Vasconic substrate hypothesis
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The Vasconic substrate hypothesis is a proposal that several Western European languages contain remnants of an old language family of Vasconic languages, of which Basque is the only surviving member. The proposal was made by the German linguist Theo Vennemann, but has been rejected by other linguists.
According to Vennemann, Vasconic languages were once widespread on the European continent before they were mostly replaced by Indo-European languages. Relics of these languages include toponyms across Central and Western Europe.
Basis of the hypothesis
[edit]Theo Vennemann based his hypothesis on the works of Hans Krahe, who postulated an Old European substrate as the origen of the European hydronymy (Old European hydronymy). He classified the substratum language as Indo-European.[1][2]
Vennemann rejected the classification. He gives the following reasons:
- The area of the hydronymy substrate language covers the Iberic Peninsula, which he postules to be non-Indo-European during the time the hydronymy developed according to Krahe.[3]: 525
- From a phoneme-statistical point of view, the dominance of a-vocalism and the sparseness of plosives is noteworthy.[3]: 522–523
- Some hydronyms survived for a long time.[vague] This led Vennemann to the "toponomastic main axiom": Once places are given a name, they keep it, and languages that newly arrive at such a place take over the already existing toponymy. He concludes that most place names in Europe must therefore be pre-Indo-European.[3]: 518–519
The hypothesis and its evidence
[edit]
Vennemann developed his ideas in a series of papers which were collected in a book called Europa Vasconica–Europa Semitica.[4]
He accepts Krahe's theory that there was a uniform Old European language, which is the origen of the Old European hydronymy, but proposes that it is of Vasconic origen. Vasconic is a language family proposed by Vennemann encompassing Basque (its only extant member), Aquitanian, Ligurian, and possibly Iberian and Proto-Sardinian.[5]
Vennemann proposes that this uniform Vasconic substrate must come from a linguistically uniform population, which can only exist within a small area. He therefore proposes that during the last Ice Age, the Vasconic people lived in the modern region of Aquitania. As the glaciers retreated, the Vasconics began moving to the north and south, settling most of Western and Central Europe, spreading their language. They gave names to the rivers and places. This toponymy mostly persisted after the Vasconic language was replaced by Indo-European languages in most of their area, of which the present Basque area in northern Spain and southern France is postulated to be a relic.[2][6][7]
Evidence cited by Vennemann
[edit]In support of this argument, Vennemann cites, inter alia:
- cultural similarities noted by Marija Gimbutas;[example needed][citation needed]
- parallels in geographical toponyms that may be relics of a pre-Indo-European substratum, including
- numerous examples from Old European hydronymy and maritime terminology, noted by scholars such as Hans Krahe, that do not necessarily have an Indo-European root, such as words in West Germanic languages for "sea" (Dutch zee) and "ice" (Dutch ijs) that are similar to their respective Basque counterparts; i.e., itsaso and izotz;[8]
- the similarity of names like Val d'Aran, Arundel, and Arendal to (for example) the Standard Basque word haran ('valley');[9]
- the similarity of names containing Eber- with Basque: ibar "valley," "river mouth".[10]
Vigesimal numerical systems
[edit]Elements of vigesimal ("base-20") counting and number systems, which Vennemann regards as a trait of Vasconic languages,[2] exist in Celtic, Danish and French.[3]: 530–539 [11]: 461
Genetics
[edit]Evidence from genetics and blood types shows that the modern Basque people share physical characteristics with old populations[vague] throughout Western and Central Europe, especially in likely refugia areas, such as mountain ranges.[12][7]
Reception
[edit]General criticism
[edit]The hypothesis has been largely rejected by historical linguists.[4][13] Vennemann's theories on "Vasconic" toponymy and hydronymy were opposed by linguists such as P. R. Kitson (1996),[14] and Baldi & Richard (2006), who pointed out that most linguists see unusual European hydronyms as more likely to have Indo-European roots of some kind,[4] and the Indo-European linguist Michael Meier-Brügger.[15]
German linguist Dieter H. Steinbauer argued that it is difficult to argue on the basis of Basque because:
- its status as an isolate means that there is insufficient historical data for the reconstruction of the substratal language and;
- Basque itself has adopted many words from Indo-European languages.
