1 Introduction

The discussions on the use of technology in education have a long history. These debates, which were initiated with the use of the printing press in the Middle Ages and with whether information should be transmitted verbally or in writing in ancient times, were replaced by the face-to-face/distance education dilemma in the last few decades (Moore et al., 2011; Roblyer, 1998; Wakil et al., 2019). Distance education is an innovative teaching method in which interactive telecommunication systems are employed to bring learning materials, instructors, and learners that are in physically different places together (Simonson & Seepersaud, 2019). It can be performed in asynchronous ways, where educators and students do not come together simultaneously, and in synchronous ways where they meet at a preset time (Fidalgo et al., 2020). The improvements in information technologies have enabled online learning settings for face-to-face education, where lessons are taught live supporting learner-tutor interactions such as instant questioning and discussion (Watts, 2016). Although this new technology-mediated learning approach, which is also called e-learning, has many advantages e.g. providing diversity in learning methods, flexibility in terms of time and space, allowing students to progress at their own pace, and having low cost (Cleveland-Innes et al., 2019; Kuliya & Usman, 2021), it cannot be recommended as an alternative to traditional classroom learning (Sadeghi, 2019). The reasons for this are the relatively low student achievement in distance education applications (Bawa, 2016) and the lack of adequate knowledge of the advantages, disadvantages, and effects of these practices on student outcomes (Liu et al., 2019). The COVID-19 pandemic affected people’s health, economy, social life, and education negatively. On the other hand, it also accelerated the transition from traditional classroom learning to e-learning, and many countries, including Turkey, made the transition to distance education to reduce the spread of the virus with the recommendation of healthcare authorities (Alan et al., 2020; Bergdahl & Nouri, 2021), which brought an opportunity to develop, implement, and test the effectiveness of online learning platforms.

Studies show that the forced transition to e-learning was not smooth. Early evidence revealed that both educators and students faced difficulties in adapting to this process in the first place because of the inconvenience of e-learning, insufficient technology skills, and accreditation problems (Demuyakor, 2020; Favale et al., 2020). Students said that their anxiety and burnout towards learning increased and their commitment decreased with the transition to distance education (Chen et al., 2020; Unger & Meiran, 2020). The psychological responses of students to e-learning settings are critical to the development of distance education. For this reason, there is an increasing study interest in the level of academic satisfaction, which is among the most important targets of higher education institutions, in online settings (e.g. Venkatesh et al., 2020; Yunusa & Umar, 2021). However, since recent studies generally focused on contextual factors e.g. service quality, system quality, teaching methods, and usability of the system (Dwidienawati et al., 2020; Jahanara et al., 2021; Kim & Park, 2021), little is known about intra-individual factors affecting students’ academic satisfaction in e-learning settings. Clarifying these factors can help more effective process management in the future. The present study aimed to examine the mediator role of academic self-efficacy and the moderator role of gender in the relation between attitude towards distance education and academic satisfaction.

2 Background

2.1 Academic Satisfaction in the Distance Education Setting

The term satisfaction refers to the individuals’ positive affective responses including their subjective evaluations of the life quality (Diener et al., 1985). The individuals' subjective evaluations about various life domains and roles including family, work, school, and social might be significant indicator of their global life satisfaction (Franzen et al., 2021). In this sense, there is a positive relationship between students' academic life satisfaction and their psychological well-being (Lodi et al., 2019). Academic life satisfaction is defined as “the perceived enjoyment and fulfilment in the role or experiences of being a student” (Bergey et al., 2018, p1). In other words, it refers to the positive emotional state that results from a subjective evaluation of the quality of the learning experiences (Sánchez-Cardona et al., 2021) and the level of satisfaction that is experienced during the student role (Bergey et al., 2018).

