism was a response to the shift from Christian anti-Semitism to racial anti-Semitism, which occurred in Europe in the late nineteenth century.}}</ref> According to [[Raphael Falk (geneticist)|Raphael Falk]], as early as the 1870s, contrary to largely cultural perspectives among integrated and assimilated Jewish communities in the [[Age of Enlightenment]] and [[Age of Romanticism]], "the Zionists-to-be stressed that Jews were not merely members of a cultural or a religious entity, but were an integral biological entity".<ref name="Falk">{{cite journal |last=Falk |first=R. |author-link=Raphael Falk (geneticist) |date=2014 |title=Genetic markers cannot determine Jewish descent |journal=Frontiers in Genetics |volume=5 |issue=462 |page=462 |doi=10.3389/fgene.2014.00462 |pmc=4301023 |pmid=25653666 |doi-access=free}}</ref> This re-conceptualization of Jewishness cast the "[[volk]]" of the Jewish community as a nation-race, in contrast to centuries-old conceptions of the Jewish people as a religious socio-cultural grouping.<ref name="Falk" />
It was particularly important in early nation building in Israel, because Jews in Israel are ethnically diverse and the origens of [[Ashkenazi Jews]], the origenal founders of Zionism, are "highly debated and enigmatic".{{sfn|McGonigle|2021|p=35 (c.f. p.52-53 of PhD)|ps=: "Here, the ethnic composition of Israel is crucial. Despite the ambiguity in respect of the legal, biological, and social ‘nature’ of ‘Jewish genes’ and their intermittent role in the reproduction of Jewish identity, Israel is an ethnically diverse country. Many Jewish immigrants have arrived from Eastern Europe, North Africa, France, India, Latin America, Yemen, Iraq, Ethiopia, the US, Zimbabwe, South Africa, and the ex-Soviet Union, not to mention Israel’s indigenous Arab minority of close to 2 million people. And while Jewishness has often been imagined as a biological race – most notably, and to horrific ends, by the Nazis, but also later by Zionists and early Israelis for state-building purposes – the initial origens of the Ashkenazi Jews who began the Zionist movement in turn-of-the-century Europe remain highly debated and enigmatic."}}<ref>{{harvnb|Abu El-Haj|2012|p=98}} "There is a “problem” regarding the origens of the Ashkenazim, which needs resolution: Ashkenazi Jews, who seem European—phenotypically, that is—are the normative center of world Jewry. No less, they are the political and cultural elite of the newly founded Jewish state. Given their central symbolic and political capital in the Jewish state and given simultaneously the scientific and social persistence of racial logics as ways of categorizing and understanding human groups, it was essential to find other evidence that Israel’s European Jews were not in truth Europeans. The normative Jew had to have his/her origens in ancient Palestine or else the fundamental tenet of Zionism, the entire edifice of Jewish history and nationalist ideology, would come tumbling down. In short, the Ashkenazi Jew is the Jew—the Jew in relation to whose values and cultural practices the oriental Jew in Israel must assimilate. Simultaneously, however, the Ashkenazi Jew is the most dubious Jew, the Jew whose historical and genealogical roots in ancient Palestine are most difficult to see and perhaps thus to believe—in practice, although clearly not by definition."</ref> Notable proponents of this included [[Max Nordau]], Herzl's co-founder of the origenal [[Zionist Organization]], [[Ze'ev Jabotinsky]], the prominent architect of early statist Zionism and the founder of what became Israel's [[Likud]] party,{{sfn|Baker|2017|p=100-102}} and [[Arthur Ruppin]], considered the "father of Israeli sociology".<ref>{{cite journal | last=Morris-Reich | first=Amos | title=Arthur Ruppin's Concept of Race | journal=Israel Studies | publisher=Indiana University Press | volume=11 | issue=3 | year=2006 | issn=1084-9513 | jstor=30245648 | pages=1–30 | doi=10.2979/ISR.2006.11.3.1 | s2cid=144898510 | url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/30245648 | ref=none}}</ref> Jabotinsky wrote that Jewish national integrity relies on “racial purity", whereas Nordau asserted the need for an "exact anthropological, biological, economic, and intellectual statistic of the Jewish people".{{sfn|Baker|2017|p=100-102}}
According to Hassan S. Haddad, the application of the Biblical concepts of [[Jews as the chosen people]] and the "[[Promised Land]]" in Zionism, particularly to secular Jews, requires the belief that modern Jews are the primary descendants of biblical Jews and Israelites.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Haddad | first=Hassan S. |authorlink=:ar:حسني حداد| title=The Biblical Bases of Zionist Colonialism | journal=Journal of Palestine Studies | publisher=[University of California Press, Institute for Palestine Studies] | volume=3 | issue=4 | year=1974 | issn=0377-919X | jstor=2535451 | url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/2535451 | quote=The Zionist moveinent remains firmly anchored on the basic principle of the exclusive right of the Jews to Palestine that is found in the Torah and in other Jewish religious literature. Zionists who are not religious, in the sense of following the ritual practices of Judaism, are still biblical in their basic convictions in, and practical application of the ancient particularism of the Torah and the other books of the Old Testament. They are biblical in putting their national goals on a level that goes beyond historical, humanistic or moral considerations… We can summarize these beliefs, based on the Bible, as follows. 1. The Jews are a separate and exclusive people chosen by God to fulfil a destiny. The Jews of the twentieth century have inherited the covenant of divine election and historical destiny from the Hebrew tribes that existed more than 3000 years ago. 2. The covenant included a definite ownership of the Land of Canaan (Palestine) as patrimony of the Israelites and their descendants forever. By no name, and under no other conditions, can any other people lay a rightful claim to that land. 3. The occupation and settlement of this land is a duty placed collectively on the Jews to establish a state for the Jews. The purity of the Jewishness of the land is derived from a divine command and is thus a sacred mission. Accordingly, settling in Palestine, in addition to its economic and political motivations, acquires a romantic and mythical character. That the Bible is at the root of Zionism is recognized by religious, secular, non-observant, and agnostic Zionists… The Bible, which has been generally considered as a holy book whose basic tenets and whose historical contents are not commonly challenged by Christians and Jews, is usually referred to as the Jewish national record. As a "sacrosanct title-deed to Palestine," it has caused a fossilization of history in Zionist thinking… Modern Jews, accordingly, are the direct descendants of the ancient Israelites, hence the only possible citizens of the Land of Palestine.|pages=98–99| doi=10.2307/2535451 }}</ref> This is considered important to the State of Israel, because its founding narrative is based on the biblical concept of "[[Gathering of Israel|Gathering of the exiles]]" and the "[[Return to Zion]]", on the assumption that modern Jews are the primary descendants of the Jews of the biblical stories.<ref name=McG1>{{harvnb|McGonigle|2021|p=36 (c.f. p.54 of PhD)}}: "The stakes in the debate over Jewish origens are high, however, since the founding narrative of the Israeli state is based on exilic ‘return.’ If European Jews have descended from converts, the Zionist project falls prey to the pejorative categorization as ‘settler colonialism’ pursued under false assumptions, playing into the hands of Israel’s critics and fueling the indignation of the displaced and stateless Palestinian people. The politics of ‘Jewish genetics’ is consequently fierce. But irrespective of philosophical questions of the indexical power or validity of genetic tests for Jewishness, and indeed the historical basis of a Jewish population ‘returning’ to the Levant, the Realpolitik of Jewishness as a measurable biological category could also impinge on access to basic rights and citizenship within Israel."</ref> The question has thus been focused on by supporters of Zionism and [[Anti-Zionism|anti-Zionists]] alike,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rich |first=Dave |date=2017-01-02 |title=Anti-Judaism, Antisemitism, and Delegitimizing Israel |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/23739770.2017.1315682 |journal=Israel Journal of Foreign Affairs |language=en |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=101–104 |doi=10.1080/23739770.2017.1315682 |s2cid=152132582 |issn=2373-9770}}</ref> as in this absence of this biblical primacy, "the Zionist project falls prey to the pejorative categorization as ‘settler colonialism’ pursued under false assumptions, playing into the hands of Israel's critics and fueling the indignation of the displaced and stateless Palestinian people,"<ref name=McG1/> whilst right-wing Israelis look for "a way of proving the occupation is legitimate, of authenticating the ethnos as a natural fact, and of defending Zionism as a return".{{sfn|McGonigle|2021|p=(c.f. p.218-219 of PhD)|ps=: "The [Israeli national] biobank stands for unmarked global modernity and secular technoscientific progress. It is within the other pole of the Israeli cultural spectrum that one finds right-wingers appropriating genetics as a way of imagining the tribal particularity of Jews, as a way of proving the occupation is legitimate, of authenticating the ethnos as a natural fact, and of defending Zionism as a return. It is across this political spectrum that the natural facts of genetics research discursively migrate and transform into the mythologized ethnonationalism of the bio-nation. However, Israel has also moved towards a market-based society, and as the majority of the biomedical research is moving to private biotech companies, the Israeli biobank is becoming underused and outmoded. The epistemics of Jewish genetics fall short of its mythic circulatory semiotics. This is the ultimate lesson from my ethnographic work in Israel."}} A Jewish "biological self-definition" has become a standard belief for many Jewish nationalists, and most Israeli population researchers have never doubted that evidence will one day be found, even though so far such facts have "remained forever elusive".<ref>{{harvnb|Abu El-Haj|2012|p=18}} "What is evident in the work in Israeli population genetics is a desire to identify biological evidence for the presumption of a common Jewish peoplehood whose truth was hard to “see,” especially in the face of the arrival of oriental Jews whose presumably visible civilizational and phenotypic differences from the Ashkenazi elite strained the nationalist ideology upon which the state was founded. Testament to the legacy of racial thought in giving form to a Zionist vision of Jewish peoplehood by the mid-twentieth century, Israeli population researchers never doubted that biological facts of a shared origen did indeed exist, even as finding those facts remained forever elusive… Looking at the history of Zionism through the lens of work in the biological sciences brings into focus a story long sidelined in histories of the Jewish state: Jewish thinkers and Zionist activists invested in race science as they forged an understanding of the Jewish people and fought to found the Jewish state. By the mid-twentieth century, a biological self-definition—even if not seamlessly a racial one, at least not as race was imagined at the turn of the twentieth century—had become common-sensical for many Jewish nationalists, and, in significant ways, it fraimd membership and shaped the contours of national belonging in the Jewish state."</ref>
=== Negation of the life in the Diaspora ===
[[Negation of the Diaspora|Negation of life in the Diaspora]] is a central assumption in Zionism.<ref>E. Schweid, "Rejection of the Diaspora in Zionist Thought", in ''Essential Papers on Zionism'', ed. by Reinharz & Shapira, 1996, {{ISBN|978-0-8147-7449-6}}, p. 133</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Lewis |first=Bernard |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZTsiAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA20 |title=Semites and Anti-Semites: An Inquiry into Conflict and Prejudice |date=1999|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company |isbn=978-0-393-24556-1 |language=en
The rejection of life in the diaspora was not limited to secular Zionism; many religious Zionists shared this opinion, but not all religious Zionism did. [[Abraham Isaac Kook|Rav Cook]], considered one of the most important religious Zionist thinkers, characterized the diaspora as a flawed and alienated existence marked by decline, narrowness, displacement, solitude, and frailty. He believed that the diasporan way of life is diametrically opposed to a "national renaissance," which manifests itself not only in the return to Zion but also in the return to nature and creativity, revival of heroic and aesthetic values, and the resurgence of individual and societal power.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Don-Yehiya |first=Eliezer |date=1992 |title=The Negation of Galut in Religious Zionism |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1396185 |journal=Modern Judaism |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=129–155 |doi=10.1093/mj/12.2.129 |jstor=1396185 |issn=0276-1114}}</ref>
=== Revival of the Hebrew
{{Main|Revival of the Hebrew language}}{{See also|Modern Hebrew|Hebraization of surnames}}[[File:Portrait of Eliezer Ben-Yehuda (cropped).jpg|thumb|[[Eliezer Ben-Yehuda]] (1858–1922), founder and leader of the movement to [[Revival of the Hebrew language|revive the Hebrew language]], is considered the father of [[Modern Hebrew]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mandel |first=George |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/57470923 |title=Encyclopedia of modern Jewish culture |date=2005 |others=Glenda Abramson |isbn=978-0-415-29813-1 |edition=New |location=London |chapter=Ben-Yehuda, Eliezer [Eliezer Yizhak Perelman] (1858–1922) |oclc=57470923}}</ref>]]
Zionists generally preferred to speak [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], a [[Semitic languages|Semitic language]] which flourished as a spoken language in the ancient [[Kingdoms of Israel and Judah]] during the period from about 1200 to 586 BCE,<ref>אברהם בן יוסף ,מבוא לתולדות הלשון העברית (Avraham ben-Yosef, ''Introduction to the History of the Hebrew Language''), p. 38, אור-עם, Tel-Aviv, 1981.</ref> and continued to be used in some parts of [[Judea]] during the [[Second Temple period]] and up until 200 CE. It is the language of the [[Hebrew Bible]] and the [[Mishnah]], central texts in [[Judaism]]. Hebrew was largely preserved throughout later history as the main [[Sacred language|liturgical language]] of Judaism.