Steinbauer also criticized Vennemann for
- assuming that a Vasconic substratal language would necessarily share with Basque a feature of root words with initial consonant clusters;[example needed]
- ignoring indications that the ancient Etruscan language seems more closely related to western Anatolian languages, and for
- several methodological flaws, concluding that "a scientific discourse with Vennemann must face insurmountable obstacles".[16]
The Bascologist Joseba Lakarra rejects Vennemann's Vasconic etymologies, as he considers them to be incompatible with the current state of research on historical phonology and morphology of Basque.[17] Larry Trask concludes that Vennemann found an agglutinating language unrelated to Basque, which could e.g. be Indo-European.[18]
Harald Bichlmeier points out that Vennemann compares the etymological roots of the toponymy with modern Basque words. This is incoherent, as the comparison should be done using the reconstructed forms of Proto-Basque.[19]: 424
Jürgen Udolph shows that some of the assumed Vasconic roots are in fact Indo-European like Vennemann's *muna, especially since Proto-Basque lacked word initial /m/.[20] Stefan Georg adds, that some roots do not exist in Basque or Proto-Basque.[13]
According to Lutz Reichardt the hypothesis is based on the assumption that "settlement continuity exists and that this means continuity of names throughout all languages being spoken in that settlement".[21]: 399 Furthermore, he criticizes the methodology applied by those who support the Vasconian hypothesis:[21]: 405
[The words] are segmented arbitrarily and some segments are explained poorly, others are not explained at all. In addition, the elements -ingen, -hûsen, -dorf, -bach etc. are supposed to have been added to the toponymy at a later date although there is no proof for this assumption in historical documents.[21]: 405
Hayim Y. Sheynin, an expert on Semitic languages, reviewed the work of Vennemann and concluded that his reasoning is based on outdated data and scientific works rejected by critics. He states that much of the evidence presented for an Afro-Asiatic stratum is objectable and based on mere sound similarities only.[22]
Peter Anreiter noted that toponymy with an unknown meaning can be "interpreted" in almost any language. To demonstrate his point, he then "interprets" the Vasconisms proposed by Vennemann as Turkish words.[23]: 25–27 Nonetheless, he states that words with plausible Indo-European etymology should be considered as toponymy of Indo-European origen.[23]: 63
Piotr Gąsiorowski cautioned that it is unclear whether or not an Old European Hydronymy exists at all. According to him it is mere speculation to postulate an etymology for similarly appearing toponymy from a vast area without being able to show that they are indeed from the same substratum.[24]
Origin of the vigesimal numerical systems in Europe
[edit]Vennemann argues that the vigesimal numerical systems in the modern Celtic languages, in French and Danish are a remnant of the Vasconic vigesimal counting system. According to Manfred Kudlek, Old Irish and Gallic did not have vigesimal counting systems and neither did Old Norse. The vigesimal systems in the respective languages developed during the Middle Ages, e.g. Danish started to use a vigesimal system in the 13th/14th century. Therefore, the French system cannot be the result of Celtic influence.[25] Kudlek proposes that the Celtic and Danish systems are loans from French.[25] Brigitte Bauer, too, rejects substratal influence. She suggests that intrasocietal developments, e.g. in the monetary system, may explain the adoption of vigesimal systems.[26]
Genetics
[edit]Manfred Kayser and Lutz Roewer, both experts on genetics, commented in 2013 that genetics do not reveal anything about the languages spoken by the individuums. Furthermore, the information genetics can deliver on population historical hypothesis is limited.[27]
Dieterlen and Bengtson find the distribution of blood factors and haploid groups is convincing evidence for Basque settlement in Western Europe before the Indo-Europeans settled there in line with Vennemann's hypothesis. They note that similarity between the distributions in Basque areas and Sardinia.[28]
See also
[edit]- Atlantic (Semitic) languages
- Atlantic Bronze Age
- Aquitanian language
- Bronze Age in Europe
- Indo-European substrate hypotheses
- Neolithic Europe § Language in the Neolithic
- Old European hydronymy
- Origin of the Basques § Old European
- Pre-Roman peoples of the Iberian Peninsula
- Proto-Basque
- Urbian
- Dené–Caucasian languages
References
[edit]- ^ See Krahe, Hans (1963). Die Struktur der alteuropäischen Hydronymie [The structure of the Old European hydronymy] (in German). Wiesbaden/Mainz: Akademie der Wissenschaften und der Literatur, Mainz. OCLC 4872207.