Academic satisfaction plays a critical role in student outcomes in both face-to-face and online learning environments. High academic satisfaction is associated closely with students’ motivation levels, performance, academic resilience, learning efficiency, and academic success (Chang & Chang, 2012; Chau & Cheung, 2018; Ko & Chung, 2014). Previous studies showed that satisfaction with learning environment has a critical role in the formation and maintenance of academic commitment, which is one of the important determinants of the adaptation of students to school and attendance (Rabe-Hemp et al., 2009). Low academic satisfaction can result in dropping out of a course, which is more common in distance education (Levy, 2007). Therefore, the unplanned and rapid transition to distance education due to the COVID-19 pandemic has raised concerns among educators and researchers about students' level of learning, academic achievement, and satisfaction (She et al., 2021). In fact, distance learning was unfamiliar to the vast majority of students and therefore the Covid-19 pandemic has greatly affected the lives of university students. For example, students faced with various problems including inequality of opportunity, technological infrastructure and problems in accessing the internet (Avcı & Akdeniz, 2021). For this reason, academic life satisfaction is an important output in evaluating the success and effectiveness of online learning processes, whose prevalence has increased after the COVID-19 pandemic (Al-Nasa'h et al., 2021; Dwidienawati et al., 2020).

Studies on the subject reported conflicting outcomes. Although some researchers reported that students faced high academic satisfaction in online learning environments (Basith et al., 2020), some report medium (Şimşek et al., 2021), and some low academic satisfaction levels (Al-Nasa'h et al., 2021). In a comprehensive study that included 22 universities, it was reported that the degree of academic satisfaction of students varied between high satisfaction and dissatisfaction, and, although nearly half of the students expressed high satisfaction, a significant part of them reported low satisfaction levels (Aldhahi et al., 2022). Researchers also emphasized that factors such as learner-learner and learner-instructor interactions (Alqurashi, 2019), technological infrastructure, the competence of trainers (Demir & Demir, 2014), and teaching strategies (Sadeghi, 2019) are factors in promoting the academic satisfaction of students (Sadeghi, 2019). On the other hand, the academic satisfaction of students who attend the same course, and for this reason, face the same learning setting might differ. In his study conducted to evaluate a practical course, Kahraman (2020) reported that some students found the course enjoyable, but some stated negative opinions. Some other studies reported that there are inter-individual differences in terms of academic satisfaction in the distance education process (e.g., Aldhahi et al., 2022; Baber, 2020; Landrum, 2020; Shen et al., 2013). These results show that there is a need for studies to explain the effects of student characteristics on student satisfaction as an important factor that affects both the process and the outcomes.

2.2 Attitudes towards Distance Education and Academic Satisfaction

Attitude is a psychological tendency in the form of liking, disliking, or remaining neutral, directing the feelings, thoughts, and behaviors of an individual towards an attitude object (Kağıtçıbaşı, 2013). Attitude has three components: cognitive (knowledge, thoughts, and beliefs about the attitude object), emotional (feelings about the attitude object), and behavioral (observable behaviors such as approaching or staying away from the attitude object) (Ostrom, 1969). An attitude object can be a person, an object, a situation, or any abstract or concrete concept. Students develop attitudes towards distance education practices as well as courses, teachers, schools, and other educational activities (Kışla, 2016; Mishra & Panda, 2007). Attitudes towards to distance education can be conceptually defined as a psychological tendency expressed by evaluating the online learning environment with some degree of satisfied or dissatisfied (Demirel, 2022; Kaban, 2021; Tzivinikou et al., 2021). Because of its strong relationship with behaviors, attitudes are seen as one of the main factors in students' orientation to a course or subject in both face-to-face and online learning environments (Dilling & Vogler, 2022; Petscher, 2010).

However, online learning settings are full of additional complexities for students and educators. Distance education practices require more volunteering in terms of students’ continuation, active participation, and access to learning goals when compared to traditional classroom education. Distance education can result in demotivation, low academic achievement, and dropout for students with negative emotions because the related learning activities allow flexibility (Evans & Tragant, 2020). Since favorable feelings and well-motivated behaviors are driven by attitudes, a positive attitude towards distance education can make a difference in student outcomes.

The attitudes of students can start to show their effects on the process from the beginning of the distance learning process. Previous studies show that students with positive attitudes towards distance education have higher online learning readiness (Hergüner et al., 2020). On the other hand, some studies also report that a significant number of students have low attitudes towards distance education (Kaban, 2021; Yağan, 2021). For online learning environments to result in positive learning experiences for students, it is necessary to improve their attitudes towards distance education. It has been reported previously that there is a significant relationship between students’ academic satisfaction in online learning environments and their attitudes towards distance education (Prior et al., 2016; Sever & Çatı, 2021). In this respect, the following hypothesis has been developed:

H1

The attitude towards distance education predicts academic satisfaction positively.

