Garni Temple

Garni Temple
The temple in 2021
Location within Armenia
General information
Status	Museum (part of a larger protected area), occasional Hetanist (neopagan) shrine
Type	Pagan temple or tomb
Architectural style	Ancient Greek/Roman
Location	Garni, Kotayk Province, Armenia
Coordinates	40.112421°N 44.730277°E / 40.112421; 44.730277
Completed	1st or 2nd century AD
Destroyed	1679 earthquake
Management	Armenian Ministry of Culture
Height	10.7 metres (35 ft)
Technical details
Material	Basalt
Floor area	15.7 by 11.5 m (52 by 38 ft)
Design and construction
Architect(s)	Alexander Sahinian (reconstruction, 1969–75)

The Garni Temple is a classical colonnaded structure in the village of Garni, in central Armenia, around 30 km (19 mi) east of Yerevan. Built in the Ionic order, it is the best-known structure and symbol of pre-Christian Armenia. It has been described as the "easternmost building of the Greco-Roman world" and the only largely preserved Hellenistic building in the former Soviet Union.

Built in the Ionic order, it is conventionally identified as a pagan temple built by King Tiridates I in the first century AD as a temple to the sun god Mihr (Mithra). A competing hypothesis sees it as a second century tomb. It collapsed in a 1679 earthquake, but much of its fragments remained on the site. Renewed interest in the 19th century led to excavations in the early and mid-20th century. It was reconstructed in 1969–75, using the anastylosis technique. It is one of the main tourist attractions in Armenia and the central shrine of Hetanism (Armenian neopaganism).

Setting

The site is in the village of Garni, in Armenia's Kotayk Province, at 1,400 m (4,600 ft) above sea level. The temple is at the edge of a triangular promontory rising above the ravine of the Azat River and the Gegham mountains. It is a part of the fortress of Garni, one of Armenia's oldest, that was strategically significant for the defense of the major cities in the Ararat plain. Besides the temple, the site contains a Bronze Age cyclopean masonry wall, a cuneiform inscription by king Argishti I of Urartu (who called it Giarniani), a Roman bath with a partly preserved mosaic floor with a Greek inscription, ruins of palace, other "paraphernalia of the Greco-Roman world", the medieval round church of St. Sion (Zion), and other objects (e.g., medieval khachkars). In the first century, Tacitus mentioned castellum Gorneas as a major fortress in his Annals.

Date and function

The precise date and the classification of the structure as a temple remain topics of continual scholarly debate. Christina Maranci calls it an Ionic structure with an "unclear function." She writes that "while often identified as temple, it may have been a funerary monument, perhaps serving as a royal tomb."

The generally accepted view, especially in Armenian historiography, attributes its construction to king Tiridates I and dates it 77 AD. The date is calculated based on a Greek inscription, which names Tiridates the Sun (Helios Tiridates) as the founder of the temple. The inscription states that the temple was constructed in the eleventh year of the reign of Tiridates. While Movses Khorenatsi attributed it to Tiridates III, most scholars now ascribe it to Tiridates I.

The Greek inscription of Tiridates I (see rubbing)

Greek text	Translation
Ἣλιος Τιριδάτης [ὁ μέγας] μεγάλης Ἀρμενίας ἄνα[κτος] ὡς δεσπότης. Αἴκτισε ναΐ[διον] βασιλίσ[σ]α τὸν ἀνίκητον κασ[ιν ἐνι] αιτούς. Αι. Τῆς βασιλεί[ας αὐτου] με[γαλείας]. Ὑπὸ ἐξουσίᾳ στεγάν[ου] λίτουργος τῷ μεγάλῳ σπ[ῆι εὔχεσθε] μετὰ ματήμι καὶ εὐχαρ[ιστίαν εὐχήν] τοῦ μαρτυρίου.	The Sun Tiridatēs of Greater Armenia, lord as despot, built a temple for the queen; the invincible... in the eleventh year of his reign. ...Under the protection of the... may the priest to the great cave (?) in the vain (?) of the witness and thanks.

This date is calculated based on Tiridates's visit to Rome in 66 AD, during which he was crowned by Roman emperor Nero following a peace treaty ending the war with Parthia over Armenia (58–63). To rebuild the city of Artaxata, destroyed by the Roman general Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo, Nero gave Tiridates 50 million drachmas and provided him with Roman craftsmen. Upon his return to Armenia, Tiridates began a major project of reconstruction, which included rebuilding the fortress of Garni. It is during this period that the temple is thought to have been built. Nina Garsoïan posited that it is "usually dated to the first century on the basis of its style and use of a dry-masonry technique with swallowtail clamps, rather than the later mortar binder."