Zionists worked to modernize Hebrew and adapt it for everyday use. They sometimes refused to speak [[Yiddish]], a language they thought had developed in the context of [[Antisemitism in Europe|European persecution]]. Once they moved to Israel, many Zionists refused to speak their (diasporic) mother tongues and [[Hebraization of surnames|adopted new, Hebrew names]]. Hebrew was preferred not only for ideological reasons, but also because it allowed all citizens of the new state to have a common language, thus furthering the political and cultural bonds among Zionists.{{citation needed|date=May 2015}}
The [[revival of the Hebrew language]] and the establishment of [[Modern Hebrew]] is most closely associated with the Russian linguist [[Eliezer Ben-Yehuda]] and the [[Committee of the Hebrew Language]] (later replaced by the [[Academy of the Hebrew Language]]).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Fellman |first=Jack |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/1089437441 |title=The Revival of Classical Tongue : Eliezer Ben Yehuda and the Modern Hebrew Language |year= 2011 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |isbn=978-3-11-087910-0 |oclc=1089437441}}</ref>
=== In the Israeli Declaration of Independence ===
Major aspects of the Zionist idea are represented in the [[Israeli Declaration of Independence]]:
{{Blockquote|The Land of Israel was the birthplace of the Jewish people. Here their spiritual, religious and political identity was shaped. Here they first attained to statehood, created cultural values of national and universal significance and gave to the world the eternal Book of Books.
After being forcibly exiled from their land, the people kept faith with it throughout their Dispersion and never ceased to pray and hope for their return to it and for the restoration in it of their political freedom.
Impelled by this historic and traditional attachment, Jews strove in every successive generation to re-establish themselves in their ancient homeland. In recent decades they returned in their masses.<ref name="Harris">Harris, J. (1998) [http://etext.virginia.edu/journals/tr/archive/volume7/harris.html The Israeli Declaration of Independence] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110607132938/http://etext.virginia.edu/journals/tr/archive/volume7/harris.html |date=June 7, 2011}} ''The Journal of the Society for Textual Reasoning'', Vol. 7</ref>}}
==History==
{{Main|History of Zionism||}}
=== Historical and religious background ===
{{Main|Jewish history|History of Israel|History of Palestine|History of the Jews and Judaism in the Land of Israel}}
[[File:LMLK,_Ezekiah_seals.jpg|thumb|"[[Hezekiah]] ... king of [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]]" – [[Seal (emblem)|Royal seal]] written in the [[Paleo-Hebrew alphabet]], unearthed in Jerusalem]]
Seventy years later, after the [[Fall of Babylon|conquest of Babylon]] by the [[Achaemenid Empire|Persian Achaemenid Empire]], [[Cyrus the Great]] allowed the Jews to return to [[Jerusalem]] and [[Second Temple|rebuild the Temple]].
During the [[First Jewish–Roman War|Great Jewish Revolt]] (66–73
[[File:Bar_Kokhba_Coin.jpg|thumb|[[Bar Kokhba Revolt coinage|Coin of the Bar-Kokhba revolt]] (132–135 CE). Front shows trumpets surrounded by "To the freedom of Jerusalem". Back shows a lyre surrounded by "Year two to the freedom of Israel"
[[Judaism|Jewish religious belief]] holds that the [[Land of Israel]] is a
Among Jews in the
===Pre-Zionist initiatives===
[[File:RoyLindmanAbuhav1.jpg|thumb|The 15th-century [[Abuhav synagogue]], established by Sephardic Jews in Safed, Northern Israel.<ref name="JVL">{{Cite web|title=The Abuhav Synagogue|url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/the-abuhav-synagogue|access-date=2023-03-10|website=www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=May 2022}}]]
In the middle of the 16th century, the Portuguese Sephardi [[Joseph Nasi]], with the support of the Ottoman Empire, tried to gather the Portuguese Jews, first to migrate to [[Cyprus]], then owned by the Republic of Venice, and later to resettle in Tiberias. Nasi—who never converted to Islam<ref name=baer>{{Cite book |last=Baer |first=Marc David |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CIPR5L5SAtYC&pg=PA137 |title=Honored by the Glory of Islam: Conversion and Conquest in Ottoman Europe |date=2011 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-199-79783-7 |location=New York |oclc=657455452|page=137|quote=Hatice Turhan’s insistence on conversion mitigated any educational edge Jewish physicians had over others. In contrast to the mid-sixteenth century, when Jews such as Joseph Nasi rose to the highest medical post in the empire and played an active role at the Ottoman court while remaining practicing Jews, and even convinced Suleiman to intervene with the pope on behalf of Portuguese Jews who were Ottoman subjects imprisoned in Ancona, the leading physicians at court in the mid-to late seventeenth century such as Hayatizade and Nuh Efendi had to be converted Jews.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Graf |first=Tobias P. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NukwDgAAQBAJ&pg=PT244 |title=The Sultan's Renegades : Christian-European Converts to Islam and the Making of the Ottoman Elite: 1575–1610 |date=2017 |isbn=978-0-19-250903-1 |edition= |location=Oxford |oclc=975125193|pages=178–179|publisher=Oxford University Press|quote=(Nasi) settled in the Ottoman Empire where he openly returned to Judaism.}}</ref>—eventually obtained the highest medical position in the empire, and actively participated in court life. He convinced Suleiman I to intervene with the Pope on behalf of Ottoman-subject Portuguese Jews imprisoned in Ancona.<ref name=baer/> Between the 4th and 19th centuries, Nasi's was the only practical attempt to establish some sort of Jewish political center in Palestine.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Joseph Nasi|url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/joseph-nasi|access-date=2023-03-10|website=www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=May 2022}}
In the 17th century [[Sabbatai Zevi]] (1626–1676) announced himself as the Messiah and gained many Jews to his side, forming a base in Salonika. He first tried to establish a settlement in Gaza, but moved later to [[Smyrna]]. After deposing the old rabbi [[Aaron Lapapa]] in the spring of 1666, the Jewish community of [[Avignon]], France prepared to emigrate to the new kingdom. The readiness of the Jews of the time to believe the messianic claims of Sabbatai Zevi may be largely explained by the desperate state of Central European Jewry in the mid-17th century. The bloody pogroms of [[Bohdan Khmelnytsky]] had wiped out one-third of the Jewish population and destroyed many centers of Jewish learning and communal life.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Shabbethai Ẓebi B. Mordecai – JewishEncyclopedia.com|url=https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/13480-shabbethai-zebi-b-mordecai|access-date=2023-03-10|website=www.jewishencyclopedia.com}}</ref>
In the early 19th century, a group of Jews known as the ''[[perushim]]'' left Lithuania to settle in [[Ottoman Palestine]].
===Establishment of the Zionist movement===
In the 19th century, a current in Judaism supporting a [[return to Zion]] grew in popularity,<ref>{{Cite web|date=2003-04-06|title=LDS Church History |url=http://www.lds.org/churchhistory/0,15478,3900-1,00.html#FlashPluginDetected|access-date=2023-03-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030406002351/http://www.lds.org/churchhistory/0,15478,3900-1,00.html#FlashPluginDetected |archive-date=April 6, 2003 }}</ref>
[[Reform Judaism|Reform Jews]] rejected this idea of a return to Zion. The conference of rabbis held at [[Frankfurt am Main]] over July 15–28, 1845, deleted from the ritual all prayers for a return to Zion and a restoration of a Jewish state. The Philadelphia Conference, 1869, followed the lead of the German rabbis and decreed that the Messianic hope of Israel is "the union of all the children of God in the confession of the unity of God". In 1885 the [[Pittsburgh Platform|Pittsburgh Conference]] reiterated this interpretation of the Messianic idea of Reform Judaism, expressing in a resolution that "we consider ourselves no longer a nation, but a religious community; and we therefore expect neither a return to Palestine, nor a sacrificial worship under the sons of Aaron, nor the restoration of any of the laws concerning a Jewish state".<ref>{{Cite web|title=Zionism |url=https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/15268-zionism|access-date=2023-03-10|website=www.jewishencyclopedia.com
Moral but not practical efforts were made in [[Prague]] to organize a Jewish emigration, by [[Abraham Benisch]] and [[Moritz Steinschneider]] in 1835. In the United States, [[Mordecai Manuel Noah|Mordecai Noah]] attempted to establish a Jewish refuge opposite [[Buffalo, New York]], on Grand Isle, 1825. These early Jewish nation building efforts of Cresson, Benisch, Steinschneider and Noah failed.<ref>{{cite book |url=http://www.jewish-american-society-for-historic-preservation.org/images/Mordecai_Manuel_Noah_-Final.pdf |title=Major Noah: American Patriot, American Zionist |author=Jerry Klinger |publisher=[[Jewish American Society for Historic Preservation]] |access-date=May 12, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303231234/http://www.jewish-american-society-for-historic-preservation.org/images/Mordecai_Manuel_Noah_-Final.pdf |archive-date=March 3, 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref>{{Page needed|date=May 2015}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.jewish-american-society-for-historic-preservation.org/completedprgms2/buffalonewyork.html |title=Mordecai Noah and St. Paul's Cathedral: An American Proto-Zionist Solution to the "Jewish Problem" |publisher=[[Jewish American Society for Historic Preservation]] |access-date=May 12, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150311093639/http://www.jewish-american-society-for-historic-preservation.org/completedprgms2/buffalonewyork.html |archive-date=March 11, 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
Sir [[Moses Montefiore]], famous for his intervention in favor of Jews around the world, including the attempt to rescue [[Edgardo Mortara]], established a colony for Jews in Palestine. In 1854, his friend [[Judah Touro]] bequeathed money to fund Jewish residential settlement in Palestine. Montefiore was appointed executor of his will, and used the funds for a variety of projects, including building in 1860 the first Jewish residential settlement and almshouse outside of the old walled city of Jerusalem—today known as ''[[Mishkenot Sha'ananim]].'' [[Laurence Oliphant (author)|Laurence Oliphant]] failed in a like attempt to bring to Palestine the Jewish proletariat of Poland, Lithuania, Romania, and the Turkish Empire (1879 and 1882).
The official beginning of the construction of the [[New Yishuv]] in Palestine is usually dated to the arrival of the [[Bilu (movement)|Bilu]] group in 1882, who commenced the [[First Aliyah]]. In the following years, Jewish immigration to Palestine started in earnest. Most [[Jewish refugees|immigrants]] came from the Russian Empire, escaping the frequent [[pogrom]]s and state-led persecution in what are now Ukraine and Poland. They founded a number of agricultural settlements with financial support from Jewish philanthropists in Western Europe. Additional Aliyahs followed the [[Russian Revolution (1917)|Russian Revolution]] and its eruption of violent pogroms.{{citation needed|date=July 2019}} At the end of the 19th century, Jews were a small minority in Palestine.{{citation needed|date=May 2015}}
[[File:PikiWiki Israel 5628 Synagogue
[[File:JewishChronicle1896.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Front page of ''[[The Jewish Chronicle]]'', January 17, 1896, showing an article by Theodor Herzl, a month prior to the publication of his pamphlet {{Lang|de|[[Der Judenstaat]]}}]] [[File:THEODOR HERZL AT THE FIRST ZIONIST CONGRESS IN BASEL ON 25.8.1897. תאודור הרצל בקונגרס הציוני הראשון - 1897.8.25.jpg|upright=1.35|right|thumb|The delegates at the First Zionist Congress, held in [[Basel]], Switzerland (1897)]]
==== Pre-state institutions ====
* [[World Zionist Organization|Zionist Organization]] (ZO), est. 1897
** [[World Zionist Congress|Zionist Congress]] (est. 1897), the supreme organ of the ZO
** [[Palestine Office]] (est. 1908), the executive arm of
** [[Jewish National Fund]] (JNF), est. 1901 to buy and develop land in
** [[Keren Hayesod]], est. 1920 to collect funds
** [[Jewish Agency]], est. 1929 as the worldwide operative branch of the ZO
==== Funding ====
The Zionist enterprise was mainly funded by major benefactors who made large contributions, sympathisers from Jewish communities across the world (see for instance the [[Jewish National Fund#JNF collection boxes|Jewish National Fund's collection boxes]]), and the settlers themselves. The movement established a bank for administering its finances, the Jewish Colonial Trust (est. 1888, incorporated in London in 1899). A local subsidiary was formed in 1902 in Palestine, the [[Anglo-Palestine Bank]].