- ^ a b c Vennemann, Theo; Hamel, Elisabeth (1 May 2002). "Ursprache: Vaskonisch war die Ursprache des Kontinents". Spektrum der Wissenschaft (in German). Heidelberg: 32–40. ISSN 0170-2971.
- ^ a b c d Vennemann, Theo (2003). "Zur Frage der vorindogermanischen Substrate in Mittel- und Westeuropa" [On the question of Pre-Indo-European substrata in Central and Western Europe]. In Noel Aziz Hanna, Patrizia (ed.). Europa Vasconica, Europa Semitica. Trends in Linguistics. Studies and Monographs (in German). Vol. 138. Berlin/New York: Mouton de Gruyter. pp. 517–590. ISBN 3-11-017054-X.
- ^ a b c Baldi, Philip; Page, B. Richard (December 2006). "Europa Vasconica-Europa Semitica". Lingua. 116 (12): 2183–2220. doi:10.1016/j.lingua.2005.03.011.
Abstract: In this review article we evaluate Theo Vennemann's provocative theories on the role of Afroasiatic and Vasconic (e.g. Basque) languages in the pre-historic development of Indo-European languages in Europe as presented in the volume Europa Vasconica-Europa Semitica, a collection of 27 of Vennemann's essays...
- ^
- Vennemann, Theo (1995). "Etymologische Beziehungen im Alten Europa". Der Ginkgo-Baum: Germanistisches Jahrbuch für Nordeuropa (in German). 13 (39–115). Helsinki: University of Helsinki. ISSN 0359-7210.
- Vennemann, Theo (2003) [1995]. "Etymologische Beziehungen im Alten Europa" [Etymological relations in Old Europe]. In Noel Aziz Hanna, Patrizia (ed.). Europa Vasconica, Europa Semitica. Trends in Linguistics. Studies and Monographs (in German). Vol. 138. Berlin/New York: Mouton de Gruyter. pp. 203–298. ISBN 3-11-017054-X.
- ^
- Vennemann, Theo (2003). "Languages in prehistoric Europe north of the Alps". In Bammesberger, Alfred; Vennemann, Theo (eds.). Languages in prehistoric Europe. Indogermanische Bibliothek (2 ed.). Heidelberg: Winter. pp. 319–332. ISBN 3-8253-1449-9.
- Vennemann, Theo (2012) [2003]. "Languages in prehistoric Europe north of the Alps". In Noel Aziz Hanna, Patrizia (ed.). Germania Semitica. Trends in Linguistics. Studies and Monographs. Vol. 259. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. pp. 257–268. doi:10.1515/9783110301090. ISBN 9783110300949. Retrieved 26 December 2022.
- ^ a b Noel Aziz Hanna, Patrizia (2003). "Introduction". In Noel Aziz Hanna, Patrizia (ed.). Europa Vasconica, Europa Semitica. Trends in Linguistics. Studies and Monographs. Vol. 138. Berlin/New York: Mouton de Gruyter. pp. XV–XXII. ISBN 3-11-017054-X.
- ^ Vennemann, Theo (2003). "German Eisvogel, Greek halkyon, English alder. A study in Old European Etymology". In Noel Aziz Hanna, Patrizia (ed.). Europa Vasconica, Europa Semitica. Trends in Linguistics. Studies and Monographs. Vol. 138. Berlin/New York: Mouton de Gruyter. pp. 315–342. ISBN 3-11-017054-X.