2.3 A Social Cognitive Perspective on the Technology Acceptance Model

The Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) (Davis, 1989) assesses the relationship between individuals' attitudes, intentions, and behaviors and offers a sound foundation for explaining the relationship between their experiences with a specific technology as well as their level of adoption and acceptance of that technology. TAM argues that an individual's perceptions of a system experience including perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use shape their attitudes, which in turn influence behavioral intention to use and actual use. In fact, previous studies showed the technology acceptance model to understand users' satisfaction levels with various systems, including in various e-learning environments (Han & Sa, 2021). Researchers have also expanded TAM to include the role of intrapersonal and demographic factors in shaping user attitudes (Kemp et al., 2019; Porter & Donthu, 2006). However, the relationship between attitudes and technology satisfaction and/or satisfaction has received less attention, despite the fact that positive attitudes do not necessarily result in technology adoption (Kim et al., 2017). A social cognitive perspective can provide a deeper understanding about this issue.

Accordingly, the Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) (Bandura, 1986) emphasizes the role of thoughts and other internal processes in people's behavioral choices in certain environments. The SCT point out that the individuals as proactive beings contribute causally to their own behavior, motivations, and other emotional states through their agency mechanisms, e.g., self-efficacy (Bandura, 1986). In fact, the Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT) proposes a model to integrate person and situation in explaining satisfaction in work and educational settings (Lent & Brown, 2006). The model posits that perceived situational factors including resources and obstacles, and intrapersonal factors (e.g., positive affect) play a crucial role in shaping self-efficacy beliefs, which contribute significantly to satisfaction (Duffy & Lent, 2009). This model has been empirically documented in both face-to-face (Lent et al., 2007) and e-learning (e.g., Zalazar-Jaime et al., 2021) educational settings to explain the role of various educational and individual factors in classrooms. By embracing the SCCT to explain academic satisfaction in online education settings may help us to document and understand possible psychological processes that mediate the link between attitudes and technology acceptance or satisfaction, which are relatively overlooked in TAM. In this context, the goal of the current study is to explain the relationship between attitudes toward e-learning and academic life satisfaction by adapting the core component of the SCCT (self-efficacy) to the TAM.

2.4 The Mediating Role of Academic Self-Efficacy

Perceived self-efficacy refers to the belief of a person in his/her capacity to successfully perform the behaviors that will enable him/her to overcome the tasks and difficulties to come (Bandura, 1982). The concept of self-efficacy is conceptualized as a multidimensional structure that is divided into various competence areas instead of a general characteristic (Bandura, 2012). Many domain-specific types of self-efficacy were defined in the literature, e.g. teacher self-efficacy, writing self-efficacy, and academic self-efficacy. Academic self-efficacy is defined as “one's perceived capabilities for learning or performing actions at designated levels in academic settings” (Schunk & DiBenedetto, 2022). Academic self-efficacy is related to the belief of individuals in being successful in academic tasks (Bong & Skaalvik, 2003) and expresses their personal beliefs that they can successfully perform the academic tasks assigned to them at the specified level (Sharma & Nasa, 2014). Academic self-efficacy is considered among the targeted factors in education since it has significant effects on the capacity of students to cope and manage academic tasks (Ekici, 2012; Pajares, 1996). The critical role of academic self-efficacy on academic achievement, motivation, commitment, self-regulation, and other desired student outcomes is well documented (Honicke & Broadbent, 2016; Lee et al., 2014; Sahil & Hashim, 2011). Students who have high self-efficacy beliefs do quite easily in the face of failures and work harder to achieve their goals, and those who doubt their abilities stay away from difficult tasks that they see as personal threats and easily become victims of stress and depression (Bandura, 1994). Academic self-efficacy is also closely related to the emotional experiences of students in educational settings. A strong sense of self-efficacy promotes the well-being of students in many ways, e.g., reducing the stress and anxiety faced in learning environments (Nie et al., 2011; Usher & Pajares, 2008). Previous studies reveal that academic self-efficacy is a significant predictor of academic satisfaction in face-to-face (Ojeda et al., 2011; Pinugu, 2013) and online education (Jan, 2015) settings.