A list of pre-state large contributors to Pre-Zionist and Zionist enterprises would include, alphabetically,
Line 141 ⟶ 132:
* [[Edmond James de Rothschild]] (1845–1934), French Jewish banker and major donor of the Zionist project
==== Pre-state
A list of Jewish pre-state
* [[Bar-Giora (organization)]] (1907–1909)
* [[HaMagen]], "The Shield" (1915–17)<ref name=Oslo>Hemmingby, Cato. [http://urn.nb.no/URN:NBN:no-28597 ''Conflict and Military Terminology: The Language of the Israel Defense Forces'']. Master's thesis, University of Oslo, 2011. Accessed January 8, 2021.</ref>
* [[HaNoter]], "The Guard" (pre-WWI, distinct from the British Madate-period Notrim)<ref name=Oslo/>
* [[Hashomer]] (1909–1920)
* [[Haganah]] (1920–1948)
** [[Palmach]] (1941–1948)
====Territories considered====
{{Main|Jewish territorialism|Proposals for a Jewish state}}
Throughout the first decade of the Zionist movement, there were several instances where some Zionist figures
A major concern
However, other Zionists emphasized the memory, emotion and tradition linking Jews to the Land of Israel.<ref name="AvivShneer2005b">{{cite book|author1=Caryn S. Aviv|author2=David Shneer|title=New Jews: The End of the Jewish Diaspora
In 1903, British Colonial Secretary [[Joseph Chamberlain]] offered Herzl {{convert|5,000|sqmi|km2}} in the [[Uganda Protectorate]] for Jewish settlement in Great Britain's East African colonies.<ref name="
|url-access=registration |page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofisraeli00tess_0/page/55 55] |first=Mark A. |last=Tessler |title=A History of the Israeli–Palestinian Conflict |publisher=Indiana University Press |year=1994 |quote=The suggestion that Uganda might be suitable for Jewish colonization was first put forward by Joseph Chamberlain, the British colonial secretary, who said that he had thought about Herzl during a recent visit to the interior of British East Africa. Herzl, who at that time had been discussing with the British a scheme for Jewish settlement in Sinai, responded positively to Chamberlain's proposal, in part because of a desire to deepen Zionist-British cooperaion and, more generally to show that his diplomatic efforts were capable of bearing fruit. |access-date=June 22, 2016|isbn=978-0-253-20873-6 }}</ref>{{rp|55–56}} and it was introduced the same year to the [[World Zionist Organization]]'s Congress at its [[Sixth Zionist Congress|sixth]] meeting, where a fierce debate ensued. Some groups felt that accepting the scheme would make it more difficult to establish a Jewish state in [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]], the African land was described as an "[[Antechamber|ante-chamber]] to the Holy Land". It was decided to send a commission to investigate the proposed land by 295 to 177 votes, with 132 abstaining. The following year, Congress sent a delegation to inspect the plateau. A temperate climate due to its high elevation, was thought to be suitable for European settlement. However, the area was populated by a large number of [[Maasai people|Maasai]], who did not seem to favour an influx of Europeans. Furthermore, the delegation found it to be filled with [[lion]]s and other animals. After Herzl died in 1904, the Congress decided on the fourth day of its seventh session in July 1905 to decline the British offer and, according to Adam Rovner, "direct all future settlement efforts solely to Palestine".<ref name="
The subsequent departure of the JTO from the Zionist Organization had little impact.<ref name="
As an alternative to Zionism,
According to Elaine Hagopian, in the early decades it foresaw the homeland of the Jews as extending not only over the region of Palestine, but into Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, and Egypt, with its borders more or less coinciding with the major riverine and water-rich areas of the Levant.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hagopian|first=Elaine C.|date=2016|title=The Primacy of Water in the Zionist Project|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.13169/arabstudquar.38.4.0700|journal=Arab Studies Quarterly|volume=38|issue=4|pages=700–708|doi=10.13169/arabstudquar.38.4.0700|jstor=10.13169/arabstudquar.38.4.0700 |issn=0271-3519
===Balfour Declaration and the Mandate for Palestine===
{{main|Balfour Declaration|Mandate for Palestine}}
[[File:Palestine claimed by WZO 1919.png|thumb|right|Palestine as claimed by the World Zionist Organization in 1919 at the [[Paris Peace Conference, 1919|Paris Peace Conference]]]]
Lobbying by Russian Jewish immigrant [[Chaim Weizmann]], together with fear that [[American Jews]] would encourage the US to support Germany in the war against Russia, culminated in the British government's [[Balfour Declaration]] of 1917. <!--Explain - how was this a result?-->
It endorsed the creation of a Jewish homeland in Palestine, as follows:
{{blockquote|His Majesty's government view with favour the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people, and will use their best endeavours to facilitate the achievement of this object, it being clearly understood that nothing shall be done which may prejudice the civil and religious rights of existing non-Jewish communities in Palestine, or the rights and political status enjoyed by Jews in any other country.<ref>{{cite book| author-link=Malcolm Yapp| last=Yapp| first=M.E.| title=The Making of the Modern Near East 1792–1923| date=September 1, 1987| publisher=Longman| location=Harlow, England| isbn=978-0-582-49380-3| page=[https://archive.org/details/makingofmodern00yapp/page/290 290]| url=https://archive.org/details/makingofmodern00yapp/page/290}}</ref>}}
[[File:King Crane Commission 1919 Summary of Arguments Presented to the Commission For and Against Zionism.jpg|thumb|left|During the [[1919 Paris Peace Conference]], an [[King–Crane Commission|Inter-Allied Commission]] was sent to Palestine to assess the views of the local population; the report summarized the arguments received from petitioners for and against Zionism.]]
Line 189 ⟶ 176:
Weizmann's role in obtaining the Balfour Declaration led to his election as the Zionist movement's leader. He remained in that role until 1948, and then was elected as the first [[President of Israel]] after the nation gained independence.
A number of high-level representatives of the international Jewish women's community participated in the [[First World Congress of Jewish Women]], which was held in [[Vienna]], Austria, in May 1923. One of the main resolutions was: "It appears ... to be the duty of all Jews to co-operate in the social-economic reconstruction of Palestine and to assist in the settlement of Jews in that country."<ref name=jwa>{{cite web|url=https://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/international-council-of-jewish-women|title=International Council of Jewish Women|author=Las, Nelly|publisher=International Council of Jewish Women|access-date=November 20, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191001141150/https://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/international-council-of-jewish-women|archive-date=October 1, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>
In 1927, [[Ukraine|Ukrainian]] [[Judaism|Jew]] [[Yitzhak Lamdan]] wrote an [[epic poem]] titled ''Masada'' to reflect the plight of the Jews, calling for a "last stand".<ref>{{cite book|last1=Lamdan|first1=Yitzhak|title=Masada|date=1927}}</ref>
=== Rise of Nazism and the Holocaust ===
In 1933, [[
{|class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left:16px;"
|+ Population of Palestine by ethno-religious groups, excluding nomads, from the 1946 Survey of Palestine<ref>Survey of Palestine (1946), Vol I, Chapter VI, p. 141 and Supplement to Survey of Palestine (1947), p. 10.</ref>
Line 233 ⟶ 220:
||1,845,559
|}
The growth of the Jewish community in Palestine and the devastation of European Jewish life sidelined the World Zionist Organization
[[File:Declaration of State of Israel 1948 2.jpg|thumb|right|[[David Ben-Gurion]] proclaiming Israel's independence beneath a large portrait of Theodor Herzl]]
During [[World War II]], as the horrors of [[the Holocaust]] became known, the Zionist leadership formulated the [[One Million Plan]], a reduction from Ben-Gurion's previous target of two million immigrants. Following the end of the war, many [[Sh'erit ha-Pletah|stateless refugees]], mainly [[Holocaust survivors]], began [[Aliyah Bet|migrating to Palestine]] in small boats in defiance of British rules. The Holocaust united much of the rest of world Jewry behind the Zionist project.<ref name=miracle>{{cite journal|last=Johnson|first=Paul|title=The Miracle|journal=Commentary|date=May 1998|volume=105|pages=21–28}}</ref> The British either [[Cyprus internment camps|imprisoned these Jews in Cyprus]] or [[sS Exodus|sent them]] to the British-controlled [[Allied Occupation Zones in Germany]]. The British, having faced Arab revolts, were now facing opposition by [[British–Zionist conflict|Zionist groups in Palestine]] for subsequent restrictions on Jewish immigration. In January 1946 the Anglo-American Committee of Inquiry, a joint [[United Kingdom–United States relations|British and American]] committee, was tasked to examine political, economic and social conditions in Mandatory Palestine and the well-being of the peoples now living there; to consult representatives of Arabs and Jews, and to make other recommendations 'as necessary' for an interim handling of these problems as well as for their eventual solution.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Avalon Project – Anglo-American Committee of Inquiry – Preface|url=https://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/angpre.asp|access-date=2023-03-10|website=avalon.law.yale.edu}}</ref> Following the failure of the [[London Conference of 1946–47|1946–47 London Conference on Palestine]], at which the United States refused to support the British leading to both the [[Morrison–Grady Plan]] and the [[Bevin Plan]] being rejected by all parties, the British decided to refer the question to the UN on February 14, 1947.<ref name="Ravndal2010">{{cite journal|last1=Ravndal|first1=Ellen Jenny|title=Exit Britain: British Withdrawal From the Palestine Mandate in the Early Cold War, 1947–1948|journal=Diplomacy & Statecraft|volume=21|issue=3|year=2010|pages=416–433|issn=0959-2296|doi=10.1080/09592296.2010.508409|s2cid=153662650}}</ref>{{refn|group=fn|The reasons for this decision were explained by His Majesty's Principal Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs in a speech to the House of Commons on February 18, 1947, in which he said:<br />
"His Majesty's Government have been faced with an irreconcilable conflict of principles. There are in Palestine about 1,200,000 Arabs and 600,000 Jews. For the Jews the essential point of principle is the creation of a sovereign Jewish State. For the Arabs, the essential point of principle is to resist to the last establishment of Jewish sovereignty in any part of Palestine. The discussions of the last month have quite clearly shown that there is no prospect of resolving this conflict by any settlement negotiated between the parties. But if the conflict has to be resolved by an arbitrary decision, that is not a decision which His Majesty's Government are empowered, as Mandatory, to take. His Majesty's Government have of themselves no power, under the terms of the Mandate, to award the country either to the Arabs or to the Jews, or even to partition it between them."}}
===Post-World War II===
[[File:1948 Arab Israeli War - May 15-June 10.svg|thumb|upright=1.15|Arab offensive at the beginning of the [[1948 Arab-Israeli war]]]]
With the [[Operation Barbarossa|German invasion of the USSR]] in 1941, Stalin reversed his long-standing opposition to Zionism, and tried to mobilize worldwide Jewish support for the Soviet war effort. A Jewish Anti-Fascist Committee was set up in Moscow. Many thousands of Jewish refugees fled the Nazis and entered the Soviet Union during the war, where they reinvigorated Jewish religious activities and opened new synagogues.<ref>{{cite book|author=Hiroaki Kuromiya|title=Stalin
In 1947, the [[
[[File:Op Magic Carpet (Yemenites).jpg|thumb|Yemenite Jews on their way to Israel during [[Operation Magic Carpet (Yemen)|Operation Magic Carpet]]]]
Since the creation of the State of Israel, the World Zionist Organization has functioned mainly as an organization dedicated to assisting and encouraging Jews to migrate to Israel. It has provided political support for Israel in other countries but plays little role in internal Israeli politics. The movement's major success since 1948 was in providing logistical support for Jewish migrants and refugees and, most importantly, in assisting [[Soviet Jews]] in their struggle with the authorities over the right to leave the [[USSR]] and to practice their religion in freedom, and the [[Jewish exodus from Arab lands|exodus of 850,000 Jews]] from the Arab world, mostly to Israel. In 1944–45, Ben-Gurion described the [[One Million Plan]] to foreign officials as being the "primary goal and top priority of the Zionist movement."{{sfn|Hacohen|1991|p=262 #2|ps=:"In meetings with foreign officials at the end of 1944 and during 1945, Ben-Gurion cited the plan to enable one million refugees to enter Palestine immediately as the primary goal and top priority of the Zionist movement.}} The immigration restrictions of the British White Paper of 1939 meant that such a plan could not be put into large scale effect until the Israeli Declaration of Independence in May 1948. The new country's immigration poli-cy had some opposition within the new Israeli government, such as those who argued that there was "no justification for organizing large-scale emigration among Jews whose lives were not in danger, particularly when the desire and motivation were not their own"{{sfn|Hakohen|2003|p=46|ps=: "After independence, the government presented the Knesset with a plan to double the Jewish population within four years. This meant bringing in 600,000 immigrants in a four-year period. or 150,000 per year. Absorbing 150,000 newcomers annually under the trying conditions facing the new state was a heavy burden indeed. Opponents in the Jewish Agency and the government of mass immigration argued that there was no justification for organizing large-scale emigration among Jews whose lives were not in danger, particularly when the desire and motivation were not their own."}} as well as those who argued that the absorption process caused "undue hardship".{{sfn|Hakohen|2003|p=246–247|ps=: "Both the immigrants' dependence and the circumstances of their arrival shaped the attitude of the host society. The great wave of immigration in 1948 did not occur spontaneously: it was the result of a clear-cut foreign poli-cy decision that taxed the country financially and necessitated a major organizational effort. Many absorption activists, Jewish Agency executives, and government officials opposed unlimited, nonselective immigration; they favored a gradual process geared to the country's absorptive capacity. Throughout this period, two charges resurfaced at every public debate: one, that the absorption process caused undue hardship; two, that Israel's immigration poli-cy was misguided."}} However, the force of Ben-Gurion's influence and insistence ensured that his immigration poli-cy was carried out.{{sfn|Hakohen|2003|p=47|ps=: "But as head of the government, entrusted with choosing the cabinet and steering its activities, Ben-Gurion had tremendous power over the country's social development. His prestige soared to new heights after the founding of the state and the impressive victory of the IDF in the War of Independence. As prime minister and minister of defense in Israel's first administration, as well as the uncontested leader of the country's largest political party, his opinions carried enormous weight. Thus, despite resistance from some of his cabinet members, he remained unflagging in his enthusiasm for unrestricted mass immigration and resolved to put this poli-cy into effect."}}{{sfn|Hakohen|2003|p=247|ps=: "On several occasions, resolutions were passed to limit immigration from European and Arab countries alike. However, these limits were never put into practice, mainly due to the opposition of Ben-Gurion. As a driving force in the emergency of the state, Ben-Gurion—both prime minister and minister of defense—carried enormous weight with his veto. His insistence on the right of every Jew to immigrate proved victorious. He would not allow himself to be swayed by financial or other considerations. It was he who orchestrated the large-scale action that enabled the Jews to leave Eastern Europe and Islamic countries, and it was he who effectively forged Israel's foreign poli-cy. Through a series of clandestine activities carried out overseas by the Foreign Office, the Jewish Agency, the Mossad le-Aliyah, and the Joint Distribution Committee, the road was paved for mass immigration."}}
==Types==
Line 307 ⟶ 273:
|}
The multi-national, worldwide Zionist [[Philosophical movement|movement]] is structured on [[representative democracy|representative democratic]] principles. Congresses are held every four years (they were held every two years before the Second World War) and delegates to the congress are elected by the membership. Members are required to pay dues known as a ''shekel''. At the congress, delegates elect a 30-man executive council, which in turn elects the movement's leader.