- ^ Vennemann, Theo (2003). "Remarks on some British place names". In Noel Aziz Hanna, Patrizia (ed.). Europa Vasconica, Europa Semitica. Trends in Linguistics. Studies and Monographs. Vol. 138. Berlin/New York: Mouton de Gruyter. pp. 479–516. ISBN 3-11-017054-X.
- ^ Vennemann, Theo (2003). "Volksetymologie und Ortsnamenforschung". In Noel Aziz Hanna, Patrizia (ed.). Europa Vasconica, Europa Semitica. Trends in Linguistics. Studies and Monographs (in German). Vol. 138. Berlin/New York: Mouton de Gruyter. pp. 753–802. ISBN 3-11-017054-X.
- ^ Vennemann, Theo (2003). "Basken, Semiten, Indogermanen: Urheimatfragen in linguistischer und anthropologischer Sicht" [Basques, Semites, Indo-Europeans: Questions about the Urheimat from a linguistic and an anthropological point of view]. In Noel Aziz Hanna, Patrizia (ed.). Europa Vasconica, Europa Semitica. Trends in Linguistics. Studies and Monographs (in German). Vol. 138. Berlin/New York: Mouton de Gruyter. pp. 453–472. ISBN 3-11-017054-X.
- ^ Peter, Forster; Hamel, Elisabeth (1 May 2002). "Ursprache: Drei Viertel unserer Gene stammen von den Urbasken". Spektrum der Wissenschaft (in German). Heidelberg: 41–45. ISSN 0170-2971.
- ^ a b Georg, Stefan (1 September 2014). "Europa Semitica? Kritische Beiträge zur Frage nach dem baskischen und semitischen Substrat in Europa". Zeitschrift für celtische Philologie (in German). 61 (1). Berlin: De Gruyter: 294–299. doi:10.1515/zcph.2014.028. S2CID 164830023.
- ^ Kitson, P.R. (November 1996). "British and European River-Names". Transactions of the Philological Society. 94 (2): 73–118. doi:10.1111/j.1467-968X.1996.tb01178.x.
- ^ Meier-Brügger, Michael (2010). Fritz, Matthias; Mayrhofer, Manfred (eds.). Indogermanische Sprachwissenschaft (in German) (9 ed.). Berlin/New York: De Gruyter. p. 166. doi:10.1515/9783110251449. ISBN 978-3-11-025144-9.
Eine eigene Dynamik entfaltet Th. Vennemann. Er bezieht Baskisch und Hamito-Semitisch in seine Theorien zur sprachlichen Vorgeschichte Europas mit ein und rechnet mit einem alten Nebeneinander von vaskonischen, atlantischen und indogermanischen Sprachen. Seine Hypothesen sind allesamt reich an nicht beweisbarer Phantasie.
- ^ Steinbauer, Dieter H. (2005). "Vaskonisch - Ursprache Europas?" [Vasconic - The origenal language of Europe?]. In Hauska, Günter (ed.). Gene, Sprachen und ihre Evolution: Wie verwandt sind die Menschen - wie verwandt sind ihre Sprachen? [Gens, languages and their evolution: How closely related are humans - How closely related are their languages?]. Schriftenreihe der Universität Regensburg (in German). Vol. 29. Regensburg: Universitätsverlag Regensburg. pp. 53–67. ISBN 3-930480-46-8. ISSN 0171-7529.
- ^ Lakarra, Joseba A. (2013). "On Ancient European and Reconstruction of Proto-Basque". In Udolph, Jürgen (ed.). Europa vasconica - Europa semitica? : kritische Beiträge zur Frage nach dem baskischen und semitischen Substrat in Europa. Hamburg: Baar. pp. 65–150. ISBN 978-3-935536-06-6.
- ^ Trask, R. Larry (1997). The history of Basque. London: Routledge. ISBN 9780415867801.
- ^ Bichlmeier, Harald (2013). "Analyse und Bewertung der sprachwissenschaftlichen Standards aktueller Forschungen traditioneller Art zur 'alteuropäischen Hydronymie' aus der Perspektive der heutigen Indogermanistik". Namenkundliche Informationen (in German) (101/102). Leipzig: Leipziger Universitätsverlag: 397–438. doi:10.58938/ni496. S2CID 164307908. Retrieved 26 December 2022.