Bandura (1994) reported that self-efficacy beliefs stem from four basic sources; mastery experiences, vicarious experiences, verbal persuasion, and physiological and emotional states. Personal achievements or failures, observations of peers about their performance, and reports of performance from people, such as teachers and parents, have important roles in shaping the self-efficacy beliefs of students (Bandura, 1977). Physiological and psychological states are also sources of self-efficacy beliefs. People make inferences about themselves and their competencies by monitoring their psychological states and emotions via their self-judgment skills (Bandura, 1989). For example, while negative emotional experiences e.g. high anxiety, tension, and stress in a task are considered a sign of dysfunction and vulnerability, positive emotional experiences strengthen self-efficacy belief (Stajkovic & Luthans, 1998). In this regard, especially the cognitive and emotional dimensions of attitudes may affect self-efficacy development. As a matter of fact, studies in the literature also report positive relations between attitudes towards distance education and self-efficacy. For example, Özdirek and Cicerali (2021) found a positive and significant relation between the satisfaction of university students with distance education and their academic self-efficacy scores. Similarly, Prior et al. (2016) reported that positive attitudes towards distance education positively affect the self-efficacy levels of students. Other researchers also reported that there are significant relations between positive attitudes towards online learning environments and academic self-efficacy beliefs (Alamri, 2021; Puška et al., 2021; Yau & Leung, 2018). In this respect, the following hypothesis has been developed.

H2

Academic self-efficacy mediates the relation between attitude towards distance education and academic satisfaction.

2.5 The Moderator Role of Gender

Gender is among the student characteristics that must be considered for the process and the outcomes of learning. Previous studies emphasize gender differences in satisfaction with e-learning settings. In an international study that included participants from 11 countries, Jung (2012) reported that women considered distance education more important and satisfactory in terms of 10 different quality dimensions. Johnson (2011) reported that women communicated more in distance education courses, found courses more valuable, and experienced higher satisfaction. Some other studies also report that female students face higher satisfaction in online learning environments when compared to their male peers (González-Gómez et al. 2012; Alharthi et al., 2021). On the other hand, a significant number of studies reported that men are more technology-oriented than women (Šabić et al., 2022) and their technology and computer self-efficacy levels are higher than those of women (Cassidy & Eachus, 2002; Dikmen & Çağlar, 2017; Fidan, 2016; Huang, 2013). However, when the significant effect of computer and information technology-related skill self-efficacy on academic satisfaction is considered (Jan, 2015; Shen et al., 2013), men are expected to experience higher satisfaction in their e-environment. To the best of our knowledge, there is no model in the literature to explain this paradox. Addressing this gap in the literature will make an important contribution to the understanding of gender differences in distance education environments. Dang et al. (2016) reported that although computer self-efficacy and other facilitating factors affect academic satisfaction positively in online learning environments for women, they do not cause any differences in men. This result suggests that gender may play a moderator role in the relation between some antecedents and academic satisfaction. In this respect, the following hypothesis has been developed.

H3

The mediating effect of academic self-efficacy between attitude towards distance education and academic satisfaction is moderated by gender.

In summary, the present study focused on the role of attitude towards distance education, academic self-efficacy, and gender in online learning settings based on self-efficacy theory. In line with the theoretical implications and the findings of previous studies, it was assumed that the relationship between attitude towards distance education and academic satisfaction would be mediated by academic self-efficacy and moderated by gender. To confirm these hypotheses, the relations between study variables were tested with the mediated moderation approach. The conceptual model that was hypothesized in the study is given in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1
figure 1

Hypothesized conceptual model

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3 Research Methodology

3.1 Participants and Procedure

The study group consisted of 452 (F = 78.3%, n = 354; M = 21.7, n = 98) participants who were selected with the convenient sampling method from 3 different state universities in Turkey. A total of 20.8% (n = 94) of the students were first graders, 24.6% (n = 111) were second graders, 25.4% (n = 115) were third graders, and 29.2% (n = 132) were fourth-graders. The ages of the participants were between 18 and 28, with an average of 22.57 (SD = 2.65). The study data were collected with online questionnaires. Before data collection began, all potential participants were briefed about the purposes of the study, potential risks and benefits, and volunteerism. Those who would participate in the study voluntarily were asked to sign an online consent form. This study was performed in accordance with the ethical standards as laid down in the 1964 Declaration of Helsinki and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards and was approved by Ethics Committee of Trabzon University (ID: 81614018-000-E.1242).