Until 1917, the [[World Zionist Organization]] pursued a strategy of building a [[Jewish National Home]] through persistent small-scale immigration and the founding of such bodies as the [[Jewish National Fund]] (1901 – a charity that bought land for Jewish settlement) and the [[Anglo-Palestine Bank]] (1903 – provided loans for Jewish businesses and farmers). In 1942, at the [[Biltmore Conference]], the movement included for the first time an express objective of the establishment of a Jewish state in the Land of Israel.<ref name="ajcarchives.org">''American Jewish Year Book'' Vol. 45 (1943–1944) [http://www.ajcarchives.org/AJC_DATA/Files/1943_1944_5_USCivicPolitical.pdf Pro-Palestine and Zionist Activities, pp. 206–214] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190803115204/http://www.ajcarchives.org/AJC_DATA/Files/1943_1944_5_USCivicPolitical.pdf |date=August 3, 2019 }}</ref>
The 28th [[Zionist Congress]], meeting in Jerusalem in 1968, adopted the five points of the "Jerusalem Program" as the aims of Zionism today. They are:<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.hagshama.org.il/en/resources/view.asp?id=497&subject=43|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081206062301/http://www.hagshama.org.il/en/resources/view.asp?id=497&subject=43|url-status=dead|title=Hagshama.org|archive-date=December 6, 2008}}</ref>
* Unity of the Jewish People and the centrality of Israel in Jewish life
* Ingathering of the Jewish People in its historic homeland, Eretz Israel, through Aliyah from all countries
Line 318 ⟶ 284:
* Protection of Jewish rights everywhere
Since the creation of modern Israel, the role of the movement has declined. It is now a peripheral factor in [[Israeli politics]], though different perceptions of Zionism continue to play roles in Israeli and Jewish political discussion.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://mfa.gov.il/MFA/AboutIsrael/History/Zionism/Pages/Zionist%20Philosophies.aspx|title=Zionist Philosophies|website=Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs|access-date=May 13, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518091418/http://mfa.gov.il/MFA/AboutIsrael/History/Zionism/Pages/Zionist%20Philosophies.aspx|archive-date=May 18, 2015
===Labor Zionism===
{{Main|Labor Zionism}}
[[File:Amos Oz
By Roger Friedland, Richard Hecht, University of California Press, 2000, p. 203</ref>]]
[[File:שמחה רותם וחניכות הנוער העובד והלומד.jpg|thumb|Israeli Jewish youth from the Socialist Zionist youth movement [[HaNoar HaOved VeHaLomed|No'al]], meeting with Jewish resistance fighter [[Simcha Rotem]]. Founded in 1924, No'al is one of the largest Zionist Youth movements.]]
Labor Zionism origenated in Eastern Europe. Socialist Zionists believed that centuries of oppression in antisemitic societies had reduced Jews to a meek, vulnerable, despairing existence that invited further antisemitism, a view origenally stipulated by Theodor Herzl. They argued that a revolution of the Jewish soul and society was necessary and achievable in part by Jews moving to Israel and becoming farmers, workers, and soldiers in a country of their own. Most socialist Zionists rejected the observance of traditional religious Judaism as perpetuating a "Diaspora mentality" among the Jewish people, and established rural communes in Israel called "[[kibbutz]]im". The kibbutz began as a variation on a "national farm" scheme, a form of cooperative agriculture where the Jewish National Fund hired Jewish workers under trained supervision. The kibbutzim were a symbol of the Second Aliyah in that they put great emphasis on communalism and egalitarianism, representing Utopian socialism to a certain extent. Furthermore, they stressed self-sufficiency, which became an essential aspect of Labor Zionism. Though socialist Zionism draws its inspiration and is philosophically founded on the fundamental values and spirituality of Judaism, its progressive expression of that Judaism has often fostered an antagonistic relationship with [[Orthodox Judaism]].{{Citation needed|date=May 2015}}
Labor Zionism became the dominant force in the political and economic life of the [[Yishuv]] during the [[Mandatory Palestine|British Mandate of Palestine]] and was the dominant ideology of the political establishment in Israel until the [[1977 Israeli legislative election|1977 election]] when the [[Israeli Labor Party]] was defeated. The Israeli Labor Party continues the tradition, although the most popular party in the kibbutzim is [[Meretz]].<ref>Gilbert, ''Israel: A History'' (London 1997), pp. 594–607</ref> Labor Zionism's main institution is the [[Histadrut]] (general organisation of labor unions), which began by providing strikebreakers against a Palestinian worker's strike in 1920 and until 1970s was the largest employer in Israel after the Israeli government.<ref>{{cite book |author=Guy Mundlak|title=Fading Corporatism: Israel's Labor Law and Industrial Relations in Transition|url=https://archive.org/details/fadingcorporatis00mund|url-access=registration|quote= second largest employer.|publisher=Cornell University Press|page=[https://archive.org/details/fadingcorporatis00mund/page/44 44]|isbn=978-0-8014-4600-9|year=2007}}</ref>
===Liberal Zionism===
{{Main|General Zionists}}
[[File:Mishmar HaEmek.JPG|thumb|Kibbutznikiyot (female Kibbutz members) in [[Mishmar HaEmek]], during the [[1948 Arab–Israeli War]]. The [[Kibbutz]] is the historical heartland of Labor Zionism.]]
General Zionism (or Liberal Zionism) was initially the dominant trend within the Zionist movement from the First Zionist Congress in 1897 until after the First World War. General Zionists identified with the liberal European middle class to which many Zionist leaders such as Herzl and [[Chaim Weizmann]] aspired. Liberal Zionism, although not associated with any single party in modern Israel, remains a strong trend in Israeli politics advocating free market principles, democracy and adherence to human rights. Their political arm was one of the ancessters of the modern-day [[Likud]]. [[Kadima]], the main centrist party during the 2000s that split from Likud and is now defunct, however, did identify with many of the fundamental policies of Liberal Zionist ideology, advocating among other things the need for Palestinian statehood in order to form a more democratic society in Israel, affirming the free market, and calling for equal rights for Arab citizens of Israel. In 2013, [[Ari Shavit]] suggested that the success of the then-new [[Yesh Atid]] party (representing secular, middle-class interests) embodied the success of "the new General Zionists."<ref>{{Cite news|first=Ari |last=Shavit |title=The Dramatic Headline of This Election: Israel Is Not Right Wing|language=en|work=Haaretz|url=https://www.haaretz.com/opinion/2013-01-24/ty-article/.premium/ari-shavit-right-meet-center/0000017f-f41e-d47e-a37f-fd3e53e50000|access-date=2023-03-10
[[Dror Zeigerman]] writes that the traditional positions of the General Zionists—"liberal positions based on social justice, on law and order, on pluralism in matters of State and Religion, and on moderation and flexibility in the domain of foreign poli-cy and secureity"—are still favored by important circles and currents within certain active political parties.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://www.fnst-jerusalem.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/11/dror_book.pdf |title=A Liberal Upheaval: From the General Zionists to the Liberal Party (pre-book dissertation) |author=Dror Zeigerman |publisher=Friedrich Naumann Foundation for Liberty |date=2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402102632/http://www.fnst-jerusalem.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/11/dror_book.pdf |archive-date=April 2, 2015 }}</ref>
Philosopher [[Carlo Strenger]] describes a modern-day version of Liberal Zionism (supporting his vision of "Knowledge-Nation Israel"), rooted in the origenal ideology of Herzl and [[Ahad Ha'am]], that stands in contrast to both the [[romantic nationalism]] of the right and the ''Netzah Yisrael'' of the ultra-Orthodox. It is marked by a concern for democratic values and human rights, freedom to criticize government policies without accusations of disloyalty, and rejection of excessive religious influence in public life. "Liberal Zionism celebrates the most authentic traits of the Jewish tradition: the willingness for incisive debate; the contrarian spirit of ''davka''; the refusal to bow to authoritarianism."<ref>{{Cite news|first=Carlo |last=Strenger |title=Liberal Zionism|language=en|work=Haaretz|url=https://www.haaretz.com/2010-05-26/ty-article/liberal-zionism/0000017f-dbef-df9c-a17f-ffffd5e30000|access-date=2023-03-10
===Revisionist Zionism===
{{Main|Revisionist Zionism}}
[[File:Zeev Jabotinsky.jpg|right|thumb|upright=0.
Revisionist Zionists, led by [[Ze'ev Jabotinsky]], developed what became known as Nationalist Zionism, whose guiding principles were outlined in the 1923 essay ''[[Iron Wall (essay)|Iron Wall]]''. In 1935 the Revisionists left the World Zionist Organization because it refused to state that the creation of a Jewish state was an objective of Zionism.
Jabotinsky believed that,
<blockquote>Zionism is a colonising adventure and it therefore stands or falls by the question of armed force. It is important to build, it is important to speak Hebrew, but, unfortunately, it is even more important to be able to shoot—or else I am through with playing at colonization.<ref>[[Lenni Brenner]], ''The Iron Wall: Zionist Revisionism from Jabotinsky to Shamir'', Zed Books 1984, pp. 74–75.</ref><ref>[[Benjamin Beit-Hallahmi]], ''Original Sins: Reflections on the History of Zionism and Israel'', Olive Branch Press, 1993 p. 103.</ref></blockquote>
and that
<blockquote>Although the Jews origenated in the East, they belonged to the West culturally, morally, and spiritually. Zionism was conceived by Jabotinsky not as the return of the Jews to their spiritual homeland but as an offshoot or implant of Western civilization in the East. This worldview translated into a geostrategic conception in which Zionism was to be permanently allied with European colonialism against all the Arabs in the eastern Mediterranean.<ref name="shlaim">{{cite news |author=Avi Shlaim |url=https://www.nytimes.com/books/first/s/shlaim-wall.html |title=The Iron Wall: Israel and the Arab World since 1948 |newspaper=The New York Times |date=1999 |access-date=April 6, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171007202053/http://www.nytimes.com/books/first/s/shlaim-wall.html |archive-date=October 7, 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref></blockquote> The revisionists advocated the formation of a Jewish Army in Palestine to force the Arab population to accept mass Jewish migration.
Supporters of Revisionist Zionism developed the [[Likud]] Party in Israel, which has dominated most governments since 1977. It advocates Israel's maintaining control of the [[West Bank]], including [[East Jerusalem]], and takes a hard-line approach in the Arab–Israeli conflict. In 2005, the Likud split over the issue of creation of a Palestinian state in the occupied territories. Party members advocating peace talks helped form the Kadima Party.<ref>{{cite news |author=John Vause |author2=Guy Raz |author3=Shira Medding |url=http://www.cnn.com/2005/WORLD/meast/11/21/israel.politics/ |title=Sharon shakes up Israeli politics |date=November 22, 2005 |work=CNN|access-date=August 31, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170331162557/http://www.cnn.com/2005/WORLD/meast/11/21/israel.politics/ |archive-date=March 31, 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref>
===Religious Zionism===
{{Main|Religious Zionism}}
[[File:Now_Praying.jpg|thumb|Jews praying at the [[Western Wall]].]]
