Abstract
This study analyzes the non-linear relationship between urbanization and CO2 emissions over the period 1971 to 2014 in Indonesia. The findings unveil an inverted U-shaped relationship between urbanization and CO2 emissions. Urbanization increases CO2 emissions, but after achieving a certain level, it negatively impacts emissions. Economic growth and energy intensity increase CO2 emissions, while trade openness has no significant effect on CO2 emissions. Further, we have validated the robustness of results by using the ecological carbon footprint as a proxy of environmental degradation. The results of the causality test show unidirectional causality running from economic growth to emissions and energy intensity, and feedback effect between urbanization and emissions. Finally, several policy measures are proposed to improve the environment without reducing the urbanization level.
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Notes
IEA CO2 Emissions from Fuel Combustion, 2017 Highlights are available at http://www.iea.org/media/statistics/CO2Highlights.xls (accessed on March 25, 2019)
How Indonesia became home to some incredible smart city projects. Available at http://www.iismex.com/news/news/3-how-indonesia-became-home-to-some-incredible-smart-city-projects.html (accessed on April 6, 2019)
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Funding
Current study is supported by Yangtze River Distinguished Professor of MOE, Humanities and Social Science Fund of Ministry of Education of China (Reference No. 17YJC630145), National Natural Science Foundation of China (Reference Nos. 71774014, 91746208, 71521002, 71403021, 71573016), National Social Sciences Foundation (Reference No. 17ZDA065), National Key Research and Development Program of China (Reference Nos. 2016YFA0602504), National Science Fund for Distinguished Young Scholars (Reference No. 71625003), and China Postdoctoral Science Foundation (Reference No. 2017M620648).
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Ahmed, Z., Wang, Z. & Ali, S. Investigating the non-linear relationship between urbanization and CO2 emissions: An empirical analysis. Air Qual Atmos Health 12, 945–953 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11869-019-00711-x
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11869-019-00711-x