3.2 Data Collection Tools

The data on the gender, grade level, and age of the students who participated in the study were collected with the Personal Information Form that was created by the researchers. Information on the other data collection tools that were used to collect data in this study is as follows:

3.2.1 Attitude Scale towards Distance Education Applied in the Period of the Outbreak

This scale was developed by Arslan (2021) to determine the attitudes of students towards distance education during the pandemic period and consisted of 21 items and 5 sub-dimensions (satisfaction with the opportunities offered by the university in distance education, attitude towards faculty members in distance education, attitude towards online exams, communication and access in distance education, comparison of distance education and face-to-face education) in a 5-point Likert design. Total scores ranged from 21 to 105. Higher scores indicate higher levels of attitude towards distance education. Confirmatory Factor Analysis that was performed to test the construct validity of the scale provided acceptable fit indices. Test-retest results and item analysis that were based on lower and upper groups were found to be significant. Also, the Cronbach Alpha value of the scale was calculated as 0.884, and the Cronbach Alpha value of the sub-factors was calculated within the range of 0.884–0.658 (Arslan, 2021). The Cronbach Alpha coefficient was found to be 0.79 in this study.

3.2.2 Academic Self-Efficacy Scale

This scale was developed by Jerusalem and Schwarzer (1981) and was adapted into Turkish by Yılmaz et al. (2007). It consisted of 7 items and had a one-dimensional 4-point Likert style. The last item of the scale is reversely scored. The scores that can be obtained from the scale range from 7 to 28. Higher scores indicate higher levels of academic self-efficacy. The academic self-efficacy scale was found to be a valid and reliable scale With a Cronbach Alpha Value of 0.79 in determining the academic self-efficacy beliefs of Turkish university students (Yılmaz et al., 2007). In the present study, the Cronbach’s Alpha Coefficient of the scale was calculated as 0.70.

3.2.3 Academic Life Satisfaction Scale

This scale was developed by Schmitt et al. (2008) to measure the academic satisfaction levels of students. It has a 5-point Likert design and consists of 5 items. The total scores range from 5 to 25. Higher scores indicate higher levels of academic satisfaction. The adaptation study showed that the Turkish version of the scale had adequate psychometric properties. The Factor Analysis that was performed to evaluate the construct validity of the scale showed a one-dimensional structure explaining 63.70% of the common variance. The Cronbach Alpha Internal Consistency Coefficient was found to be 0.86 (Balkıs, 2013). The Cronbach’s Alpha value was found to be 0.89 in this study.

4 Results

4.1 Descriptive and Preliminary Statistics

The mean, standard deviation, skewness and kurtosis values, and bivariate correlations of the study variables are given in Table 1. Firstly, the basic assumptions (i.e. the normality, linearity, homoscedasticity, and multicollinearity) for regression analysis were checked as was suggested by previous researchers (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2013). The assumption of normality was evaluated by examining the skewness and kurtosis coefficients with regard to the + 1 and -1 thresholds (Leech et al., 2005). Examining these values showed that the study variables had acceptable skewness and kurtosis values between − 0.60 and 0.17. After the normality assumption was checked, the data were examined for the linearity assumption. To do this, scatter plots for predictor variables were examined with the SPSS 26.0 statistical package program and it was observed that the points were clustered around a line that was relative to the X and Y axes, which represented adequate evidence for the linearity assumption. The scatterplot plot of the regression residuals was examined visually to check the homoscedasticity assumption. The graphic showed that the dots were relatively and evenly distributed on the X-axis above and below zero, and to the left and right of zero on the Y-axis with no obvious pattern. For this reason, it was evaluated that the homoscedasticity assumption was also covered. Finally, the data were checked for multicollinearity by examining the Variance of Inflation Factors (VIFs) and tolerance values. It is argued that the multicollinearity problem does not occur when the VIFs value is less than 10 and the tolerance value is greater than 0.2 (Leech et al., 2005). The results showed that the VIFs value was 1.02 and the tolerance value was 0.98, therefore, there was no multicollinearity problem in the data.

Table 1 Descriptive statistics and bivariate correlations for study variables
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The Pearson’s Moment Product Correlation Coefficient Technique was used to determine the relations between study variables. Analysis results showed the attitude towards distance education and academic self-efficacy (r = 0.17, p < 0.01, 95%CI [0.07, 0.28]) and academic life satisfaction (r = 0.53, p < 0.01, 95%). CI [0.45, 0.61]) had significant and positive relations. Also, a significant and positive relation was detected between academic self-efficacy and academic life satisfaction (r = 0.19, p < 0.01, 95%CI [0.10, 0.29]). The results of the preliminary and correlation analyses provided the necessary statistical basis for further analysis.