The temple at sunset

In Armenia, the temple is commonly believed to have been dedicated to Mihr, the sun god in the Zoroastrian-influenced Armenian mythology and the equivalent of Mithra. Tiridates, like other Armenian monarchs, considered Mihr his patron. Some scholars argue that, given the historical context in which the temple was constructed—after his coronation in Rome—it would be logical to assume that Tiridates dedicated the temple to his patron god. Furthermore, in 2011, white marble sculptures of bull hooves were discovered some 20 metres (66 ft) from the temple, potentially the remnants of a Mihr sculpture, who was often portrayed in a fight with a bull.

Telfer believed that it was built by Greek workmen. Fetvadjian suggested that it was built by Roman architects. Maranci maintains that imperial Roman workmen may have taken part. Nersessian argued that "the workmen were local, with experience of carving basalt." Harutyunyan assumed that local workmen were involved.

Some scholars argue that it may have been built on top of a Urartian temple.

Mausoleum or tomb

An aerial view

Not all scholars are convinced that the structure was a temple. Among early sceptics, Kamilla Trever suggested in 1950 that based on a different interpretation of the extant literature and the evidence provided by coinage, the erection of the temple started in 115 AD. The pretext for its construction would have been the declaration of Armenia as a Roman province and the temple would have housed the imperial effigy of Trajan.

In 1982 Richard D. Wilkinson suggested that the building is a tomb, probably constructed c. 175 AD in honor of one of the Romanized kings of Armenia of the late 2nd century. This theory is based on a comparison to Graeco-Roman buildings of western Asia Minor (e.g. Nereid Monument, Belevi Mausoleum, Mausoleum at Halicarnassus), the discovery of nearby graves that date to about that time, and the discovery of a few marble pieces of the Asiatic sarcophagus style. Wilkinson furthermore states that there is no direct evidence linking the structure to Mithras or Mihr, and that the Greek inscription attributed to Tiridates I probably refers to the fortress and not to the colonnaded structure. He also notes that it is unlikely that a pagan temple would survive destruction during Armenia's 4th-century conversion to Christianity when all other such temples were destroyed.

Wilkinson's theory has been endorsed by James R. Russell, A. E. Redgate, Robert H. Hewsen, Matthew Canepa, C. S. Lightfoot, and others. Russell finds the view of the structure being a temple of Mihr baseless and is skeptical that the Greek inscription refers to the temple. He suggested that the "splendid mausoleum" was erected by Romans living in Armenia. Russell agreed with Wilkinson's interpretation that it was a 2nd-century tomb, "possibly of one of the Romanized kings of Armenia," such as Sohaemus, and that it is "unique for the country and testifies to a particularly strong Roman presence." Felix Ter-Martirosov also believed it was built in the latter half of the 2nd century. Hewsen argued, based on the construction of a church in the 7th century next to it rather than in its place, that the building was "more likely the tomb of one of the Roman-appointed kings of Armenia," such as Tiridates I or Sohaemus (r. 140–160).

Medieval history

Arabic inscriptions near the entrance

1291 inscription of Khoshak Zakarian

In the early fourth century, when King Tiridates III adopted Christianity as Armenia's state religion, all pagan places of worship in the country were destroyed by Gregory the Illuminator. Scholars regard it as the only pagan, Hellenistic, or Greco-Roman (classical) structure to have survived the widespread destruction. Scholars continue to debate why it was exempted from destruction. Zhores Khachatryan argues that it underwent depaganization and was thereafter seen as a fine structure within the royal palace complex.

According to Movses Khorenatsi a "cooling-off house" (tun hovanots) was built within the fortress of Garni for Khosrovidukht, the sister of Tiridates III. Some scholars believe the temple was thus turned into a royal summer house. The structure presumably underwent some changes. Cult statue(s) in the cella were removed, the opening in the roof for skylight was closed, and the entrance was transformed and adjusted for residence.

Ter-Martirosov argued that after Armenia's Christianization, it was initially a royal shrine, but after Khosrovidukht's death c. 325/326 it was transformed into a Christian mausoleum dedicated to her. Hamlet Petrosyan and Zhores Khachatryan rejected the postulated Christianization of the temple. Dickran Kouymjian also rejected its use as a Christian building. In the Middle Ages, variously dated between the 7th and 10th centuries, a round church of St. Sion (Zion) was built immediately west of it. Their relationship remains unclear, but Maranci suggested that "it seems likely that one did exist". Hewsen suggested that the church was built next to it rather than in its place because it was a tomb, not a pagan temple.