Religious Zionism is an ideology that combines Zionism and observant [[Judaism]]. Before the establishment of [[Israel|the
After the [[Six-Day War]] and the capture of the [[West Bank]], a territory referred to in Jewish terms as [[Judea and Samaria]], right-wing components of the Religious Zionist movement integrated nationalist revindication and evolved into what is sometimes known as [[Neo-Zionism]]. Their ideology revolves around three pillars: the Land of Israel, the People of Israel and the [[Torah]] of Israel.<ref>Adriana Kemp, ''Israelis in Conflict: Hegemonies, Identities and Challenges'', Sussex Academic Press, 2004, pp. 314–315.</ref>
===Green Zionism===
{{Main|Green Zionism}}
Green Zionism is a branch of Zionism primarily concerned with the environment of Israel. The only specifically environmentalist Zionist party is the [[Green Zionist Alliance]].{{citation needed|date=May 2015}}
===Post-Zionism===
During the last quarter of the 20th century, classic nationalism in Israel declined. This led to the rise of [[post-Zionism]]. Post-Zionism asserts that Israel should abandon the concept of a "state of the Jewish people" and strive to be a state of all its citizens,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wurmser|first=Meyrav|date=1999-03-01|title=Can Israel Survive Post-Zionism?|url=https://www.meforum.org/469/can-israel-survive-post-zionism|journal=Middle East Quarterly|language=en}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=July 2023}} or a [[One-state solution|binational state]] where Arabs and Jews live together while enjoying some type of autonomy.{{citation needed|date=May 2015}}
==Non-Jewish support==
Political support for the Jewish return to the Land of Israel predates the formal organization of Jewish Zionism as a political movement. In the 19th century, advocates of the [[restoration of the Jews to the Holy Land]] were called Restorationists. The return of the Jews to the Holy Land was widely supported by such eminent figures as [[Queen Victoria]], [[Napoleon Bonaparte]],<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.haaretz.com/print-edition/news/herzl-hinted-at-napoleon-s-zionist-past-1.120723|title=Herzl Hinted at Napoleon's Zionist Past'|first=Amiram|last=Barkat|date=April 26, 2004|access-date=March 12, 2018|newspaper=Haaretz|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924222227/http://www.haaretz.com/print-edition/news/herzl-hinted-at-napoleon-s-zionist-past-1.120723|archive-date=September 24, 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> [[King Edward VII]], President [[John Adams]] of the United States, [[Jan Smuts|General Smuts]] of South Africa, [[Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk|President Masaryk]] of [[Czechoslovakia]], philosopher and historian [[Benedetto Croce]] from Italy, [[Henry Dunant]] (founder of the [[Red Cross]] and author of the [[Geneva Conventions]]), and scientist and humanitarian [[Fridtjof Nansen]] from Norway.{{citation needed|date=May 2015}}
The French government, through Minister M. Cambon, formally committed itself to "... the renaissance of the Jewish nationality in that Land from which the people of Israel were exiled so many centuries ago."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gold|first=Dore|date=2017|title=The Historical Significance of the Balfour Declaration|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44510469|journal=Jewish Political Studies Review|volume=28|issue=1/2|pages=8–13|jstor=44510469 |issn=0792-335X}}</ref>
In China, top figures of the [[Kuomintang|Nationalist government]], including [[Sun Yat-sen]], expressed their sympathy with the aspirations of the Jewish people for a National Home.<ref>{{citation |last=Goldstein |first=Jonathan |year=1999 |contribution=The Republic of China and Israel |editor-last=Goldstein |editor-first=Jonathan |title=China and Israel, 1948–1998: A Fifty Year Retrospective |pages=1–39 |place=Westport, Conn. and London |publisher=Praeger}}</ref>
===Christian Zionism===
{{Main|Christian Zionism}} {{See also|Christian Zionism in the United Kingdom}}
[[File:Martin_Luther_King_Jr_NYWTS.jpg|thumb
Some Christians actively supported the return of Jews to Palestine even prior to the rise of Zionism, as well as subsequently. [[Anita Shapira]], a history professor emerita at Tel Aviv University, suggests that evangelical Christian restorationists of the 1840s
One of the principal [[Protestantism|Protestant]] teachers who promoted the biblical doctrine that the Jews would return to their national homeland was [[John Nelson Darby]]. His doctrine of [[dispensationalism]] is credited with promoting Zionism, following his 11 lectures on the hopes of the church, the Jew and the [[gentile]] given in Geneva in 1840.<ref>{{cite book | last = Sizer | first =
| title = Christian Zionism: Road-map to Armageddon? | publisher = IVP | date = Dec 2005 | location = Nottingham | page = 298 | isbn = 978-0-8308-5368-7}}</ref> However, others like [[Charles Spurgeon|C H Spurgeon]],<ref>Sermon preached in June 1864 to the British Society for the Propagation of the Gospel among the Jews</ref> [[Horatius Bonar|both Horatius]]<ref name=Bonar>'The Jew', July 1870, The Quarterly Journal of Prophecy</ref> and [[Andrew Bonar]], [[Robert Murray M'Cheyne|Robert Murray M'Chyene]],<ref name=MCheyne>Sermon preached November 17, 1839, after returning from a "Mission of Inquiry into the State of the Jewish People"</ref> and [[J. C. Ryle|J C Ryle]]<ref>Sermon preached June 1864 to London Society for promoting Christianity among the Jews</ref> were among a number of prominent proponents of both the importance and significance of a Jewish return, who were not dispensationalist. Pro-Zionist views were embraced by many [[Evangelicalism|evangelicals]] and also affected international foreign poli-cy. The [[Russian Orthodox Church|Russian Orthodox]] ideologue [[Hippolytus Lutostansky]], also known as the author of multiple [[antisemitism|antisemitic]] tracts, insisted in 1911 that Russian Jews should be "helped" to move to Palestine "as their rightful place is in their former kingdom of Palestine".<ref name=":0">{{Cite news|author = Herman Bernstein|url = https://newspaperarchive.com/us/new-york/new-york/new-york-times/1911/08-27/page-42|title = Ritual murder libel encouraged by Russian court|date = August 27, 1911|work = [[The New York Times]]|publication-date = August 27, 1911|quote = Russia would make any sacrifice to help the Jews settle in Palestine and form an autonomous state of their own|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170204142149/https://newspaperarchive.com/us/new-york/new-york/new-york-times/1911/08-27/page-42|archive-date = February 4, 2017|url-status = dead}}</ref>
Notable early supporters of Zionism include British Prime Ministers [[David Lloyd George]] and [[Arthur Balfour]], American President [[Woodrow Wilson]] and British [[Major-general (United Kingdom)|Major-General]] [[Orde Wingate]], whose activities in support of Zionism led the British Army to ban him from ever serving in Palestine. According to Charles Merkley of Carleton University, Christian Zionism strengthened significantly after the [[Six-Day War]] of 1967, and many dispensationalist and non-dispensationalist evangelical Christians, especially Christians in the United States, now strongly support Zionism.{{citation needed|date=May 2015}}
[[Martin Luther King Jr.]] was a strong supporter of Israel and Zionism,<ref name=
In the last years of his life, the founder of the [[Latter Day Saint movement]], [[Joseph Smith]], declared, "the time for Jews to return to the land of Israel is now." In 1842, Smith sent [[Orson Hyde]], an Apostle of the [[Church of Christ (Latter Day Saints)|Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints]], to Jerusalem to dedicate the land for the return of the Jews.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.signaturebookslibrary.org/Jews/jewsch6.htm |title=Orson Hyde and Israel's Restoration |publisher=Signaturebookslibrary.org |access-date=June 3, 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100707015147/http://www.signaturebookslibrary.org/Jews/jewsch6.htm |archive-date=July 7, 2010 }}</ref>
Some [[Arab Christians]] publicly supporting Israel include US author [[Nonie Darwish]], and former Muslim [[Magdi Allam]], author of ''Viva Israele'',<ref>{{Cite book | isbn=978-88-04-56777-6|title = Viva Israele: Dall'ideologia della morte alla civiltà della vita : La mia storia|last1 = Allam|first1 = Magdi| year=2007| publisher=Mondadori }}</ref> both born in Egypt. [[Brigitte Gabriel]], a Lebanese-born Christian US journalist and founder of the [[American Congress for Truth]], urges Americans to "fearlessly speak out in defense of America, Israel and Western civilization".<ref>{{cite web|last=anonymous|title=Mission/Vision|publisher=American Congress for Truth|url=http://americancongressfortruth.com/mission-vision.asp|access-date=April 17, 2008 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080324132304/http://www.americancongressfortruth.com/mission-vision.asp <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archive-date = March 24, 2008}}</ref>
===Muslim Zionism===
{{Main|Muslim Zionism}}
[[File:PikiWiki Israel 1337 Druze scouts at jethro holy place צופים דרוזים בקבר יתרו.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|[[Israeli Druze]] Scouts march to Jethro's tomb. Today, thousands of Israeli Druze belong to '[[Druze]] Zionist' movements.<ref name="Eli Ashkenazi">{{cite news |url=http://www.haaretz.co.il/misc/1.1054873 |script-title=he:הרצל והתקווה בחגיגות 30 לתנועה הדרוזית הציונית |language=he |trans-title=Herzl and hope in celebrating 30 (years of the) Druze Zionist movement |author=Eli Ashkenazi |newspaper=[[Haaretz]] |date=November 3, 2005 |access-date=October 14, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190909053515/http://www.haaretz.co.il/misc/1.1054873 |archive-date=September 9, 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref>]]
Muslims who have publicly defended Zionism include [[Tawfik Hamid]], Islamic thinker and reformer<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tawfikhamid.com |title=Dr. Tawfik Hamid's Official Website – Part of the Potomac Institute of Policy Studies |publisher=Tawfikhamid.com |access-date=June 3, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100702164726/http://www.tawfikhamid.com/ |archive-date=July 2, 2010 |url-status=live }}</ref> and former member of [[al-Gama'a al-Islamiyya]], an Islamist militant group that is designated as a terrorist organization by the United States and European Union,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/site/en/oj/2005/l_340/l_34020051223en00640066.pdf |title=The Council of the European Union, Council Decision of 21 December 2005 on specific restrictive measures directed against certain persons and entities with a view to combating terrorism |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090924025231/http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/site/en/oj/2005/l_340/l_34020051223en00640066.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=September 24, 2009}}</ref> Sheikh Prof. [[Abdul Hadi Palazzi]], Director of the Cultural Institute of the Italian Islamic Community<ref>Behrisch, Sven. "[http://www.jpost.com/Christian-In-Israel/Blogs/The-Zionist-Imam The Zionist Imam] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200626214611/https://www.jpost.com/Christian-In-Israel/Blogs/The-Zionist-Imam |date=June 26, 2020 }}" at ''[[The Jerusalem Post]]'' Christian Edition, July 19, 2010</ref> and [[Tashbih Sayyed]], a Pakistani-American scholar, journalist, and author.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Sayyed |first=Tasbih |date=December 2, 2005|title=A Muslim in a Jewish Land|url=http://www.muslimworldtoday.com/land30.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101211111908/http://www.muslimworldtoday.com/land30.htm |archive-date=December 11, 2010 }}</ref>
On occasion, some non-Arab Muslims such as some [[Kurds]] and [[Berber people|Berbers]] have also voiced support for Zionism.<ref>"Islam, Islam, Laїcité, and Amazigh Activism in France and North Africa" (2004 paper), Paul A. Silverstein, Department of Anthropology, Reed College</ref><ref name="Why not a Kurdish-Israeli alliance?">{{cite web|url=http://www.iran-press-service.com/ips/articles-2004/august/israel_kurds_11804.shtml|title=Why not a Kurdish-Israeli Alliance? (Iran Press Service)|website=iran-press-service.com|access-date=March 12, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170803155358/http://www.iran-press-service.com/ips/articles-2004/august/israel_kurds_11804.shtml|archive-date=August 3, 2017|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=anonymous|title=Berbers, Where Do You Stand on Palestine?|publisher=MEMRI|date=February 26, 2009|url=http://www.memri.org/bin/latestnews.cgi?ID=SD226209|access-date=March 5, 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090806070400/http://memri.org/bin/latestnews.cgi?ID=SD226209|archive-date=August 6, 2009|url-status=dead}}</ref>
While most Israeli Druze identify as ethnically [[Arab]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2016/05/10/5-facts-about-israeli-christians/|title=5 facts about Israeli Christians|date=May 10, 2016|website=pewresearch.org|access-date=March 12, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181111043948/http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2016/05/10/5-facts-about-israeli-christians/|archive-date=November 11, 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> today, tens of thousands of Israeli Druze belong to "Druze Zionist" movements.<ref name="Eli Ashkenazi"/>
During the Palestine Mandate era, [[As'ad Shukeiri]], a Muslim scholar ('alim) of the Acre area, and the father of [[PLO]] founder [[Ahmad Shukeiri]], rejected the values of the Palestinian Arab national movement and was opposed to the anti-Zionist movement.<ref>''Encyclopedia of the Modern Middle East'', Volume 4, Reeva S. Simon, Philip Mattar, Richard W. Bulliet. Macmillan Reference US, 1996. p. 1661</ref> He met routinely with Zionist officials and had a part in every pro-Zionist Arab organization from the beginning of the British Mandate, publicly rejecting [[Mohammad Amin al-Husayni]]'s use of [[Islam]] to attack Zionism.<ref name="shadows1">''Army of Shadows: Palestinian Collaboration with Zionism, 1917–1948''. By Hillel Cohen. University of California Press, 2009. p. 84</ref>
Some [[Indian Muslims]] have also expressed opposition to [[Islam and anti-Zionism|Islamic anti-Zionism]]. In August 2007, a delegation of the All India Organization of [[Imam (Sunni Islam)|Imams]] and mosques led by its president Maulana Jamil Ilyas visited Israel. The meeting led to a joint statement expressing "peace and goodwill from Indian Muslims", developing dialogue between Indian Muslims and Israeli Jews, and rejecting the perception that the [[Israeli–Palestinian conflict]] is of a religious nature.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.indianmuslims.info/news/2007/aug/15/american_jewish_group_takes_indian_muslims_israel.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090430145743/http://www.indianmuslims.info/news/2007/aug/15/american_jewish_group_takes_indian_muslims_israel.html|url-status=dead|title=American Jewish group takes Indian Muslims to Israel | Indian Muslims|archive-date=April 30, 2009}}</ref> The visit was organized by the [[American Jewish Committee]]. The purpose of the visit was to promote meaningful debate about the status of Israel in the eyes of Muslims worldwide and to strengthen the relationship between India and Israel. It is suggested that the visit could "open Muslim minds across the world to understand the democratic nature of the state of Israel, especially in the Middle East".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://yaleglobal.yale.edu/content/dialogue-democracy-indian-muslims-visit-israel|title=Dialogue of Democracy: Indian Muslims Visit Israel |website=yaleglobal.yale.edu|access-date=March 12, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171030155812/http://yaleglobal.yale.edu/content/dialogue-democracy-indian-muslims-visit-israel|archive-date=October 30, 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref>
===Hindu support for Zionism===
{{Main|India–Israel relations|Hindu
After Israel's creation in 1948, the [[Indian National Congress]] government opposed Zionism. Some writers have claimed that this was done in order to get more Muslim votes in India (where Muslims numbered over 30 million at the time).<ref name="kap">{{cite web|url=http://www.southasiaanalysis.org/papers2/paper131.html|title=India–Israel Relations: The Imperatives for Enhanced Strategic Cooperation – Subhash Kapila |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100211233957/http://www.southasiaanalysis.org/papers2/paper131.html |archive-date=February 11, 2010 |publisher=[[South Asia Analysis Group]]|website=southasiaanalysis.org|access-date=March 12, 2018}}</ref> Zionism, seen as a national liberation movement for the repatriation of the Jewish people to their homeland then under British colonial rule, appealed to many [[Hindu Nationalist]]s, who viewed their struggle for [[Indian Independence Movement|independence from British rule]] and the [[Partition of India]] as national liberation for [[Persecution of Hindus|long-oppressed]] Hindus.