4.2 Mediation Analysis

The mediating role of academic self-efficacy in the relation between attitude towards distance education and academic life satisfaction was examined with basic mediation analysis using Process Macro for SPSS (Model 4) (Hayes, 2018). As seen in Table 2, attitude towards distance education indicates academic life satisfaction (b = 0.22, p < 0.001, 95% CI [0.19, 0.25]) and academic self-efficacy (b = 0.06, p < 0.01), 95% CI [0.03, 0.08]) predicted at positive and significant levels. After controlling for the effect of attitude towards distance education, academic self-efficacy predicted satisfaction with academic life at positive and significant levels (b = 0.14, p < 0.01, 95% CI [0.03, 0.24]). Also, after adding academic self-efficacy to the model, the regression coefficient slightly decreased (b = 0.21, p < 0.001, 95% CI [0.18, 0.25]), although the effect of attitude towards distance education on life satisfaction remained significant. These findings indicate that the attitude towards distance education has an indirect effect on satisfaction with academic life through self-efficacy beliefs. To investigate the statistical significance of this indirect effect, a bootstrapping procedure was applied with a 95% Confidence Interval and 5000 bootstrapped samples. The bootstrapped indirect effect coefficient was found to be 0.008, and the 95% Confidence Interval ranged from 0.001 to 0.02. The fact that the Confidence Interval does not contain zero shows that the indirect effect is at a significant level (Preacher & Hayes, 2004). When considered together, the results show that the relation between attitude towards distance education and academic life satisfaction is mediated partially by academic self-efficacy.

Table 2 Mediation analysis
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4.3 Mediated Moderation Analysis

When the interaction between two variables has impacts on the dependent variable by influencing a mediating variable, mediated moderation occurs (Morgan-Lopez & MacKinnon, 2006). The mediated moderation model was used to determine whether the mediating effect of academic self-efficacy on the relation between attitude towards distance education and academic life satisfaction was moderated by gender. A Conditional Process Analysis was applied by using the Process Macro for SPSS (Model 7) to test this model. Also, the Bootstrapping Procedure was used with 5000 bootstrapped samples to evaluate the conditional and indirect effects and 95% Confidence Intervals. The results are given in Table 3.

Table 3 Moderated mediation analysis
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As seen in Table 3, the interaction between the attitude towards distance education and gender was at a statistically significant level, which shows that the effect of the attitude towards distance education on academic self-efficacy is moderated by gender (see in Fig. 2). Specifically, although the effect of distance education on academic self-efficacy was significant in females (b = 0.08, p < 0.001, 95% CI [0.05, 0.11]) it was insignificant in males (b = − 0.02, p > 0.05, 95% CI [− 0.08, 0.04]). Similarly, the conditional indirect effect was found to be statistically significant for women (b = 0.011, p < 0.001, 95% CI [0.003, 0.022]) and was insignificant for men (b = − 0.003, p > 0.05, 95% CI [− 0.014, 0.006]). Also, the Confidence Intervals for the moderated mediation index do not contain zero, and therefore, the moderator effect in mediation was statistically significant (Index = − 0.014, SE = 0.008, 95% CI [− 0.032, − 0.002]). These results show that gender moderates the effect of attitude towards distance education on academic life satisfaction at a significant level (see in Fig. 3). In other words, the mediating effect of academic self-efficacy in the relation between attitude towards distance education and academic life satisfaction is moderated by gender. More positive attitudes towards distance education nurture academic self-efficacy beliefs in women, and this increases their academic life satisfaction scores. The academic self-efficacy mechanism does not operate this link in men.

Fig. 2
figure 2

Gender as a moderator of the relationship between attitudes towards distance education and academic self-efficacy

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Fig. 3
figure 3

The final moderated mediation model

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5 Discussion

Debates continue whether distance education practices can replace traditional face-to-face education in the age of digitalizing new media (Elfaki et al., 2019; Woo et al., 2008). The experiences of students are very important for the development, implementation, and future of these systems. This study aimed to examine the mediating role of academic self-efficacy and the moderator role of gender in the relation between attitude towards distance education and academic life satisfaction. The results of the mediation and mediated moderation analyses in this context confirmed the hypotheses of the study. The results provided important data on the factors that affect the academic life satisfaction of students in the distance education process.