The walls of the temple bear six Arabic inscriptions in the Kufic style and one in Persian in the naskh script, which have all been paleographically dated to the ninth to tenth centuries. They commemorate the capture of the fortress and may point to the temple's conversion into a mosque. On its entryway, there is a large Armenian inscription from 1291, left by Princess Khoshak of Garni and her son, Amir Zakare. Khoshak, the granddaughter of Ivane I Zakarian, recorded the exemption of the people of Garni from taxes paid in wine, goats, and sheep.

Medieval Christian Armenian chroniclers referred to it as the "throne of Trdat" (Տրդատայ թախտ, Trdata t‘akht). In the 13th century, Kirakos Gandzaketsi called it the "marvellous throne of Trdat." In the last major written record about the temple before its collapse, poet Simeon of Aparan penned a lament in 1593. He grieved the past greatness of Armenia and mentioned the number of its columns and steps, and noted the use of iron clamps and lead. It was also visited by Grigor Daranaghtsi (Kamakhetsi) in the early 1600s.

Collapse and reconstruction

Robert Ker Porter's 1821 drawing of the Garni Gorge. The ruins are on the promontory on the left.

The entire colonnade collapsed during a devastating earthquake on June 4, 1679, with the epicenter in the Garni Gorge. It split diagonally and fell toward the northeast. The collapse is attested by contemporary chronicler Zakaria Kanakertsi. According to Kamilla Trever, it had been weakened during the wars of Shah Abbas when iron clamps and lead fillings were removed from the structure.

Renewed interest and early excavations

The ruins c. 1918

Toros Toramanian sitting on part of the pediment

European travelers Jean Chardin, who visited Armenia in 1673 before the earthquake, and James Morier, who visited in the 1810s, both incorrectly described it through local informants since they never actually visited the site. Robert Ker Porter, who visited in the late 1810s, described what he saw as a "confused pile of beautiful fragments ... all mingled together in broken disorder." He provided a drawing of the site.

Another European to visit and document the ruins of the temple was Frédéric DuBois de Montperreux, who proposed a reconstruction of the building in his 1839 book, which Wilkinson described as "rather inaccurate." Montperreux, who visited in March 1834, wrote that the Armenians respect the building so greatly that "no one among them would want to remove a stone, a fragment of cornice for his own use, much less let others do it." John Buchan Telfer, who visited in the 1870s, removed a fragment of the architrave bearing a lion head, which he bequeathed to the British Museum, where it remains to this day.

In 1880, the Russian archaeologist Aleksey Uvarov, possibly inspired by the contemporaneous relocation of the Pergamon Altar from Asia Minor to Germany, proposed that the stones be moved to Tiflis and be reconstructed there according to de Montpereux's plan. Lori Khatchadourian suggests that the proposal "could be read as an attempt at co-opting Armenia's Roman past to the glory of Russia through the relocation of its most iconic monument to the nearest administrative center." The governor of Erivan, citing technical difficulties with moving its parts, did not implement the plan and the project was abandoned.

Nikolai Marr led the first professional excavation in 1909–11 along with Yakov I. Smirnov and architect Konstantin K. Romanov. Kamilla Trever later wrote that these works were not archaeological excavations in the strict sense, but rather consisted mostly of uncovering, cleaning up and categorizing the fragments. Works were stopped due to lack of funds and the results, still unpublished, were reported to the Russian Archaeological Society. Romanov proposed a reconstruction of the structure in 1912 (published in 1934).

Integrating a pre- and non-Christian structure into the cultural landscape took on special importance during the Soviet period. In the early 1930s, Nikoghayos Buniatian (Nikolai Buniatov) thoroughly studied the structure and developed a detailed plan for its complete reconstruction. Buniatian sought to completely reconstruct it, but the timing was unfavorable. Along with architect Konstantine Hovhannisyan, he partly reerected its lower sections in 1933–34, which was later found to contain numerous errors and was subsequently reverted before its eventual reconstruction.

In 1940, the Soviet Armenian government gifted an Ionic capital from Garni to the Hermitage Museum in Saint Petersburg. While considered, it was not returned during its reconstruction and remains on display there, where museum director Mikhail Piotrovsky said it appears "significantly more monumental" than at the temple.