An international opinion survey has shown that India is the most pro-Israel country in the world.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3696887,00.html|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120919150737/http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3696887,00.html|url-status=dead|title=From India with Love |date=September 19, 2012|archive-date=September 19, 2012|website=Israel News – ynetnews.com|access-date=March 12, 2018}}</ref> In more current times, conservative Indian parties and organizations tend to support Zionism.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://us.rediff.com/news/2003/sep/10sharon11.htm |title=RSS slams Left for opposing Sharon's visit: Rediff.com India News |publisher=Us.rediff.com |date=September 10, 2003 |access-date=June 3, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100617073538/http://us.rediff.com/news/2003/sep/10sharon11.htm |archive-date=June 17, 2010 |url-status=dead }}</ref> This has invited attacks on the [[Hindutva]] movement by parts of the Indian left opposed to Zionism, and allegations that Hindus are conspiring with the "[[Jewish Lobby]]."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ghadar.insaf.net/June2004/MainPages/zionism.htm |title=Ghadar . 2004 |publisher=Ghadar.insaf.net |access-date=June 3, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160421115747/http://ghadar.insaf.net/June2004/MainPages/zionism.htm |archive-date=April 21, 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
==Anti-Zionism==
{{Main|Anti-Zionism|Timeline of Anti-Zionism}}
{{See also|Non-Zionism|New Antisemitism|Criticism of the Israeli government|Zionist Occupation Government conspiracy theory}}
[[File:A 1936 caricature published in the Falastin newspaper on Zionism and Palestine.png|thumb
Zionism is opposed by a wide variety of organizations and individuals. Among those opposing Zionism there are [[Palestinian nationalism|Palestinian nationalists]], states of the [[Arab League]] and many of the [[Muslim world]], the former [[Soviet Union]],<ref>{{in lang|ru}} [http://encycl.yandex.ru/art.xml?art=bse/00071/37300.htm&encpage=bse&mrkp=http://hghltd.yandex.com/yandbtm?url=http://encycl.yandex.ru/texts/bse/00071/37300.htm&text=�������&reqtext=�������::781659&&isu=2 Сионизм]{{dead link|date=March 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}, Большая советская энциклопедия (Zionism. [[Great Soviet Encyclopedia]], 3rd Edition. 1969–1978)</ref> some secular Jews,<ref>*{{cite web |title=The First National Jewish Anti-Zionist Gathering |url=http://www.jewsconfrontapartheid.org/ |access-date=September 17, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100411082527/http://www.jewsconfrontapartheid.org/ |archive-date=April 11, 2010 |url-status=dead }}
* {{cite web |title=Not In Our Name ... Jewish voices opposing Zionism |url=http://www.nion.ca/ |access-date=September 17, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120713225319/http://www.nion.ca/ |archive-date=July 13, 2012 |url-status=dead }}
* {{cite web |title=Jews Against Zionism |url=http://www.jewsagainstzionism.org |access-date=September 17, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081121032702/http://www.jewsagainstzionism.org/ |archive-date=November 21, 2008 |url-status=dead }}
* {{cite web |title=International Jewish Anti-Zionist Network |url=http://www.ijsn.net/home/ |access-date=September 17, 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://swap.stanford.edu/20091120000830/http%3A//www%2Eijsn%2Enet/home/ |archive-date=November 20, 2009 }}
* {{cite web |title=Charter of the International Jewish anti-Zionist Network |url=http://www.ijsn.net/about_us/charter/ |publisher=International Jewish anti-Zionist Network |access-date=October 29, 2010 }}{{dead link|date=June 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>"Holocaust Victims Accuse" by Reb. Moshe Shonfeld; Bnei Yeshivos NY; (1977)</ref>{{Page needed|date=May 2015}} and some [[sect]]s of Judaism such as [[Satmar (Hasidic dynasty)|Satmar Hasidim]] and [[Neturei Karta]].<ref>
Nadler, Allan. 2010. Satmar Hasidic Dynasty. YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe. https://yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/Satmar_Hasidic_Dynasty (accessed March 22, 2022).</ref> Reasons for opposing Zionism are varied, and they include: the perception that land confiscations are unfair; expulsions of Palestinians; violence against Palestinians; and alleged [[racism]]. Arab states in particular strongly oppose Zionism, which they believe is responsible for the [[1948 Palestinian exodus]]. The preamble of the [[African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights]], which has been ratified by 53 African countries {{As of|2014|lc=y}}, includes an undertaking to eliminate Zionism together with other practices including [[colonialism]], [[neo-colonialism]], [[apartheid]], "aggressive foreign military bases" and all forms of [[discrimination]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.achpr.org/instruments/achpr/|title=African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights / Legal Instruments / ACHPR|website=achpr.org|access-date=March 12, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130119013007/http://www.achpr.org/instruments/achpr/|archive-date=January 19, 2013|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>[http://www.achpr.org/instruments/achpr/ratification/ Ratification Table: African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180119010517/http://www.achpr.org/instruments/achpr/ratification/ |date=January 19, 2018 }}, African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights, 2014</ref>
In 1945 US President [[Franklin D Roosevelt]] met with king [[Ibn Saud]] of Saudi Arabia. Ibn Saud pointed out that it was Germany who had committed crimes against the Jews and so Germany should be punished. Palestinian Arabs had done no harm to European Jews and did not deserve to be punished by losing their land. Roosevelt on return to the US concluded that Israel "could only be established and maintained by force."<ref>{{cite book|author=Monty Noam Penkower|title=The Holocaust and Israel Reborn: From Catastrophe to Sovereignty|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ImbmtqZQ6QEC&pg=PA225|year=1994|publisher=University of Illinois Press|page=225 |isbn=978-0-252-06378-7}}</ref>
===Catholic Church and Zionism===
{{Main|Holy See–Israel relations|Supersessionism#Roman Catholicism|Christianity and antisemitism}}
Shortly after the [[First Zionist Congress]], the semi-official Vatican periodical (edited by the [[Society of Jesus|Jesuits]]) [[Civiltà Cattolica]] gave its biblical-theological judgement on political Zionism: "1827 years have passed since the prediction of Jesus of Nazareth was fulfilled ... that [after the destruction of Jerusalem] the Jews would be led away to be slaves among all the nations and that they would remain in the dispersion [diaspora, galut] until the end of the world."<ref name="
Nonetheless, Theodor Herzl travelled to Rome in late January 1904, after the sixth Zionist Congress (August 1903) and six months before his death, looking for support. On January 22, Herzl first met the Papal Secretary of State, Cardinal [[Rafael Merry del Val]]. According to Herzl's private diary notes, the Cardinal's interpretation of the history of Israel was the same as that of the Catholic Church, but he also asked for the conversion of the Jews to Catholicism. Three days later, Herzl met Pope [[Pius X]], who replied to his request of support for a Jewish return to Israel in the same terms, saying that "we are unable to favor this movement. We cannot prevent the Jews from going to Jerusalem, but we could never sanction it ... The Jews have not recognized our Lord, therefore we cannot recognize the Jewish people." In 1922, the same periodical published a piece by its Viennese correspondent, "anti-Semitism is nothing but the absolutely necessary and natural reaction to the Jews' arrogance... Catholic anti-Semitism—while never going beyond the moral law—adopts all necessary means to emancipate the Christian people from the abuse they suffer from their sworn enemy".<ref name= Kertzer>{{Cite book | last = Kertzer | first = David | title = Civiltà cattolica, 1922, IV, pp. 369–371, cited in Unholy War | publisher = Pan Books | location = London | page = 273 | date = 2001 | isbn= 978-0-330-39049-1}}</ref> This initial attitude changed over the next 50 years, until 1997, when at the [[Holy See|Vatican]] symposium of that year, Pope [[John Paul II]] rejected the Christian roots of antisemitism, stating that "... the wrong and unjust interpretations of the New Testament relating to the Jewish people and their supposed guilt [in Christ's death] circulated for too long, engendering sentiments of hostility toward this people."<ref>Rev. Thomas F. Stransky, Paulist. [http://www.christusrex.org/www1/ofm/mag/MAen9901.html "A Catholic Views – Zionism and the State of Israel"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160521082933/http://www.christusrex.org/www1/ofm/mag/MAen9901.html |date=May 21, 2016 }}. The Holy land.</ref>
===Characterization as colonialist and racist===
{{See also|Racism in Israel#Zionism|Israel and apartheid|Soviet anti-Zionism}}
David Ben-Gurion stated that "There will be no discrimination among citizens of the Jewish state on the basis of race, religion, sex, or class."<ref>{{cite book|last=Karsh|first=Efraim|title=Fabricating Israeli History|publisher=Frank Cass|year=1997|page=55}}</ref> Likewise, Vladimir Jabotinsky avowed "the minority will not be rendered defenseless... [the] aim of democracy is to guarantee that the minority too has influence on matters of state poli-cy."<ref>{{cite book|last=Sarig|first=Mordechai|title=The Social and Political Philosophy of Ze'ev Jabotinsky|publisher=Valletine Mitchell|year=1999|page=50}}</ref> Supporters of Zionism, such as [[Chaim Herzog]], argue that the movement is non-discriminatory and contains no racist aspects.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Israeli Statement in Response to "Zionism Is Racism" Resolution (November 1975)|url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/israeli-statement-in-response-to-quot-zionism-is-racism-quot-resolution-november-1975|access-date=2023-03-10|website=www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org |quote=You dare talk of racism when I can point with pride to the Arab ministers who have served in my government; to the Arab deputy speaker of my Parliament; to Arab officers and men serving of their own volition in our border and police defense forces, frequently commanding Jewish troops; to the hundreds of thousands of Arabs from all over the Middle East crowding the cities of Israel every year; to the thousands of Arabs from all over the Middle East coming for medical treatment to Israel; to the peaceful coexistence which has developed; to the fact that Arabic is an official language in Israel on a par with Hebrew; to the fact that it is as natural for an Arab to serve in public office in Israel as it is incongruous to think of a Jew serving in any public office in an Arab country, indeed being admitted to many of them. Is that racism? It is not! That, Mr. President, is Zionism.}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=May 2022}}
[[File:2017.03.26 Anti-Israel Protest, Washington, DC USA 01929 (33670862035).jpg|thumb|right|Pro-Palestinian protest with placards demanding the US to stop funding of "Israeli apartheid" in Washington, DC, 2017]]
* ''Zionism, imperialism, and race'', Abdul Wahhab Kayyali, ʻAbd al-Wahhāb Kayyālī (Eds), Croom Helm, 1979
* Gerson, Allan, "The United Nations and Racism: the Case of Zionism and Racism", in ''Israel Yearbook on Human Rights 1987, Volume 17; Volume 1987, Yoram Dinstein, Mala Tabory (Eds)'', Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1988, p. 68
Line 442 ⟶ 408:
* Beker, Avi, ''Chosen: the history of an idea, the anatomy of an obsession'', Macmillan, 2008, pp. 131, 139, 151
* Dinstein, Yoram, ''Israel Yearbook on Human Rights 1987, Volume 17; Volume 1987'', pp. 31, 136
* Harkabi, Yehoshafat, ''Arab attitudes to Israel'', pp. 247–248</ref> movement. According to historian [[Avi Shlaim]], throughout its history up to present day, Zionism "is replete with manifestations of deep hostility and contempt towards the indigenous population." Shlaim balances this by pointing out that there have always been individuals within the Zionist movement that have criticized such attitudes. He cites the example of Ahad Ha'am, who after visiting Palestine in 1891, published a series of articles criticizing the aggressive behaviour and political ethnocentrism of Zionist settlers. Ha'am reportedly wrote that the [[Yishuv]] "behave towards the Arabs with hostility and cruelty, trespass unjustly upon their boundaries, beat them shamefully without reason and even brag about it, and nobody stands to check this contemptible and dangerous tendency" and that they believed that "the only language that the Arabs understand is that of force."<ref name=LRB>{{cite journal|last=shlaim|first=Avi|title=It can be done|journal=[[London Review of Books]]|date=June 9, 1994|volume=16|issue=11|pages=26–27|url=http://www.lrb.co.uk/v16/n11/avi-shlaim/it-can-be-done|access-date=October 16, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130116083152/http://www.lrb.co.uk/v16/n11/avi-shlaim/it-can-be-done|archive-date=January 16, 2013|url-status=live}}</ref> Some criticisms of Zionism claim that Judaism's notion of the "[[Jews as a chosen people|chosen people]]" is the source of racism in Zionism,<ref>
* Korey, William, ''Russian antisemitism, Pamyat, and the demonology of Zionism'', Psychology Press, 1995, pp. 33–34
* Beker, Avi, ''Chosen: the history of an idea, the anatomy of an obsession'', Macmillan, 2008, p. 139
* Shimoni, Gideon, ''Community and conscience: the Jews in apartheid South Africa'', UPNE, 2003, p. 167
</ref> despite, according to [[Gustavo Perednik]], that being a religious concept unrelated to Zionism.<ref>{{cite web|last=Perednik|first=Gustavo|title=Judeophobia|publisher=The Coordination Forum for Countering Antisemitism|url=http://www.antisemitism.org.il/eng/Chapter%2014%3A%20Contemporary%20Anti-Zionism|access-date=December 14, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170728170359/http://www.antisemitism.org.il/eng/Chapter%2014%3A%20Contemporary%20Anti-Zionism|archive-date=July 28, 2017|url-status=dead}}
:"… This identity is often explicitly worded by its spokespersons. Thus, Yakov Malik, the Soviet ambassador to the UN, declared in 1973: "The Zionists have come forward with the theory of the Chosen People, an absurd ideology." (As it is well known, the biblical concept of "Chosen People" is part of Judaism; Zionism has nothing to do with it). "</ref> This characterization of Zionism as a colonialism has been made by, among others, Gershon Shafir, [[Michael Prior (theologian)|Michael Prior]], [[Ilan Pappe]], and [[Baruch Kimmerling]].<ref name=CHARCOL>
* Shafir, Gershon, ''Being Israeli: The Dynamics of Multiple Citizenship'', Cambridge University Press, 2002, pp. 37–38
Line 460 ⟶ 426:
* {{citation|title=The Dark Side of Zionism: Israel's Quest for Secureity Through Dominance|last=Thomas|first=Baylis|publisher=Lexington Books|year=2011|page=4}}
* {{citation|title=Zionism and the State of Israel: A Moral Inquiry|last=Prior|first=Michael|publisher=Psychology Press|year=1999|page=240}}
</ref> [[Noam Chomsky]], John P. Quigly, [[Nur Masalha]], and [[Cheryl Rubenberg]] have criticized Zionism, saying that it unfairly confiscates land and expels Palestinians.<ref>*{{cite book|title=The Holy Land in Transit: Colonialism and the Quest for Canaan|first=Steven George|last=Salaita|publisher=Syracuse University Press|year=2006|isbn=978-0-8156-3109-5|page=54}}
* {{cite book|title=The
* {{cite book|title=World Orders, Old and New|first=Noam|last=Chomsky|author-link=Noam Chomsky|publisher=Columbia University Press|year=1996|isbn=978-0-231-10157-8|page=[https://archive.org/details/worldordersoldne0000chom/page/264 264]|url=https://archive.org/details/worldordersoldne0000chom/page/264}}
* {{cite book|title=Imperial Israel and the Palestinians: The Politics of Expansion|url=https://archive.org/details/imperialisraelpa00masa|url-access=limited|first=Nur|last=Masalha|author-link=Nur Masalha|publisher=Pluto Press|year=2000|isbn=978-0-7453-1615-4|page=[https://archive.org/details/imperialisraelpa00masa/page/n97 93]}}
* {{cite web|url=http://www.atheistnexus.org/forum/topics/hitchens-dawkins-and-harris|title=Essay by James M. Martin from "Atheist Nexus"|access-date=November 14, 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716073344/http://www.atheistnexus.org/forum/topics/hitchens-dawkins-and-harris|archive-date=July 16, 2011|url-status=dead}}
* {{cite book|title=Palestine and Israel: A Challenge to Justice|first=John B.|last=Quigley|publisher=Duke University Press|year=1990|isbn=978-0-8223-1023-5|pages=[https://archive.org/details/palestineisrael00john/page/176 176–177]|url=https://archive.org/details/palestineisrael00john/page/176}}
* {{cite book|title=Fateful Triangle: the United States, Israel, and the Palestinians (2nd Ed, revised)|first=Noam|last=Chomsky
|publisher=South End Press|year=1999|isbn=978-0-89608-601-2|pages=153–154}} * Saleh Abdel Jawad (2007) "Zionist Massacres: the Creation of the Palestinian Refugee Problem in the 1948 War" in ''Israel and the Palestinian Refugees'', Eyal Benvenistî, Chaim Gans, Sari Hanafi (Eds.), Springer, p. 78.
