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John S. Denker

A new spin on the perceptions, procedures, and principles of flight.

• Introduction
  • Readership, Topics, and Goals
  • How to Use this Book
  • Non-Goals
  • Acknowledgments
•  1  Energy Awareness and Energy Management
  • 1.1  Energy Cannot Be Created or Destroyed
  • 1.2  Energy Conversion
    • 1.2.1  Converting Speed to Altitude and Back
    • 1.2.2  Energy Per Unit Mass
    • 1.2.3  Converting Fuel to Altitude
    • 1.2.4  Power versus Energy
    • 1.2.5  Drag and the Power Curve — Introduction
    • 1.2.6  Rates of Energy Conversion
  • 1.3  Effect of Controls on Energy
    • 1.3.1  Power Budget — Using the Engine
    • 1.3.2  The Effects of the Throttle
    • 1.3.3  The Effects of the Yoke
    • 1.3.4  Sizes of Energy Reservoirs
  • 1.4  Energy Management Strategy
  • 1.5  Additional Discussion
  • 1.6  Summary: Energy Management
•  2  Angle of Attack Awareness and Angle of Attack Management
  • 2.1  The Importance of Angle of Attack
  • 2.2  Definition of Angle of Attack
  • 2.3  Trim for Angle of Attack!
  • 2.4  Three Contributions to Angle of Attack
  • 2.5  Perceiving Pitch Angle
  • 2.6  Making Changes in Angle of Attack
  • 2.7  Fly with a Light Touch
  • 2.8  Trim Won’t Solve All The World’s Problems
  • 2.9  Pitch Attitude versus Angle of Attack
  • 2.10  Power plus Attitude does not equal Performance
  • 2.11  More About the Power Curve
  • 2.12  Estimating the Relative Wind
  • 2.13  Airspeed Is Related to Angle of Attack
    • 2.13.1  Airspeed versus Coefficient of Lift
    • 2.13.2  Coefficient of Lift versus Angle of Attack
    • 2.13.3  Correcting for Reduced Density
    • 2.13.4  Correcting for Reduced Lift Requirements
    • 2.13.5  Correcting for Increased Lift Requirements
    • 2.13.6  Estimating Approach Reference Speed (Simple Case)
    • 2.13.7  More About Airspeed Calibration (Not So Simple)
    • 2.13.8  Correcting for Slip
    • 2.13.9  Drag and Lift-to-Drag Ratio
  • 2.14  Not Everything Depends on Angle of Attack
    • 2.14.1  Explicit Airspeed Limits
    • 2.14.2  Maneuvering Speed
    • 2.14.3  Overview of Limits and Performance Numbers
  • 2.15  Absolute versus Geometric Angle of Attack
  • 2.16  Summary
•  3  Airfoils and Airflow
  • 3.1  The Airplane and the Air
  • 3.2  Flow Patterns Near a Wing
  • 3.3  Pressure Patterns Near a Wing
  • 3.4  Upwash and Downwash
  • 3.5  Stream Line Curvature
  • 3.6  Bernoulli’s Principle
    • 3.6.1  Magnitude
    • 3.6.2  Altimeters; Static versus Stagnation Pressure
    • 3.6.3  Compressibility
  • 3.7  Stall Warning Devices
  • 3.8  Air Is A Fluid, Not A Bunch of Bullets
  • 3.9  Other Fallacies
  • 3.10  Inverted Flight, Cambered vs. Symmetric Airfoils
  • 3.11  Thin Wings
  • 3.12  Circulation
    • 3.12.1  Visualizing the circulation
    • 3.12.2  How Much Circulation? The Kutta Condition
    • 3.12.3  How Much Lift? The Kutta-Zhukovsky Theorem
    • 3.12.4  Quantifying the Circulation
  • 3.13  Mechanically-Induced Circulation
  • 3.14  Lift Requires Circulation & Vortices
    • 3.14.1  Vortices
    • 3.14.2  Wake Turbulence
    • 3.14.3  Induced Drag
    • 3.14.4  Soft-Field Takeoff
    • 3.14.5  Ground Effect
    • 3.14.6  Bound Vortex
  • 3.15  Frost on the Wings
  • 3.16  Consistent (Not Cumulative) Laws of Physics
  • 3.17  Summary: How a Wing Produces Lift
•  4  Lift, Thrust, Weight, and Drag
  • 4.1  Definitions
  • 4.2  Balance of Forces
  • 4.3  Forces During a Turn
  • 4.4  Types of Drag
  • 4.5  Coefficients, Forces, and Power
    • Coefficients
    • Forces
    • Powers
  • 4.6  Induced vs. Parasite Drag
•  5  Vertical Damping, Roll Damping, and Stalls
  • 5.1  Introduction and Overview
  • 5.2  Vertical Damping
    • 5.2.1  Origins of Vertical Damping
    • 5.2.2  Loss of Vertical Damping
  • 5.3  The Stall
    • 5.3.1  Definition of Stall
    • 5.3.2  Flying Beyond the Stall?