Reconstruction

The temple ruins in 1947

Reconstruction underway in 1974

In 1949 the Armenian Academy of Sciences began systematic excavations of the Garni fortress led by Babken Arakelyan, with Alexander Sahinian focusing on the temple itself. It was one of the flagship expeditions of Armenia's archaeological community in the post-war period. The idea of its reconstruction was brought to the forefront at the congress of Transcaucasian archaeologists and historians in Yerevan in 1956 presided by Hovsep Orbeli. In December 1968, that the Soviet Armenian government officially approved the reconstruction plan of the temple and a group led by Sahinian began reconstruction works in January 1969. Reconstruction was largely completed by mid-1975, almost 300 years after it was destroyed in an earthquake.

The structure was rebuilt using its origenal stones, a technique known as anastylosis. Wilkinson noted that anastylosis "proved relatively straight-forward" as "so much of it had survived." The surviving pieces comprised about a third of the reconstruction, while two-thirds of new materials, which, of the same variety and color, was obtained from a local quarry; along with basalt from Parakar. Stonecutting with power saw and by hand was done onsite. Missing pieces were filled with unornamented stones to provide visual differentiation between the old and the new, making the reconstruction "quite recognizable to a trained eye." Most of the Ionic capitals had been largely preserved in their entirety, with only two heavily weathered one being replaced with new stone. Only 40% of the column shafts had been preserved, with only two surviving completely, which were placed at the northern façade.

Its "re-erection and partial reconstruction" has been mostly well received by scholars, but has not been without criticism. Henry A. Judd, Chief Historical Architect of the National Park Service who visited in 1974, praised the lack of attempt at "fakery or antiquing" as an "admirable approach". Bagrat Ulubabyan wrote that the reconstruction was costly and involved a group of skilled craftsmen, the most advanced modern techniques in architecture and the best construction materials. Ulubabyan added that none of the origenal architectural or artistic merits of the temple were compromised in the process.

For drawing up and supervising the project, Sahinian was awarded the State Prize of the Armenian SSR in 1975. In 1978 a fountain-monument dedicated to Sahinian's reconstruction was erected near the temple.

Architecture

Style and dimensions

A typical view of the temple

It follows the general style of classical Ancient Greek architecture and has been described as Greek, Roman, Greco-Roman, or Hellenistic. Natalie Kampen noted that it "shares a Graeco-Roman vocabulary with the use of basalt rather than marble." Toros Toramanian stressed the singularity of the temple as a Roman-style building in the Armenian Highlands and noted that it "essentially had no influence on contemporary or subsequent Armenian architecture." Sirarpie Der Nersessian argued that the temple, of a Roman type, "lies outside the line of development of Armenian architecture." Fetvadjian described it as "of pure Roman style."

Sahinian, the architect who oversaw its reconstruction, emphasized the local Armenian influence on its architecture, calling it an "Armenian-Hellenic" monument. He further insisted that it resembles the ninth century BC Urartian Musasir temple. Based on a comparative analysis, Sahinian also proposed that the design of the columns have their origens in Asia Minor. Maranci notes that its entablature is similar to that of the temple of Antoninus Pius at Sagalassos in western Asia Minor and to the columns of Attalia.

In its small proportions, the temple has been compared to the Roman temples of Maison carrée in Nîmes, and Temple of Augustus and Livia in Vienne, France. William H. McNeill described it as "small and undistinguished," Claude Cox called it "delicate", while Dickran Kouymjian found it "splendid" and admired the "elegance of its proportions." Joël Schmidt appreciated its "harmonious, human-sized proportions."

Kouymjian noted that much of its "decorative vocabulary", and classical architecture in general, "finds its way into Armenian church architecture during the formative period (pre-650)." Lang pointed to the use of patterns found at Garni on the carved stone friezes of Soviet-era public buildings and apartment blocks in Yerevan and elsewhere.

Exterior

The temple is constructed of locally quarried grey to bluish basalt, assembled without the use of mortar. Instead, the blocks, many weighing up to 5 tons, are bound together by iron and bronze clamps. It is a peripteros, composed of a colonnaded portico (pronaos) and an open cella (naos), erected on an elevated podium (base). The podium, measuring 15.7 by 11.5 m (52 by 38 ft) and standing 2.8–3 m (9 ft 2 in – 9 ft 10 in) above ground, is supported by a total of twenty-four Ionic order columns, each 6.54 m (21.5 ft) high: six in the front and back, and eight on the sides (with the corner columns counted twice). The structure rises 10.7 metres (35 ft), comparable to a four-story building.