The attitudes of learners towards distance education are mentioned among the most important factors in being successful and continuing education (Yenilmez et al., 2017). In this context, the attitudes towards distance education and academic satisfaction appear to be related to each other. As a matter of fact, it was found in the present study that as attitudes towards distance education increased, academic satisfaction also increased at positive levels. No study was found in the present literature that directly examines the relation between attitudes towards distance education and academic satisfaction. However, in the study that was conducted by Sever and Çatı (2021), it was determined that there was a positive relation between attitude towards distance education and satisfaction with distance education. However, Şahin and Shelley (2008) found that computer expertise affects the thoughts of participants on the flexibility and usefulness of distance education. It was also found that the flexibility of distance education and computer expertise affect satisfaction from distance education. As a matter of fact, factors such as flexibility, usefulness, and satisfaction with distance education include attitudes towards distance education. Attitudes represent the thoughts and feelings of the individual towards something and determine how s/he will approach the object of attitude (Kağıtçıbaşı, 2013), and predict behavior strongly. For this reason, as the attitudes of students towards distance education become more positive, their intention to use it (Liaw et al., 2007) and their motivation in the process increase (Çevik & Bakioğlu, 2022). Students who have positive attitudes may show more behaviors that result in positive experiences, e.g. active participation in teaching activities, intense interaction with peers and educators, and regular course follow-up. Furthermore, attitudes can function as a cognitive bias affecting the evaluation of new experiences of an individual, especially in online experiences (Strien et al., 2016). Paechter et al. (2010) reported that the initial expectations of students have an effect on the academic satisfaction they have during the e-learning process. In this regard, students who start the process with positive attitudes can have higher academic satisfaction by focusing on the positive aspects of the system when they interpret their learning experiences. Students who have negative attitudes may exaggerate even minor negatives, resulting in low academic satisfaction.

An important finding was that academic self-efficacy plays partially mediating roles in the relation between attitude towards distance education and academic life satisfaction. Therefore, positive attitudes towards distance education nurture academic self-efficacy beliefs, and this contributes to high academic life satisfaction. The positive relation between academic self-efficacy, which is the first dimension of the mediation mechanism, and academic life satisfaction is consistent with the results of previous studies in the literature (Jan, 2015; Pinugu, 2013; Yeşilyurt et al., 2016). According to the Self-Efficacy Theory, the beliefs of students on their efficacy have critical roles in their emotions, behaviors, and motivations in academic settings. Although strong self-efficacy beliefs nurture motivation, they also encourage positive scenarios in the mind about the future and educational environment (Bandura, 1994). This kind of mental resource helps students focus on learning opportunities and resources increasing their commitment to learning (Liu et al., 2018; Zhen et al., 2017), and this makes students feel more satisfied in the learning process (Wefald & Downey, 2009). The second dimension of the mediation mechanism suggests that more positive attitudes towards distance education are associated with higher academic self-efficacy beliefs, and this is consistent with the results of previous studies (Özdirek & Cicerali, 2021; Prior et al., 2016; Yau & Leung, 2018). As a matter of fact, the distance education process includes the use of computers, and previous studies (Ateş & Altun, 2008; Brinkerhoff & Koroghlanian, 2005) show that attitudes towards distance education differ according to computer use skills. In this respect, fulfilling a requirement of distance education may nurture the academic self-efficacy of students.