  • 5.4  Roll Damping
    • 5.4.1  Origins of Roll Damping
    • 5.4.2  Loss of Roll Damping
    • 5.4.3  Schemes to Increase Roll Damping
  • 5.5  The Effect of Flaps
    • 5.5.1  Effect on Stalling Speed
    • 5.5.2  Effect on Incidence
    • 5.5.3  Effect on Washout
    • 5.5.4  Effect on Drag
    • 5.5.5  Effect on Trim
    • 5.5.6  Effect on Top Speed
  • 5.6  Summary
•  6  Angle of Attack Stability, Trim, and Spiral Dives
  • 6.1  The Basic Stability Principle
    • 6.1.1  Loafing with Leverage
    • 6.1.2  Other Flying Objects Are Not Similar
    • 6.1.3  Center of Mass Too Far Aft
    • 6.1.4  Center of Mass Near the Middle
    • 6.1.5  Center of Mass, Lift, and Area
    • 6.1.6  Pitch-Wise Equilibrium
    • 6.1.7  Canards Operate on the Same Principle
    • 6.1.8  Beyond Decalage
    • 6.1.9  Springs and Bobweights
    • 6.1.10  Long-Tail Pitch Effect
    • 6.1.11  Center of Mass Too Far Forward
    • 6.1.12  Other Failure Modes
    • 6.1.13  Practical Considerations
    • 6.1.14  Phugoid Oscillations
  • 6.2  Spiral Dive
    • 6.2.1  Which Way Is Up?
    • 6.2.2  Overview
    • 6.2.3  General Discussion
    • 6.2.4  Recovering From a Spiral Dive
    • 6.2.5  Try It Yourself
  • 6.3  Summary
•  7  More About Energy and Power
  • 7.1  Introduction
  • 7.2  Making Changes in Airspeed
    • 7.2.1  Front Side of the Power Curve
    • 7.2.2  Back Side of the Power Curve
    • 7.2.3  Right versus Wrong Procedures
  • 7.3  You Can Get Away With A Lot During Cruise
  • 7.4  Let “George” Do It
  • 7.5  Max Performance using the Power Curve
    • 7.5.1  Calibrated Airspeed versus True Airspeed
    • 7.5.2  Best Rate of Climb
    • 7.5.3  Minimum Level-Flight Speed
    • 7.5.4  Best Angle of Climb
    • 7.5.5  Power Depends on Altitude via True Airspeed
    • 7.5.6  Other Power and Altitude Effects
    • 7.5.7  Best Glide: Wind, Downdrafts, etc.