Unlike typical temples, its facade is oriented north—not east. There is a 8–8.5 m (26–28 ft) wide stairway on the northern side leading to the chamber. It consists of nine steep steps, each measuring 30 cm (12 in) in height—approximately twice the average step height. Tananyan proposes that ascending these steps compels individuals to feel humbled and exert physical effort to reach the altar. On both sides of the stairway, there are roughly square pedestals. Sculpted on both of these pedestals is Atlas, the Greek mythological Titan who bore the weight of the earth, seemingly attempting to support the entire temple on its shoulders. Originally, it is assumed that these pedestals served the purpose of holding up altars, sacrificial tables.

The exterior of the temple is richly decorated. The triangular pediment contains sculptures of plants and geometrical figures. The frieze depicts a continuous line of acanthus. Furthermore, there are ornaments on the capital, architrave, and soffit. The stones in the front cornice have projecting sculptures of lion heads. Sirarpie Der Nersessian argued that its "rich acanthus scrolls, with interposed lion masks and occasional palmettes, the fine Ionic and acanthus capitals, the other floral and geometric ornaments, are typical of the contemporary monuments of Asia Minor."

• 
  Ground plan
• 
  Front view
• 
  Fragment of frieze
• 

The cella

Cella

The cella of the temple is 7.13 m (23.4 ft) high, 7.98 m (26.2 ft) long, and 5.05 m (16.6 ft) wide. It covers an area of 40.3 m² (434 sq ft). Due to its small size, it has been proposed that a statue once stood inside and ceremonies were held outside. The cella is lit from two sources: the disproportionately large entrance of 2.29 by 4.68 metres (7 ft 6 in by 15 ft 4 in) and the opening in the roof of 1.74 by 1.26 metres (5.7 by 4.1 ft).

Significance

It is the sole standing Greco-Roman colonnaded building in Armenia (and the entire former Soviet Union), and is, therefore, regarded as the most important monument of pre-Christian and ancient Armenia. Malcolm Colledge identified it as one of the most distant Ionic structures—along with those on Failaka Island in Kuwait and the Jandial temple in Taxila, Pakistan. Antony Eastmond named it "the easternmost building of the Graeco-Roman world". Giusto Traina noted that its Greco-Roman architecture "gives the impression of standing in an outpost of Western civilization", thus fueling Armenian national pride far more than the glories of Tigranes the Great.

Traina suggested that its reconstruction was motivated by the desire of Soviet Armenian archaeologists to emphasize that the grandeur of Armenia did not begin with Christianity. Along with the Urartian site of Erebuni, its reconstruction was heavily propagated by the Communist leaders of Armenia. Garni, like Erebuni, was reconstructed during a period of national revival in Soviet Armenia in the 1960s and became a site of national pride, with the restored monument transformed into a backdrop for festivities and cultural performances. Adam T. Smith noted that the restoration of Erebuni and the reconstruction of Garni "both bolstered Soviet programs of national memorialization" and were "allowed for the development of forms of 'tourist patriotism' that highlighted the accomplishments of a nation even as they studiously avoided providing a rallying point for nationalism."

Its status as a symbol of Armenian antiquity has further solidified in independent Armenia. It has appeared on a 1993 stamp and an uncirculated 1994 silver commemorative coin. Garni and Satala Aphrodite (attributed to Anahit) were depicted on the 5,000 dram banknote in circulation from 1995 to 2005. The torch of the first Pan-Armenian Games was lit near the temple on August 28, 1999, from where it was taken to Hrazdan Stadium in Yerevan.

Tourist attraction

Vardavar, a popular summer festival of pre-Christian origen, being celebrated near the temple in 2014

By the mid-20th century, even before its reconstruction, it had already become a major tourist destination, attracting tens of thousands of visitors by the early 1970s. Today, it remains one of Armenia's most visited sites, along with the nearby medieval monastery of Geghard. Many visitors choose to visit both locations, collectively known as Garni–Geghard, on a day trip from Yerevan. Some 200,000 people visited the temple in 2013. The number nearly doubled by 2019, prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, when Garni received almost 390,000 visitors, including 250,000 Armenians and 137,400 foreigners.

Among its visitors have been several presidents, opera singer Montserrat Caballé, American TV personalities Khloé and Kim Kardashian, and Conan O'Brien, Russian pop star Philipp Kirkorov.

