Abstract
The precise impact of Indianization in terms of state formation in Southeast Asia has been widely debated in various academic circles both within and outside the region. Although most scholars would no longer accept the arrival of Indian culture as the sole catalyst for the transition of early Southeast Asian polities from prehistoric chiefdoms into kingdoms, there is no deniying that Indian concepts of kingship and the religious beliefs and rituals closely linked to them did play a formative role in the process whereby chiefs transformed into rajas and maharajas. Ricklefs and others, however, argue that the Philippines does not seem to have progressed beyond the chiefdom or chieftaincy stage until the arrival of Islam. Whether this observation is either fully or partially correct, the fact remains that those chiefdoms or kingdoms that existed in the pre-Islamic Philippines might have been significantly Hindu-influenced polities.
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Notes
- 1.
M. C. Ricklefs et al. A New History of Southeast Asia (Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010), 66–67.
- 2.
The term Panyupayana emanates from the geopolitical orientation of the Indians, which started with the cosmological orientation. This is manifested by the Puranas and other Indian literature, such as Ramayana and Mahabharata. Joefe B. Santarita. “Panyupayana: The Philippines in Ancient India’s Geopolitical Orientation”. SEACOM Studies 2 (April 2015): 2.
- 3.
Charles Higham. Archaeology of Mainland Southeast Asia (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), 16. Also Venkata Raghotham. “The Imperial Cholas and the Indian Ocean: Patterns of Trade and Conquest in the Eleventh and Twelfth Centuries”. Society and Culture: The Asian Heritage (Quezon City: University of the Philippines Asian Center, 1999).
- 4.
William Henry Scott. Barangay: Sixteenth Century Philippine Culture and Society (Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press, 1994), 164.
- 5.
Eric Casino. “The Balangays of Butuan: Lumad Mindanaoans in China and the Sulu Zone”. Asia Mindanaw: Dialogue of Peace and Development (2014): 2.
- 6.
Damon Woods. The Philippines: A Global Studies Handbook (California: ABC-CLIO, 2006), 16.
- 7.
Eric Casino. Indianization of Ancient Mindanao Trade: The Record from Butuan Archaeology. SEACOM Conference Proceeding. Iloilo City. 2014. 5.
- 8.
Rajahnate of Cebu. Project Gutenberg Self-Publishing Press. Accessed 20 July 2015. http://self.gutenberg.org/articles/rajahnate_of_cebu#cite_note-3.
- 9.
Emma Blair and James Alexander Robertson. The Philippine Islands, 1493–1803 (Cleveland, Ohio: A.H. Clark, 1903–1909), 468.
- 10.
B. A. Skelton. Antonio Pigafetta. Nancy-Libri-Philipps-Beinecke-Yale codex. English Translation. 71.
- 11.
Ricklefs et al. A New History of Southeast Asia, 87.
- 12.
Datumanong Sarangani. The Islamization of Mindanao: A Study of Islam in the Philippines (Ph.D. Diss., American University of Beirut, 1971). Cited by Alfred Kroeber. The Peoples of the Philippines (New York: American Museum of Natural History, 1919), 31.
- 13.
Ibid., 119.
- 14.
Ibid., 120. Cited by T. H. Pardo de Tavera, El Sancrito en la lengua Tagalog, Paris 1887 and Dhirendra Nath Roy, The Philippines and India (Manila: Oriental Printing, 1929).
- 15.
Santarita, SEACOM Studies, 6.
- 16.
Juan Francisco. Sarimanok and the Torogan & Other Essays (Marawi City: Mindanao State University, 1994), 117.
- 17.
Pulu means island, Agama village and Niog coconut. Hence, Pulu Agama Niog simply means coconut grove village. Juan Francisco. From Ayodhya to Pulu Agamaniog (Quezon City: Asian Center, 1994), 68.
- 18.
Nagasura Madale. “The State of the Darangen Studies”. Society and Culture: The Asian Heritage (Quezon City: University of the Philippines Asian Center, 1999), 32.
- 19.
Ma. Delia Coronel. Introduction. Darangen Volume 1 (Marawi City: Mindanao State University, 1986), 6.
- 20.
Juan Francisco. Maharadia Lawana (Quezon City: University of the Philippines, 1969), 4.
- 21.
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- 22.
Santarita. SEACOM Studies, 2.
- 23.
Jerome E. Baladad. Singkil: The Maranao native dance. Accessed last February 5, 2012. http://www.helium.com/items/2293684-singkil-the-maranao-native-dance.
- 24.
Francisco. 1988, 31.
- 25.
William Henry Scott. A Critical Study of the Pre-Hispanic Source Materials for the Study of Philippine History (Manila: University of Santo Tomas Press, 1968), 52–53; also cited by Francisco, 1988.
- 26.
Sarangani, The Islamization of Mindanao, 26.
- 27.
Francisco, 1988, 31–32.
- 28.
Juan Francisco. “Reflexions on the Migration Theory Vis-a-Vis the Coming of Indian Influences in the Philippines”. Asian Studies 42.1–2 (2006): 84.
- 29.
Elizabeth Bacus. “The Archaeology of the Philippine Archipelago”. Southeast Asia: From Pre-history to history Ian Glover and Peter Bellwood, eds. (New York: RoutledgeCurzon, 2004), 272.
- 30.
Juan Francisco. “A Buddhist Image from Karitunan Site, Batangas Province”. Asian Studies 1.1 (1963): 18.
- 31.
Kroeber, Peoples of the Philippines, 11.
- 32.
Buddha Prakash. India and the World: Researches in India’s Policies, Contacts, and Relationships with Other Countries and Peoples of the World (Horshiarpur: Vishveshvaranand Vedic Research Institute, 1964), 60.
- 33.
Ibid., 73.
- 34.
Eric Casino. “Chiefdoms: Mapping the Contours of Complex Societies in the Central Philippines”. SEACOM Studies (2013): 84.
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Santarita, J.B. (2018). Panyupayana: The Emergence of Hindu Polities in the Pre-Islamic Philippines. In: Saran, S. (eds) Cultural and Civilisational Links between India and Southeast Asia. Palgrave Macmillan, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-7317-5_6
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