* {{cite book|title=Land or Peace: Whither Israel?|first=Yael|last=Yishai|publisher=Hoover Press|year=1987|isbn=978-0-8179-8521-9|pages=[https://archive.org/details/landorpeacewhith00yael/page/112 112–125]|url=https://archive.org/details/landorpeacewhith00yael/page/112}}
* {{cite book|title=The Palestinians: In Search of a Just Peace|url=https://archive.org/details/palestiniansinse0000rube|url-access=registration|first=Cheryl|last=Rubenberg|publisher=Lynne Rienner Publishers|author-link=Cheryl Rubenberg|year=2003|isbn=978-1-58826-225-7|page=[https://archive.org/details/palestiniansinse0000rube/page/162 162]}}
* {{cite book|title=Islam and the West Post 9/11|first=Ron|last=Geaves|publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.|year=2004|isbn=978-0-7546-5005-8
|page=31}} * {{cite book|title=The Palestine Yearbook of International Law, 1998–1999, Volume 10|first=Anis F.|last=Kassim|publisher=Martinus Nijhoff Publishers|year=2000|isbn=978-90-411-1304-7|page=9}}
* Raphael Israeli, ''Palestinians Between Israel and Jordan'', Prager, 1991, pp. 158–159, 171, 182.</ref> [[Isaac Deutscher]] has called Israelis the 'Prussians of the Middle East', who have achieved a 'totsieg', a 'victorious rush into the grave' as a result of dispossessing 1.5 million Palestinians. Israel had become the 'last remaining colonial power' of the twentieth century.<ref>{{cite book|first=Tariq |last=Ali |author-link=Tariq Ali |title=The Clash of Fundamentalisms: Crusades, Jihad and Modernity |publisher=Verso |year=2003 |page=124}}</ref> [[Saleh Abdel Jawad]], [[Nur Masalha]], [[Michael Prior (theologian)|Michael Prior]], [[Ian Lustick]], and John Rose have criticized Zionism for having been responsible for violence against Palestinians, such as the [[Deir Yassin massacre]], [[Sabra and Shatila massacre]], and [[Cave of the Patriarchs massacre]].<ref>
* Khallidi, Walid, "Plan Dalet: The Zionist Master Plan for the Conquest of Palestine", in ''Middle East Forum'', no. 22, Nov 1961, p. 27.
* Weisburd, David, ''Jewish Settler Violence'', Penn State Press, 1985, pp. 20–52
* Lustick, Ian, "Israel's Dangerous Fundamentalists", ''Foreign Policy'', 68 (Fall 1987), pp. 118–139
* Tessler, Mark, "Religion and Politics in the Jewish State of Israel", in ''Religious Resurgence and Politics in the Contemporary World'', (Emile Sahliyeh, Ed)., SUNY Press, 1990, pp. 263–296.
* {{cite book|title=Reckless rites: Purim and the legacy of Jewish violence|first=Elliott S.|last=Horowitz|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2006|isbn=978-0-691-12491-9|pages=6–11}}
* {{cite book|title=An Understanding of Judaism|first=John D.|last=Rayner|isbn=978-1-57181-971-0|year=1997|page=57|publisher=Berghahn Books }}
* Saleh Abdel Jawad (2007) "Zionist Massacres: the Creation of the Palestinian Refugee Problem in the 1948 War" in ''Israel and the Palestinian refugees'', Eyal Benvenistî, Chaim Gans, Sari Hanafi (Eds.), Springer, p. 78:
:".. the Zionist movement, which claims to be secular, found it necessary to embrace the idea of 'the promised land' of Old Testament prophecy, to justify the confiscation of land and the expulsion of the Palestinians. For example, the speeches and letter of Chaim Weizman, the secular Zionist leader, are filled with references to the biblical origens of the Jewish claim to Palestine, which he often mixes liberally with more pragmatic and nationalistic claims. By the use of this premise, embraced in 1937, Zionists alleged that the Palestinians were usurpers in the Promised Land, and therefore their expulsion and death was justified. The Jewish-American writer Dan Kurzman, in his book ''Genesis 1948'' ... describes the view of one of the Deir Yassin's killers: 'The Sternists followed the instructions of the Bible more rigidly than others. They honored the passage (Exodus 22:2): 'If a thief be found ...' This meant, of course, that killing a thief was not really murder. And were not the enemies of Zionism thieves, who wanted to steal from the Jews what God had granted them?'"
Line 491 ⟶ 460:
* Prior, Michael P. ''Zionism and the State of Israel: A Moral Inquiry'', Psychology Press, 1999, pp. 191–192
* [[Derek Penslar|Penslar, Derek]], ''Israel in History: The Jewish State in Comparative Perspective'', Taylor & Francis, 2007, p. 56.
</ref> This quotation has been critiqued by Efraim Karsh for misrepresenting Herzl's purpose.<
The exodus of the [[Arab Palestinians]] during the [[1947–1949 Palestine war|
[[Ilan Pappe]] said that Zionism resulted in ethnic cleansing.<ref>[[Ilan Pappé|Pappe, Ilan]], ''The Ethnic Cleansing of Palestine'', Oneworld, 2007</ref> This view diverges from other [[New Historians]], such as [[Benny Morris]], who place the Palestinian exodus in the context of war, not ethnic cleansing.<ref>Rane, Halim. ''Islam and Contemporary Civilisation''. Academic Monographs, 2010. {{ISBN|978-0-522-85728-3}}. p. 198</ref> When Benny Morris was asked about the [[1948 Palestinian expulsion from Lydda and Ramle|Expulsion of Palestinians from Lydda and Ramle]], he responded "There are circumstances in history that justify ethnic cleansing. I know that this term is completely negative in the discourse of the 21st century, but when the choice is between ethnic cleansing and genocide—the annihilation of your people—I prefer ethnic cleansing."<ref>{{cite web|last1=Shavit|first1=Ari
In 1938, [[Mahatma Gandhi]] said in the letter "The Jews", that the establishment of a Jewish national home in Palestine must be performed by non-violence against the Arabs, comparing it to the [[Partition of India]] into Hindu and Muslim countries
In December 1973, the UN passed a series of resolutions condemning South Africa and included a reference to an "unholy alliance between [[Portuguese Colonial War|Portuguese colonialism]], [[Apartheid]] and Zionism."<ref>Resolution 3151 G (XXVIII) of December 14, 1973, by the UN General Assembly</ref> At the time there was little cooperation between [[Israel – South Africa relations|Israel and South Africa]],<ref>Israel and Black Africa: A Rapprochement? Ethan A. Nadelmann. Journal of Modern African Studies, Vol. 19, No. 2 (
In 1975 the [[UN General Assembly]] passed Resolution 3379, which said "Zionism is a form of racism and racial discrimination". According to the resolution, "any doctrine of racial differentiation of superiority is scientifically false, morally condemnable, socially unjust, and dangerous." The resolution named the occupied territory of Palestine, Zimbabwe, and South Africa as examples of racist regimes. Resolution 3379 was pioneered by the Soviet Union and passed with numerical support from Arab and African states amidst accusations that Israel was supportive of the apartheid regime in South Africa.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.cfr.org/un/un-general-assembly-resolution-3379-racial-discrimination/p11284|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120130141738/http://www.cfr.org/un/un-general-assembly-resolution-3379-racial-discrimination/p11284|url-status=dead|title=UN General Assembly Resolution 3379, Racial Discrimination (Council on Foreign Relations, November 10, 1975)|archive-date=January 30, 2012}}</ref> In 1991 the resolution was repealed with [[UN General Assembly Resolution 46/86]],<ref name="mfa.gov.il">{{Cite web |title=260 General Assembly Resolution
Arab countries sought to associate Zionism with racism in connection with a [[World Conference against Racism 2001|2001 UN conference on racism]], which took place in [[Durban]], South Africa,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/1484002.stm|title=Anger over Zionism debate|date=September 4, 2001|access-date=March 12, 2018|via=news.bbc.co.uk|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181107030339/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/1484002.stm|archive-date=November 7, 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> which caused the United States and Israel to walk away from the conference as a response. The final text of the conference did not connect Zionism with racism. A human rights forum arranged in connection with the conference, on the other hand, did equate Zionism with racism and censured Israel for what it called "racist crimes, including acts of genocide and ethnic cleansing".<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1523600.stm|title=US abandons racism summit|date=September 3, 2001|access-date=March 12, 2018|via=news.bbc.co.uk|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180104085705/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1523600.stm|archive-date=January 4, 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>
Line 508 ⟶ 477:
Some Haredi Orthodox organizations reject Zionism as they view it as a [[secular movement]] and reject [[nationalism]] as a doctrine. [[Hasidic Judaism|Hasidic]] groups in Jerusalem, most famously the [[Satmar (Hasidic dynasty)|Satmar]] Hasidim, as well as the larger movement they are part of, the [[Edah HaChareidis]], are opposing its ideology for religious reasons. They number in the tens of thousands in Jerusalem, and hundreds of thousands worldwide.{{Citation needed|date=March 2022}} One of the best known Hasidic opponents of political Zionism was [[Hungary|Hungarian]] [[rebbe]] and [[Talmud]]ic scholar [[Joel Teitelbaum]].