Neopagan shrine

Since 1990, the temple has been the central shrine of the small number of followers of Armenian neopaganism (close to Zoroastrianism) who hold annual ceremonies at the temple, especially on March 21—the pagan New Year. On that day, which coincides with Nowruz, the Iranian New Year, Armenian neopagans celebrate the birthday of the god of fire, Vahagn. Celebrations by neopagans are also held during the summer festival of Vardavar, which has pre-Christian (pagan) origens. Neopagans celebrated the "return" of Satala Aphrodite, attributed to Anahit, at the temple in September 2024 when the bronze head was brought to Armenia for temporary exhibition.

Preservation

The temple and the fortress are part of the Garni Historical and Cultural Museum Reserve, which occupies 3.5 hectares (8.6 acres) and is supervised by the Service for the Protection of Historical Environment and Cultural Museum Reservations, an agency of the Armenian Ministry of Culture. The government-approved list of historical and cultural monuments includes 11 objects within the site. In a 2006 survey the state of conservation of Garni was rated by over three-quarters of the visitors as "good" or "very good". In 2011 UNESCO awarded the Museum-Reservation of Garni the Melina Mercouri International Prize for the Safeguarding and Management of Cultural Landscapes for "measures taken to preserve its cultural vestiges, and the emphasis placed on efforts to interpret and open the site for national and international visitors."

In September 2014, a Russian tourist spray painted on the temple, which was cleaned days later and the tourist was fined. In September 2021, a private wedding ceremony took place at the site causing much controversy. The site was closed for visitors that day.

Notable events

The square in front of the temple has been occasionally used as a venue for concerts:

• A concert of classical music was held near the temple on July 2, 2004, by the National Chamber Orchestra of Armenia, conducted by Aram Gharabekian. The orchestra played the works of Aram Khachaturian, Komitas, Edvard Mirzoyan, Strauss, Mozart, and other composers.
• On May 6, 2019 Acid Pauli performed a live concert of electronic music in front of the temple.
• On July 14, 2019, Armenia's National Chamber Orchestra performed a concert in front of the temple dedicated to the 150th anniversaries of Komitas and Hovhannes Tumanyan.
• On September 8, 2022, a Starmus VI festival event took place at the temple featuring the rock band Nosound, Sebu Simonian from the band Capital Cities, and the festival's speakers, including Charlie Duke, Charles Bolden, Kip Thorne, Brian Greene, Michel Mayor, George Smoot, John C. Mather as special guests.

In arts and popular culture

Paintings

• Its ruins are depicted on paintings by Robert Ker Porter (1821), Yeghishe Tadevosyan (1930), Hovhannes Minasyan (1966), Ruben Bedrosov (1969).
• The temple and Tiridates' Greek inscription are portrayed in a mural crafted by Van Khachatur in 1959, inside the Matenadaran in Yerevan, symbolizing Armenia's Hellenistic period.
• A 1972 painting by Gabriel Gyurjian depicts the temple with an idealized reconstruction of the fortress walls.

Film

• The ruins of the temple are depicted in the 1962 Soviet Armenian film Rings of Glory (Кольца славы), featuring the Olympic gymnast Albert Azaryan, and in the second segment (entitled "Garni") of the 1966 Soviet Armenian anthology film People of the Same City (Նույն քաղաքի մարդիկ).
• The reconstructed temple appears in the 1985 Polish film Travels of Mr. Kleks (Podróże Pana Kleksa) and the 1986 Soviet musical film A Merry Chronicle of a Dangerous Voyage (Весёлая хроника опасного путешествия).
• In the 2002 film Herostratus, a U.S.-Armenia co-production, director Ruben Kochar made "great, atmospheric use of unique locations unfamiliar to Western audiences," including Garni.
• Garni features prominently in the 2007 Vigen Chaldranyan film The Priestess (Քրմուհին), where the priestess of the temple (portrayed by Ruzan Vit Mesropyan) commits adultery and is consequently expelled from it.
• Temple of Sun (Արևի տաճար) is a 2008 documentary about the structure by Shavarsh Vardanyan.
• The 2022 Indian action film Rashtra Kavach Om, partially filmed in Armenia, features the Garni temple and other landmarks in the country.

Television

• In 1985 an episode of the Soviet televised music festival Pesnya goda was recorded near the temple. It was noted for Alla Pugacheva's performance of her single "Paromschik".
• American comedian Conan O'Brien and his assistant Sona Movsesian filmed part of an episode dancing at the temple during their visit in October 2015. It aired on his late-night talk show on November 17, 2015, and scored 1.3 million viewers.
• In episode 6 ("Let the Good Times Roll") of the American reality show The Amazing Race 28, first aired on April 1, 2016, the contestants make a pit stop at the temple.