    • 7.5.8  Weight Effects
    • 7.5.9  Center of Mass Effects
  • 7.6  Variations in the Power Curve
    • 7.6.1  Power Curve Depends on Aspect Ratio
    • 7.6.2  Sketching the Curve
    • 7.6.3  Some Theory
    • 7.6.4  Power Requirements versus Speed
    • 7.6.5  Power Requirements versus Altitude
  • 7.7  Energy Management Stunts
    • 7.7.1  High-Speed Steep Descent
    • 7.7.2  Low-Speed Steep Descent
  • 7.8  Summary
•  8  Yaw-Wise Torque Budget
  • 8.1  Overview
  • 8.2  Yaw Stability
  • 8.3  Yaw Damping
  • 8.4  Helical Propwash
  • 8.5  P-Factor
    • 8.5.1  Blade Speed
    • 8.5.2  Blade Angle
    • 8.5.3  Initial Takeoff Roll
    • 8.5.4  Observing P-Factor
  • 8.6  Gyroscopic Precession
  • 8.7  Canted Engine
  • 8.8  Yaw-Wise Rotation of Propwash
  • 8.9  Rudder Usage During Rolls
    • 8.9.1  Analysis of a Roll
    • 8.9.2  Designers’ Tricks
    • 8.9.3  Two Modes and Four Zones
    • 8.9.4  Transitory Adverse Yaw
    • 8.9.5  Steady Adverse Yaw – Twisted Lift
    • 8.9.6  Yaw-Wise Inertia
    • 8.9.7  Amount of Rudder Required
    • 8.9.8  Summary: Coordinated Turning Procedures
  • 8.10  Long-Tail Slip
  • 8.11  Boat Turn
  • 8.12  Weathervaning During Taxi
  • 8.13  Asymmetric Thrust
  • 8.14  Yaw-Wise Torque Budget — Summary
•  9  Roll-Wise Torque Budget
  • 9.1  Dihedral
  • 9.2  Other Forms of Slip-Roll Coupling
  • 9.3  Roll-Wise Stability
  • 9.4  Differential Wingtip Speed; Overbanking
  • 9.5  Rolling Moment due to Propeller Drag
  • 9.6  Engine Inertia
  • 9.7  Climbing and Descending Turns
  • 9.8  Roll-Wise Torque Budget — Summary
•  10  Equilibrium, Stability, and Damping
  • 10.1  Equilibrium
  • 10.2  Stability
  • 10.3  Damping
  • 10.4  Relationship between Static Stability and Damping
  • 10.5  Oleo-Pneumatic Struts
  • 10.6  Oscillations
    • 10.6.1  Analysis of Dutch Roll
    • 10.6.2  How to Fight Oscillations
  • 10.7  Stability and Controllability
•  11  Slips, Skids, and Snap Rolls
  • 11.1  A Lesson on Snap Rolls
  • 11.2  Slipping Situation versus Slipping Maneuver
  • 11.3  Perceiving the Slip Angle
  • 11.4  Skids
    • 11.4.1  Definition and Explanation
    • 11.4.2  Bottom Rudder: Right vs. Wrong
  • 11.5  Intentional Slips
    • 11.5.1  Overview
    • 11.5.2  General Considerations
    • 11.5.3  Slipping Increases the Stall Speed
    • 11.5.4  Slipping May Perturb the Pitot/Static System
    • 11.5.5  Turning Slips
    • 11.5.6  Left Slip versus Right Slip
    • 11.5.7  Side Slip – Or Not
  • 11.6  Anticipate Correct Rudder Usage
  • 11.7  Perceiving Slip, Perceiving Coordination
    • 11.7.1  Looking Out the Side
    • 11.7.2  Looking Out the Front
    • 11.7.3  Using the Inclinometer Ball
    • 11.7.4  Using the Seat of Your Pants
    • 11.7.5  Intentional Slips
    • 11.7.6  Slip Angle versus Bank Angle
  • 11.8  Summary
•  12  Landing
  • 12.1  Planning the Approach
    • 12.1.1  Other Planning Issues
    • 12.1.2  Traffic
    • 12.1.3  Obstacle Clearance
  • 12.2  Judging Left or Right
  • 12.3  Judging High or Low; Rule of Thumb
  • 12.4  Judging Pitch Attitude and Angle of Attack
    • 12.4.1  Use Outside References and Trim
    • 12.4.2  Observe and Control More Than One Thing