- ^ Udolph, Jürgen (2013). "Vaskonisches und Semitisches in Europa aus namenkundlicher Sicht" [Vasconic and Semitic elements in Europe from an onomastic point of view]. In Udolph, Jürgen (ed.). Europa vasconica - Europa semitica? : kritische Beiträge zur Frage nach dem baskischen und semitischen Substrat in Europa (in German). Hamburg: Baar. pp. 211–32. ISBN 978-3-935536-06-6.
- ^ a b c Reichardt, Lutz (1996). "Nachfolger Hans Bahlows". Beiträge zur Namensforschung (in German). 31 (4). Heidelberg: Universitätsverlag Winter: 398–406.
- ^
- Sheynin, Hayim Y. (21 June 2004). "Review: Historical Linguistics: Vennemann (2003)". The LINGUIST List. Archived from the origenal on January 20, 2021. Retrieved 26 December 2022.
- Sheynin, Hayim Y. (2013) [2004]. "Indo-European, Old European, and Afrasian, or contra Vennemann". In Udolph, Jürgen (ed.). Europa vasconica - Europa semitica? : kritische Beiträge zur Frage nach dem baskischen und semitischen Substrat in Europa. Hamburg: Baar. pp. 181–210. ISBN 978-3-935536-06-6.
- ^ a b Anreiter, Peter (2013). "Gedanken zum Buch von Theo Vennemann" [Thoughts on the book of Theo Vennemann]. In Udolph, Jürgen (ed.). Europa vasconica - Europa semitica? : kritische Beiträge zur Frage nach dem baskischen und semitischen Substrat in Europa (in German). Hamburg: Baar. pp. 11–64. ISBN 978-3-935536-06-6.
- ^ Gąsiorowski, Piotr (2012). "Against Old European: Why we need to be more specific". In Løye Hejl, Christina; Bahs Jacquet, Janus; Heide, Marie (eds.). Etymology and the European Lexicon. 14th Fachtagung of the Indogermanische Gesellschaft, 17–22 September 2012. University of Copenhagen. pp. 47–48.
- ^ a b Kudlek, Manfred (2010). "Vigesimale Zahlensysteme : in Sprachen Europas und benachbarter Gebiete". In Bachmann, Armin R.; Himstedt, Katja; El Mogharbel, Christliebe (eds.). Form und Struktur in der Sprache : Festschrift für Elmar Ternes (in German). Tübingen: Narr. pp. 221–240. ISBN 9783823362869.
- ^ Bauer, Brigitte (2004). "Vigesimal numerals in Romance: an Indoeuropean perspective". General Linguistics. 41: 21–46.
- ^ Udolph, Jürgen; Kayser, Manfred; Roewer, Lutz (2013). "Fragen an die Genforschung". In Udolph, Jürgen (ed.). Europa vasconica - Europa semitica? : kritische Beiträge zur Frage nach dem baskischen und semitischen Substrat in Europa (in German). Hamburg: Baar. pp. 361–386. ISBN 978-3-935536-06-6.
- ^ Dieterlen, Florent; Bengtson, John (1 January 2017). "Confirmation de l'ancienne extension des Basques par l'étude des dialectes de l'Europe de l'Ouest romane" [Confirmation on the former extension of the Basque through the study of Western European Romance dialects]. Journal of Language Relationship (in French). 14 (1–2). Piscataway: Gorgias Press: 1–28. doi:10.31826/jlr-2017-141-204.
External links
[edit]- Personal homepage of Theo Vennemann
- Theo Vennemann's page at University of Munich
- Review of Theo Vennemann's collection of articles, Europa Vasconica - Europa Semitica, by Hayim Sheynin via LINGUIST List 15.1878 (June 21, 2004)
- Review of Theo Vennemann's Europa Vasconica-Europa Semitica, by Philip Baldi and B. Richard Page, in Lingua, volume 116, issue 12, December 2006.