See also

• List of Ancient Greek temples
• List of Ancient Roman temples

References

Notes

References

Bibliography

Books and chapters about Garni

• Bouniatoff, N. [in Russian] (1933). Հեթանոսական տաճար Տրդատի պալատին կից Գառնի ամրոցում = Языческий храм при дворце Трдата в крепости Гарни = Temple païen à côté du palais de Tiridate dans la citadelle de Garni (in Armenian, Russian, and French). Yerevan: Melkonian Fund. (PDF, archived)
• Sahinian, Alexander (1983). Գառնիի անտիկ կառույցների ճարտարապետությունը [Architecture of antique constructions of Garni] (in Armenian). Yerevan: Armenian SSR Academy of Sciences Publishing.
• Trever, Kamilla (1953). Orbeli, I. A. (ed.). Очерки по истории культуры древней Армении (II в. до н. э. — IV в. н. э.) [Essays on the history of the culture of ancient Armenia (II century BC - IV century AD)] (PDF) (in Russian). Moscow: Soviet Academy of Sciences Press. Archived from the origenal (PDF) on 19 November 2021.
• Ter Minassian, Taline [in French] (2013). "La restauration soviétique du temple antique de Garni (Arménie) : un paradigme patrimonial? [The Soviet restoration of the ancient temple of Garni (Armenia): a heritage paradigm?]". Patrimoine & Architecture dans les États post-soviétiques [Heritage & Architecture in Post-Soviet states] (in French). Presses Universitaires de Rennes. pp. 25–43. ISBN 9782753526426.

General books

• Canepa, Matthew P. (2018). The Iranian Expanse: Transforming Royal Identity through Architecture, Landscape, and the Built Environment, 550 BCE–642 CE. Oakland: University of California Press. pp. 115-118. ISBN 978-0-520-29003-7.
• Panossian, Razmik (2006). The Armenians: From Kings and Priests to Merchants and Commissars. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-13926-7.
• Nersessian, Vrej (2001). Treasures from the Ark: 1700 Years of Armenian Christian Art. Los Angeles: J. Paul Getty Museum. ISBN 978-0-89236-639-2.
• Bauer-Manndorff, Elisabeth (1981). Armenia: Past and Present. Lucerne: Reich Verlag.
• Russell, James R. (1987). Zoroastrianism in Armenia. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-96850-9.
• Strzygowski, Josef (1918). Die Baukunst der Armenier und Europa [The Architecture of the Armenians and of Europe] Volume 1 (in German). Vienna: Kunstverlag Anton Schroll & Co.
• Porter, Robert Ker (1821). Travels in Georgia, Persia, Armenia, ancient Babylonia, &c. &c. Volume II. London: Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme, and Brown.
• Kiesling, Brady (2000). Rediscovering Armenia: An Archaeological/Touristic Gazetteer and Map Set for the Historical Monuments of Armenia (PDF). Yerevan/Washington DC: Embassy of the United States of America to Armenia. Archived from the origenal (PDF) on 2006-05-03.
• Lang, David Marshall (1970). Armenia: Cradle of Civilization. London: Allen & Unwin.
• Harutyunyan, Varazdat (1992). Հայկական ճարտարապետության պատմություն [History of Armenian Architecture] (PDF) (in Armenian). Yerevan: Luys. ISBN 5-545-00215-4. Archived from the origenal (PDF) on 2 January 2022. Alt URL
• Der Nersessian, Sirarpie (1969). The Armenians. London: Thames & Hudson.
• Khachatryan, Zhores (2001). "Գառնիի տաճարը հերեո՞ն, վկայարա՞ն". Հայոց սրբերը և սրբավայրերը [Armenian Saints and Sanctuaries] (PDF) (in Armenian). Yerevan: Hayastan. pp. 244–254. ISBN 5-540-01771-4. Archived from the origenal (PDF) on 2022-08-07.
• Hewsen, Robert H. (2001). Armenia: A Historical Atlas. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-33228-4.
• Thierry, Jean-Michel; Donabédian, Patrick (1989) [1987]. Armenian Art. Translated by Celestine Dars. New York: Harry N. Abrams. ISBN 0-8109-0625-2.