    • 12.4.3  Correct for Wind
  • 12.5  Other Perceptions
  • 12.6  Basic “Normal” Landing
    • 12.6.1  Short Final
    • 12.6.2  Flare
    • 12.6.3  Round Roundout, not Square Flare
    • 12.6.4  Timing the Flare
    • 12.6.5  Touchdown and Rollout
  • 12.7  High-Performance Landing
    • 12.7.1  Choose the Right Runway
    • 12.7.2  Use the Right Configuration
    • 12.7.3  Touch Down at the Right Point
    • 12.7.4  Touch Down at a Low Speed
    • 12.7.5  Use the Brakes
    • 12.7.6  Summary: High-Performance Landing
  • 12.8  Soft-field Landing
  • 12.9  Crosswind Landing
    • 12.9.1  Basics
    • 12.9.2  Alignment Priorities
    • 12.9.3  Alignment Procedures
    • 12.9.4  Flare and Touchdown
    • 12.9.5  Wings-Level Crosswind Landing
  • 12.10  Going Around
  • 12.11  Learning to Land the Airplane
    • 12.11.1  Maneuver by Reference to the Edge
    • 12.11.2  High-Speed Taxiing; Roadrunner Mode
    • 12.11.3  Practice Maneuvering at Altitude
    • 12.11.4  Practice Flaring and Stalling at Altitude
    • 12.11.5  Practice High-Speed Taxiiing
    • 12.11.6  Practice Flying in the Runway Environment
    • 12.11.7  Learn Soft-Field Procedure First
    • 12.11.8  Nose-High Rollout
    • 12.11.9  Recovering from an Evil Zoom
    • 12.11.10  Salvaging an Imperfect Flare
  • 12.12  Fly with a Light Touch
  • 12.13  Critique Your Own Landings
•  13  Takeoff
  • 13.1  Simplest Takeoff
  • 13.2  Normal Takeoff
  • 13.3  Obstructed-Field Takeoff
    • Skimming versus Wheelbarrowing or Flap-Popping
  • 13.4  Soft-Field Takeoff
  • 13.5  Crosswind Technique
  • 13.6  Multi-Engine Takeoff
  • 13.7  Planning and Decisionmaking
    • 13.7.1  Planning the Takeoff
    • 13.7.2  Checklist Usage
    • 13.7.3  Monitoring Takeoff Performance (wrong)
    • 13.7.4  Monitoring Takeoff Performance (right)
    • 13.7.5  Causes of Diminished Power
    • 13.7.6  Plan & Practice Rejected Takeoffs
    • 13.7.7  After Liftoff: Departure Climb
  • 13.8  Other Elements of the Takeoff
  • 13.9  Summary
•  14  Cross-Country Flying
  • 14.1  Pilotage
    • 14.1.1  Airports Make Good Landmarks
    • 14.1.2  Choose Distinctive Landmarks
    • 14.1.3  Doglegs
    • 14.1.4  Reality-Based Navigation
  • 14.2  Dead Reckoning
    • 14.2.1  Course
    • 14.2.2  Distance, Time, and Airspeed
    • 14.2.3  Crosswind Correction
    • 14.2.4  The Wind Triangle
    • 14.2.5  Discussion
  • 14.3  Navigating by Instruments
    • 14.3.1  Don’t Be a Gauge Junkie
    • 14.3.2  Navigation Systems (Brief Survey)
    • 14.3.3  Intended Heading
  • 14.4  VOR Techniques
    • 14.4.1  Off-Course Distance
    • 14.4.2  Approaching the Station
    • 14.4.3  Progress Along the Course
    • 14.4.4  Twisted VORs
  • 14.5  Combined Techniques
  • 14.6  Staying Un-Lost
  • 14.7  Getting Un-Lost
    • 14.7.1  Basics
    • 14.7.2  When in Doubt, Climb
    • 14.7.3  GPS or LORAN
    • 14.7.4  VOR Cross Radials or VOR/DME
    • 14.7.5  Ask ATC
  • 14.8  Flight Planning
•  15  Emergency Procedures
  • 15.1  Dealing with Emergencies
  • 15.2  Engine Out Procedures
    • 15.2.1  Emergency Checklist
    • 15.2.2  Lower the Nose
    • 15.2.3  Configuring for Glide
    • 15.2.4  Return to Airport?