Another important finding was that the mediating effect of academic self-efficacy in the relation between attitude towards distance education and academic satisfaction is moderated by gender. Although the attitude towards distance education in women has significant impacts on self-efficacy beliefs, it was not the same in men. This finding supports the findings of Dang et al. (2016). It is also important in terms of explaining the paradox between low technology self-efficacy belief in women when compared to men (Dikmen & Çağlar, 2017) and high academic satisfaction in online environments (Alharthi et al., 2021). Therefore, although positive attitudes in women contribute to academic satisfaction both directly and indirectly over academic self-efficacy beliefs, this indirect effect is insignificant for men. In other words, women have more resources to achieve high satisfaction in online settings. This can be explained by the difference in computer knowledge and technology self-efficacy between the two demographic groups. He and Freeman (2010) concluded that although having higher anxiety and low self-efficacy beliefs at the beginning of a computer task, computer knowledge and practice can bring significant changes in self-efficacy beliefs. The necessity of adapting to distance education may have triggered academic anxiety and weak academic self-efficacy beliefs in women who have low computer skills. It may have nurtured the academic self-efficacy beliefs in women who have positive attitudes or develop positive attitudes as a result of increasing practice over time. On the other hand, the attitudes of men towards distance education may not have been reflected in their academic self-efficacy beliefs while affecting their academic satisfaction since men have less anxiety about their technological skills. Bir başka açıdan bakıldığında, uzaktan eğitim eğitim akademik motivasyon, problemlerle baş etme, planlama, öz yeterlik gibi kavramları pozitif ve negatif yönde etkilemektedir (Özdirek & Cicerali, 2021). Dolasıyla cinsiyetin ne olduğuna bakılmaksızın uzaktan eğitime yönelik olumlu tutumlara sahip olmanın öğrencilerin özyeterlik algıları üzerinde de olumlu bir etkiye sebep olabileceği düşünülebilir.

5.1 Limitations, Implications, and Future Directions

Readers should consider the following limitations when interpreting the findings of the present study. Firstly, the data of the study were collected during the COVID-19 pandemic. The extraordinary conditions where school closures negatively affected the well-being and participation of students in distance education was compulsory might have had negative impacts on the emotional responses of students to distance education as a factor that might have been reflected in the study results. Retesting the proposed model in post-pandemic conditions and voluntary online courses might help concretize the results. Secondly, correlational studies do not allow for a definite causal relation between variables due to their nature. Testing empirically proven relations between study variables with experimental or longitudinal studies may produce more robust data on causality relations. Thirdly, the results are likely to be affected by participant-induced errors e.g. social desirability bias because the data collection tools that were used in the study were self-reported. Fourthly, the present study focused on intra-individual factors to explain academic life satisfaction. Adding contextual factors e.g. quality of service, ease of use of the system, teaching methods and qualifications of the educator to the model can uncover a deeper understanding of the subject.

Despite its limitations, the present study had some important theoretical and practical implications. It emphasized the importance of attitudes in the adoption and use of information technologies e.g. the Acceptance Model (Davis, 1989) and the Information System Success Model (DeLone & McLean, 1992), which explain the individual-technology interaction. The findings of the study improve the understanding of the interindividual difference variables driving the association between attitudes and end-user experiences by demonstrating the mediating role of academic self-efficacy and gender as a moderator. In this context, the results show that theoretical models for explaining the intention to use or accept a particular technology take into account psychological factors (e.g., attitudes) that have the potential to affect users' emotional and behavioral responses beyond the system and quality of service, ease of use, and functionality. Another important theoretical and methodological contribution was the validation of a model explaining the gender difference in satisfaction in e-learning settings with a mediation mechanism. Previous studies generally examined online learning satisfaction through regression and mediation models. However, the current study findings showed that student achievement or satisfaction should be examined within the framework of more complex models. Therefore, the proposed model in this study can guide further studies.

The present work also has some important implications for pedagogical practice. Educational institutions allocate significant resources to develop online education systems. When it is considered that the dropout rates are more common in online education applications (Levy, 2007), systems that do not prioritize user experience can waste resources. For this reason, researchers try to improve system quality and adopt new teaching approaches (e.g. Adelstein & Barbour, 2017; Kim et al., 2019; Tang et al., 2020). The present study suggested that intra-individual factors should be taken into account in improving e-learning systems as well as contextual factors such as learning systems and teaching approaches. As a matter of fact, the affective characteristics of students such as attitudes have the potential of shaping students’ perceptions of the learning process, regardless of the quality of the related system. For this reason, educational institutions should invest in the development of distance education systems as well as in helping students to develop positive attitudes towards online learning systems. For instance, the institutions might organize seminars and workshops to introduce their online learning platform and the advantages of online-education system for the students. This can help reduce undesirable outcomes by ensuring the students having positive attitudes towards online education.

6 Conclusion

The present study showed that the relationship between attitude towards distance education and academic life satisfaction was partially mediated by academic self-efficacy, and the mediating effect of academic self-efficacy in the relationship between attitude towards distance education and academic life satisfaction was moderated by gender. These results contribute to the rapidly developing attitudes towards the distance education field. The present study can also contribute to the improvements in the education system in Turkey, especially when the increasing value of distance education with the Covid-19 pandemic is considered.