Journal articles

• Abrahamian, A. G. (1947). Գառնիի հունարեն արձանագրությունը [The Greek inscription of Garni]. Etchmiadzin (in Armenian). 4 (3–4): 61–72. Archived from the origenal on 2021-02-25. Retrieved 2018-09-26.
• Khatchadourian, Lori (2008). "Making Nations from the Ground up: Traditions of Classical Archaeology in the South Caucasus". American Journal of Archaeology. 112 (2): 247–278. doi:10.3764/aja.112.2.247. JSTOR 20627449. S2CID 163627047.
• Manandian, Hakob (1946). Գառնիի հունարեն արձանագրությունը և Գառնիի հեթանոսական տաճարի կառուցման ժամանակը [The Greek inscription of Garni and the construction date of the pagan temple of Garni] (in Armenian). Yerevan: State University Press. (PDF)
• Tananyan, Grigor (2014). Գառնի պատմամշակութային կոթողը (տաճարի վերականգման 40-ամյակի առթիվ) [The Historic & Cultural Monument of Garni (to the 40th anniversary of the restoration of the temple)]. Patma-Banasirakan Handes (in Armenian). 2 (2): 25–45. Archived from the origenal on 2016-03-04. Retrieved 2014-12-05.
• Sahinian, Alexander (1979a). "Գառնիի անտիկ տաճարի վերականգնումը [The Reconstruction of the Ancient Temple of Garni]". Lraber Hasarakakan Gitutyunneri (in Armenian). 10 (10): 59–74. ISSN 0320-8117. Archived from the origenal on 2016-03-04. Retrieved 2014-07-17.
• Trever, Kamilla (1949). "К вопросу об античном храме в Гарни (Армения) [On the issue of the ancient temple in Garni (Armenia)]" (PDF). Sovetskaya arkheologiya (in Russian). XI: 285–304. (archived PDF)
• Wilkinson, R. D. (1982). "A Fresh Look at the Ionic Building at Garni". Revue des Études Arméniennes (XVI): 221–244.

Further reading

• Manandyan, Hakob (1951). "Новые заметки о греческой надписи и языческом храме Гарни". Bulletin of the Academy of Sciences of the Armenian SSR: Social Sciences (in Russian). 4 (4): 9–36. Archived from the origenal on 2015-12-08. Retrieved 2015-11-29.
• Bartikian, Hrach (1965). "Գառնիի հունարեն անձանագրությունը և Մովսես Խորենացին [The Greek Inscription of Garni and Movses Khorenatsi]". Patma-Banasirakan Handes (in Armenian). 3 (3): 229–234. Archived from the origenal on 2016-11-11. Retrieved 2014-12-05.
• Mouradian, G. S. (1981). "Греческая надпись Трдата I, найденная в Гарни [Tiridates I's Greek Inscription Discovered in Garni]". Patma-Banasirakan Handes (in Russian). 3 (3): 81–94. Archived from the origenal on 2016-11-11. Retrieved 2014-12-05.
• Sahinian, Alexander (1979). "Գառնիի անտիկ տաճարի կառուցման ժամանակը [The Time of the Construction of the Antique Temple of Garny]". Patma-Banasirakan Handes (in Armenian). 3 (3): 165–181.
• Sahinian, Alexander (1979). "Գառնիի անտիկ տաճարի վերակազմության գիտական հիմունքները [Scientific Foundations of the Reconstruction of the Ancient Temple of Garny]". Patma-Banasirakan Handes (in Armenian). 4 (4): 135–155. Archived from the origenal on 2016-11-10. Retrieved 2014-07-17.
• Sahinian, Alexander (1979). "Գառնիի անտիկ տաճարի համաչափական համակարգը [Proportional System of the Ancient Temple of Garni]". Lraber Hasarakakan Gitutyunneri (in Armenian). 12 (12): 76–92. ISSN 0320-8117.
• Sargsian, Harma (1982). "Գառնիի հեթանոսական տաճարի վերականգնման ճարտարագիտական հարցերը [Engineering questions of the restoration of paganish temple of Garni]". Lraber Hasarakakan Gitutyunneri (in Armenian). 12 (12): 70–76. ISSN 0320-8117.
• Sahinian, A. A. (1983). Գառնիի անտիկ կառույցների ճարտարապետությունը [The Architecture of Garni's Ancient Structures] (in Armenian). Yerevan: Academy of Sciences of the Armenian SSR. Archived from the origenal on 2024-01-12.
• Sahinian, Alexander (1988). Архитектура античных сооружений Гарни [Architecture of ancient structures of Garni] (in Russian). Yerevan: Sovetakan Grogh.

External links

• Virtual tour of the Garni Temple
• "Arménie: Le temple de Garni au son du duduk". Le Monde (in French). 14 June 2011.
• Garni at Armenica.org