    • 15.2.5  Pick a Field
    • 15.2.6  Power-Off Approach
    • 15.2.7  Skimming in Ground Effect
    • 15.2.8  Emergency Touchdown
  • 15.3  Preventing Emergencies
    • 15.3.1  Safety Margins
    • 15.3.2  Fuel Management
•  16  Flight Maneuvers
  • 16.1  Fundamentals
  • 16.2  Seeing and Avoiding Other Traffic
  • 16.3  Speeding Up and Slowing Down
  • 16.4  Phugoids
  • 16.5  Turns
  • 16.6  Coordination Exercise : Rocking the Wings
  • 16.7  Constant-Heading Slips
  • 16.8  Crabbing Along a Road
  • 16.9  Slipping Along a Road
  • 16.10  Slipping Across a Road, Or Not
  • 16.11  Familiarization Exercises; Configuration Changes
  • 16.12  Transitioning to Fast and Complex Aircraft
  • 16.13  Turns around a Point
  • 16.14  Eights Around Pylons
  • 16.15  Chandelles
  • 16.16  Lazy Eights
  • 16.17  Eights and Turns on Pylons
    • 16.17.1  Preliminaries
    • 16.17.2  Turns on a Pylon
    • 16.17.3  Eights on Pylons
  • 16.18  Changing Headwinds and Tailwinds
    • 16.18.1  Steady Wind
    • 16.18.2  Albatross Effect: Winds that Vary with Altitude
    • 16.18.3  Windshear on Approach and Departure
    • 16.18.4  Turning Downwind; Energy Budget
    • 16.18.5  Section Summary: Headwinds and Tailwinds
  • 16.19  Ground Reference Strategy
    • 16.19.1  Accounting for the Wind
    • 16.19.2  Entry Strategy
    • 16.19.3  Visual Reference
    • 16.19.4  Checklist
  • 16.20  Slow Flight
    • 16.20.1  Airspeed and Altitude
    • 16.20.2  Yaw and Roll
    • 16.20.3  Procedures and Perceptions
  • 16.21  Stall Practice
    • 16.21.1  Preliminaries
    • 16.21.2  Provoking a Distinct Stall
    • 16.21.3  Stall Recovery
    • 16.21.4  Power-On Stalls
    • 16.21.5  Accelerated Stalls
    • 16.21.6  Evil Zooms
  • 16.22  Recovering from Inverted Attitude
•  17  Multi-Engine Flying
  • 17.1  Engine Out Scenarios
    • 17.1.1  Takeoff
    • 17.1.2  Climb
    • 17.1.3  Coordination
    • 17.1.4  Perception and Initial Response
    • 17.1.5  Yaw Control at Reduced Speeds
    • 17.1.6  Minimum Control Speed — Definitions
    • 17.1.7  Effect of Altitude, Weight, etc.
    • 17.1.8  Effect of Center of Mass
    • 17.1.9  Effect of Drag (e.g. Landing Gear)
    • 17.1.10  Roll Control
    • 17.1.11  Critical Engine
  • 17.2  Engine Out Procedures
    • 17.2.1  Basic Takeoff Considerations
    • 17.2.2  Balanced Field Length; Takeoff Decision Speed
    • 17.2.3  Procedure: Low Altitude
    • 17.2.4  Procedure: Higher Altitude
    • 17.2.5  Airspeed Management
    • 17.2.6  Engine-Out Go-Arounds
    • 17.2.7  Low-Speed Engine-Out Demonstrations
•  18  Stalls and Spins
  • 18.1  Stalls: Causes and Effects
  • 18.2  Stalling Part vs. All of the Wing
  • 18.3  Boundary Layers
    • 18.3.1  Separated versus Attached Flow
    • 18.3.2  Laminar versus Turbulent Flow
    • 18.3.3  Boundary Layer Control
    • 18.3.4  Recap: Turbulence and Boundary Layers
  • 18.4  Coandǎ Effect, etc.