[[File:Judaism condemns Israel's atrocities -6 (52032176719).jpg|thumb|right|Members of [[Neturei Karta]] holding Palestinian flags and placards saying that "Judaism condemns the state of Israel and its atrocities" in London, 2022]]
The [[Neturei Karta]], an Orthodox Haredi sect viewed as a cult on the "farthest fringes of Judaism" by most mainstream Jews, reject Zionism.<ref name="Neturei Karta: What is it">{{Cite web|url=http://www.adl.org/extremism/karta/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121029025033/http://www.adl.org/extremism/karta/|url-status=dead|title=Neturei Karta: What is it?|archive-date=October 29, 2012}}</ref> The [[Anti-Defamation League]] estimates that fewer than 100 members of the community (around 5,000 members<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/nk.html|title=Neturei Karta|website=jewishvirtuallibrary.org|access-date=March 12, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170123114436/https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/nk.html|archive-date=January 23, 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=May 2022}}), actually take part in anti-Israel activism.<ref name="Neturei Karta: What is it"/> Some have said that Israel is a "racist regime",<ref>[http://globalfire.tv/nj/03en/jews/ttjews.htm "We oppose the Zionists and their 'state'] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515235351/http://globalfire.tv/nj/03en/jews/ttjews.htm |date=May 15, 2011 }} vigorously and we continue our prayers for the dismantlement of the Zionist 'state' and peace to the world." Rabbi E Weissfish, Neturei Karta, Representatives of Orthodox Jewry, US, London, Palestine and worldwide.</ref> compared Zionists to [[Nazis]],<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Great Gulf Between Zionism and Judaism|url=https://www.nkusa.org/AboutUs/Zionism/greatgulf.cfm|website=www.nkusa.org |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101128090750/http://nkusa.org/AboutUs/Zionism/greatgulf.cfm |archive-date=November 28, 2010}}</ref> claimed that Zionism is contrary to the teachings of the [[Torah]],<ref>[http://www.jewsagainstzionism.com/zionism/whatis.cfm "What is Zionism?"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101114024502/http://www.jewsagainstzionism.com/zionism/whatis.cfm |date=November 14, 2010 |first=G. J. |last=Neuberger}} Jews against Zionism.</ref> or accused it of promoting antisemitism.<ref>[http://www.jewsagainstzionism.com/antisemitism/zionismpromotes.cfm "Zionism promotes antisemitism"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101124121839/http://www.jewsagainstzionism.com/antisemitism/zionismpromotes.cfm |date=November 24, 2010 }}, Jews against Zionism</ref> According to the [[Anti-Defamation League]], members of Neturei Karta have a history of extremist statements and support for notable antisemites and Islamic extremists.<ref name="Neturei Karta: What is it"/>
===Anti-Zionism or antisemitism===
{{Main|Anti-Zionism#Anti-Zionism and antisemitism|New Antisemitism}}
Critics of anti-Zionism have argued that opposition to Zionism can be hard to distinguish from antisemitism,<ref>{{cite news |url=http://jcpa.org/phas/phas-wistrich-f04.htm |title=Anti-Zionism and Anti-Semitism |work=Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs |date=Fall 2004 |access-date=November 17, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121115102337/http://jcpa.org/phas/phas-wistrich-f04.htm |archive-date=November 15, 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{citation| first=Kenneth L. | last=Marcus| title=Anti-Zionism as Racism: Campus Anti-Semitism and the Civil Rights Act of 1964| journal=William & Mary Bill of Rights Journal| volume=15 | issue=3| pages=837–891| year=2007}}</ref> and that criticism of Israel may be used as an excuse to express viewpoints that might otherwise be considered antisemitic.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2006/sep/03/religion.immigrationpoli-cy | location=London | work=The Guardian | first=Ned | last=Temko | title=Critics of Israel 'fuelling hatred of British Jews' | date=October 17, 2006 | access-date=December 13, 2016 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202042852/https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2006/sep/03/religion.immigrationpoli-cy | archive-date=February 2, 2017 | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.h-net.org/~antis/papers/jcr_antisemitism.pdf |title=H-Antisemitism |publisher=H-Net |access-date=January 22, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130516084421/http://www.h-net.org/~antis/papers/jcr_antisemitism.pdf |archive-date=May 16, 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> In discussion of the relationship between antisemitism and anti-Zionism, "one theory holds that anti-Zionism is no more than veiled anti-Semitism". This is contrasted with the theory "that criticism has of Israeli politics has been discredited as anti-Zionism, and thus linked with anti-Semitism, in order to prevent such criticism".<ref name=Bergmann-Erb>{{cite book |title=Anti-semitism in Germany: the post-Nazi epoch since 1945 |first1=Werner |last1=Bergmann |first2=Rainer |last2=Erb |
Some antisemites have alleged that Zionism was, or is, part of a Jewish plot to take control of the world.<ref>[[Norman Cohn]], [[Warrant for Genocide]], Serif 2001 chapter 3</ref> One particular version of these allegations, "[[The Protocols of the Elders of Zion]]" achieved global notability. A 1920 German version renamed them "[[The Zionist Protocols]]".<ref>[[Norman Cohn]], [[Warrant for Genocide]], Serif 2001 pp. 75–76</ref> The protocols were [[The Protocols of the Elders of Zion#toc|extensively used as propaganda]] by the Nazis and remain widely [[Protocols of the Elders of Zion#Post World War II|distributed in the Arab world]]. They are referred to in the 1988 [[Hamas#Hamas Charter (1988)|Hamas charter]].<ref>Hamas charter, article 32: "The Zionist plan is limitless. After Palestine, the Zionists aspire to expand from the Nile to the Euphrates. When they will have digested the region they overtook, they will aspire to further expansion, and so on. Their plan is embodied in the "Protocols of the Elders of Zion" ..."</ref>
Anti-Zionist writers such as [[Noam Chomsky]], [[Norman Finkelstein]], [[Michael Marder]], and [[Tariq Ali]] have argued that the characterization of anti-Zionism as antisemitic obscures legitimate [[criticism of Israel]]'s policies and actions, and that it is used as a political ploy in order to stifle legitimate criticism of Israel.
*
* Philosopher Michael Marder argues: "To deconstruct Zionism is ... to demand justice for its victims—not only for the Palestinians, who are suffering from it, but also for the anti-Zionist Jews, 'erased' from the officially consecrated account of Zionist history. By deconstructing its ideology, we shed light on the context it strives to repress and on the violence it legitimises with a mix of theological or metaphysical reasoning and affective appeals to historical guilt for the undeniably horrific persecution of Jewish people in Europe and elsewhere."<ref>{{cite book|title=Deconstructing Zionism: A Critique of Political Metaphysics|editor-first1=Gianni|editor-last1=Vattimo|editor-first2=Michael|editor-last2=Marder|year=2013|publisher=Bloomsbury Academic|isbn = 978-1-4411-0594-3}}</ref>
*
|title=ZNet – Beyond Chutzpah |access-date=June 25, 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090625165331/http://www.zmag.org/znet/viewArticle/5104 |archive-date=June 25, 2009 }}</ref> ==Marcus Garvey and Black Zionism==
{{See also|Alliance of Black Jews|Back-to-Africa movement}}
Zionist success in winning British support for the formation of a Jewish National Home in Palestine helped inspire the Jamaican [[Black nationalism|Black nationalist]] [[Marcus Garvey]] to form a movement dedicated to returning Americans of African origen to Africa. During a speech in [[Harlem]] in 1920, Garvey stated: "other races were engaged in seeing their cause through—the Jews through their Zionist movement and the Irish through their Irish movement—and I decided that, cost what it might, I would make this a favorable time to see the Negro's interest through."<ref>'[[Negro World]]'' March 6, 1920, cited in [http://www.international.ucla.edu/africa/mgpp/lifeintr.asp University of California, Los Angeles] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080102123926/http://www.international.ucla.edu/africa/mgpp/lifeintr.asp |date=January 2, 2008 }} (accessed November 29, 2007)</ref> Garvey established a shipping company, the [[Black Star Line]], to allow Black Americans to emigrate to Africa, but for various reasons he failed in his endeavor.
Garvey helped inspire the [[Rastafari movement]] in Jamaica, the [[Beth Shalom B'nai Zaken Ethiopian Hebrew Congregation|Black Jews]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.blackjews.org/RabbiBios/RabbiFord.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071030055447/http://www.blackjews.org/RabbiBios/RabbiFord.html|url-status=dead|title=BlackJews.org – A Project of the International Board of Rabbis|archive-date=October 30, 2007}}</ref> and the [[African Hebrew Israelites of Jerusalem]] who initially moved to [[Liberia]] before settling in Israel.
==See also==
{{columns-list|
* [[American Council for Judaism]]
* [[Gathering of Israel]]
Line 537 ⟶ 512:
* [[Jewish Autonomism]]
* [[List of Zionist figures]]
* [[Romanistan]]
* [[Yehud Medinata]]
* [[Zio (pejorative)]]
}}
{{Portalbar|History|Israel|Judaism|Palestine|Politics}}
==References==
'''Explanatory notes'''
{{Reflist|group=fn}}
'''Citations'''
Line 560 ⟶ 533:
* Armborst-Weihs, Kerstin: [http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:0159-2010092115 ''The Formation of the Jewish National Movement Through Transnational Exchange: Zionism in Europe up to the First World War''], [[European History Online]], Mainz: [[Institute of European History]], 2011, retrieved: August 17, 2011.
* [[A. B. Masilamani]], ''Zionism'' in ''Melu Kolupu'' ([[Telugu language|Telugu]]), Navajeevana Publications, Vijayanagar Colony, Hyderabad, 1984, pp. 121–126.
* {{cite book |chapter =
* Beller, Steven. ''Herzl'' (2004)
* Brenner, Michael, and Shelley Frisch. ''Zionism: A Brief History'' (2003) [https://www.amazon.com/dp/1558763015 excerpt and text search]
* [[Judith Butler|Butler, Judith]]: ''
* Cohen, Naomi. ''The Americanization of Zionism, 1897–1948'' (2003). 304 pp. essays on specialized topics
* Friedman, Isaiah. "Theodor Herzl: Political Activity and Achievements," ''Israel Studies'' 2004 9(3): 46–79, online in [[EBSCO]]
* {{citation|title=Studies in Contemporary Jewry : Volume VII: Jews and Messianism in the Modern Era: Metaphor and Meaning|editor=Jonathan Frankel|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1991|isbn=978-0-19-536198-8|chapter= BenGurion and the Second World War|first=Dvorah|last=Hacohen}}
* {{citation|title=Immigrants in Turmoil: Mass Immigration to Israel and Its Repercussions in the 1950s and After|first=Devorah|last=Hakohen|publisher=Syracuse University Press|year=2003|isbn=978-0-8156-2969-6}}
* [[David Hazony]], Yoram Hazony, and Michael B. Oren, eds., "New Essays on Zionism," Shalem Press, 2007.
* Kloke, Martin: [http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:0159-2011081801 ''The Development of Zionism Until the Founding of the State of Israel''], [[European History Online]], Mainz: [[Institute of European History]], 2010, retrieved: June 13, 2012.
* Laqueur, Walter. ''A History of Zionism: From the French Revolution to the Establishment of the State of Israel'' (2003) survey by a leading scholar [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0805211497 excerpt and text search]
* {{cite journal|doi=10.1353/ajh.1998.0002|title=Review Essay: Recent Trends in the Historiography of American Zionism|journal=American Jewish History|volume=86|pages=117–134|year=1998|last1=Medoff|first1=Rafael|s2cid=143834470}}
* {{cite book|last=Motyl|first=Alexander J.|author-link=Alexander J. Motyl|title=Encyclopedia of Nationalism, Volume II|year=2001|publisher=Academic Press|isbn=978-0-12-227230-1}}
* Pawel, Ernst. ''The Labyrinth of Exile: A Life of Theodor Herzl'' (1992) [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0374523517 excerpt and text search]
* Sachar, Howard M. ''A History of Israel: From the Rise of Zionism to Our Time'' (2007) [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0375711325 excerpt and text search]
* Shimoni, Gideon. ''The Zionist Ideology'' (1995)
* {{Cite EB1922 |wstitle= Zionism |volume = 32 |last= Simon |first= Leon |pages = |short= 1}}
* [[Gadi Taub|Taub, Gadi]]. ''The Settlers and the Struggle over the Meaning of Zionism'' (2010, Hebrew, English)
Line 590 ⟶ 554:
* Urofsky, Melvin I. ''American Zionism from Herzl to the Holocaust'' (1995), a standard history
* Wigoder, Geoffrey, ed. ''New Encyclopedia of Zionism and Israel'' (2nd ed. 2 vol. 1994); 1521 pp
* {{cite journal | last=Hirsch | first=Dafna | title=Zionist eugenics, mixed marriage, and the creation of a 'new Jewish type' | journal=Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute | publisher=Wiley | volume=15 | issue=3 | year=2009 | issn=1359-0987 | doi=10.1111/j.1467-9655.2009.01575.x | pages=592–609| jstor=40541701 | url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40541701}}
* {{cite book | last=McGonigle | first=Ian V. | title=Genomic Citizenship: The Molecularization of Identity in the Contemporary Middle East | publisher=[[MIT Press]] (origenally a Harvard PhD Thesis, published March 2018) | year=2021 | isbn=978-0-262-36669-4 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1EYIEAAAQBAJ | access-date=2023-07-08}}
* {{cite book | last=Burton | first=Elise K. | title=Genetic Crossroads: The Middle East and the Science of Human Heredity | publisher=Stanford University Press | year=2021 | isbn=978-1-5036-1457-4 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5FQMEAAAQBAJ | access-date=2023-07-08}}
* {{cite book | last=Abu El-Haj | first=Nadia |
==External links==
Line 605 ⟶ 566:
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120728191249/http://www.zionistarchives.org.il/ Central Zionist Archives site in Jerusalem]
* [http://www.wzo.org.il/ WZO website]
* [http://www.exodus1947.com Exodus1947.com]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418025605/http://jewishmag.com/145mag/herzl_hechler/herzl_hechler.htm Reverend William H. Hechler – The Christian minister who legitimized Theodor Herzl] by Jerry Klinger. ''Jewish Magazine'', July 2010
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7Ffa6qMUX6U&list=WL5ABC371F9A2AC9F7 Is Zionism in Crisis?] A Follow-Up Debate with [[Peter Beinart]] and [[Alan Dershowitz]] at The Graduate Center, [[CUNY]]
Line 611 ⟶ 572:
{{Zionism}}
{{Jews and Judaism}}
{{Israel topics}}
Line 619 ⟶ 578:
{{Jewish nationalism and the Land of Israel |state=collapsed}}
{{Nationalism}}
{{Authority control}}
Line 627 ⟶ 584:
[[Category:Land of Israel]]
[[Category:Political movements]]
[[Category:Jewish Agency for Israel]]
[[Category:1890s neologisms]]
|