    • 18.4.1  Tissue-paper Demonstration
    • 18.4.2  Blowing the Boundary Layer
    • 18.4.3  Teaspoon Demonstration
    • 18.4.4  Fallacious Model of Lift Production
    • 18.4.5  Fact versus Fallacy
  • 18.5  Spin Entry
  • 18.6  Types of Spin
    • 18.6.1  Spin Modes
    • 18.6.2  Samaras, Flat Spins, and Centrifugal Force
    • 18.6.3  NASA Spin Studies
    • 18.6.4  Effects of Changes in Orientation of Spin
  • 18.7  Recovering from a Spin
  • 18.8  Don’t Mess With Spins
•  19  The Laws of Motion
  • 19.1  Straight-Line Motion
    • 19.1.1  First Law
    • 19.1.2  Second Law
    • 19.1.3  Third Law
    • 19.1.4  Two Notions of Acceleration
    • 19.1.5  Force is Not Motion
  • 19.2  Momentum in the Air
  • 19.3  Sitting in a Rotating Frame
  • 19.4  Moving in a Rotating Frame
    • Magnitude of the Effect
  • 19.5  Centrifuges with and without Gravity
    • 19.5.1  The Centrifugal Field is as Real as Gravity
    • 19.5.2  Centrifuge
    • 19.5.3  Centrifuge and Gravity
  • 19.6  Centrifugal Effects in a Turning Airplane
  • 19.7  Angles and Rotations
    • 19.7.1  Axes and Planes of Rotation: Yaw, Pitch, and Roll
    • 19.7.2  Attitude: Heading, Pitch, Bank
    • 19.7.3  Angle Terminology
    • 19.7.4  Yaw Does Not Commute with Pitch
    • 19.7.5  Yaw Does Not Commute with Bank
  • 19.8  Torque and Moment
  • 19.9  Angular Momentum
  • 19.10  Gyroscopes
    • 19.10.1  Precession
    • 19.10.2  Precession: Which Way and How Much
    • 19.10.3  Inertial Platform
  • 19.11  Gyroscopic Instruments
    • 19.11.1  Heading Indicator
    • 19.11.2  Artificial Horizon
    • 19.11.3  Rate-of-Turn Gyro
  • 19.12  Some Fine Points about Energy and Conservation
    • 19.12.1  Vernacular «Energy»
    • 19.12.2  Vernacular «Conservation»
    • 19.12.3  Energy versus Entropy
•  20  The Atmosphere
  • 20.1  Circulation Around Fronts and Low Pressure Centers
    • 20.1.1  Flow Around a Low
    • 20.1.2  Fronts and Troughs
  • 20.2  Pressure and Winds Aloft
    • 20.2.1  Thermal Gradient Wind
    • 20.2.2  Altimetry
    • 20.2.3  Altimeter Errors
    • 20.2.4  High Altimeter due to Low Temperature
  • 20.3  Prevailing Winds and Seasonal Winds
    • 20.3.1  Primary Circulation Patterns
    • 20.3.2  Continental / Oceanic Patterns
  • 20.4  Summary
•  21  Pilot-In-Command Decisionmaking
  • 21.1  Decisionmaking In General
  • 21.2  Decisionmaking during Lessons
    • 21.2.1  Please Act As PIC During Lessons
    • 21.2.2  How’s Your Workload?
    • 21.2.3  I’ve Got It
    • 21.2.4  Hood Work
  • 21.3  Layers of Safety
  • 21.4  Example: Obstacle Clearance
  • 21.5  Flow Pattern
  • 21.6  Checklists
  • 21.7  Personal Minimums
  • 21.8  Skepticism; Crisp Execution of Plan B
  • 21.9  Leadership and Resource Management
  • 21.10  Lifelong Learning
    • 21.10.1  Learn How to Learn, How to Remember, and How to Think
    • 21.10.2  The Curse of Dimensionality
    • 21.10.3  Critical Thinking
    • 21.10.4  Learn from the Experience of Others
  • 21.11  Try to Outdo Yourself
•  22  Bibliography
•  23  About the Book, etc.
  • 23.1  About the Book
  • 23.2  About the Web Site
  • 23.3  Configuring and Troubleshooting your Browser
  • 23.4  Notice — Instructions — Terms of Sale
• About the Author
• Index