German Americans: Difference between revisions
Bhaktivinode (talk | contribs) |
|||
| Line 114: | Line 114: | ||
* [[German Palatines]] |
* [[German Palatines]] |
||
* [[Paul Machemehl]] |
* [[Paul Machemehl]] |
||
* [[German Texan]] |
|||
==References== |
==References== |
||
Revision as of 14:53, 3 April 2007
German Americans are citizens of the United States of German cultural or linguistic ancestry. The first significant numbers arrived in the 1680s in New York and Pennsylvania. Some eight million German immigrants entered the United States since then. Immigration continued in substantial numbers during the 18th century; the largest number of arrivals came 1840–1900. Germans form the largest group of immigrants coming to the U.S., outnumbering even the Irish and English.[1] Some arrived seeking religious or political freedom, others for economic opportunities greater than those in Germany, and others simply for the chance to start afresh in the New World. California and Pennsylvania have the largest German populations, with over six million German-Americans residing in the two states alone.
Numbering almost 43 million, German Americans are the largest self-reported ethnic group in the United States, as of the 2000 U.S. Census. [1]
Large numbers of Germans migrated from the 1680s to 1760s. Then came a pause, but from 1840 to 1880 Germans were the largest group of immigrants. They migrated to America for a variety of reasons. The two causes for the migration were push factors: worsening opportunities for farm ownership in Germany, persecution of some religious groups, and military conscription; and pull factors, with better economic conditions in the U.S. especially the chance for farmers to own land.
Large sections of Pennsylvania and upstate New York attracted Germans. Most were Lutheran or German Reformed; many belonged to small religious sects such as the Moravians and Mennonites. German Jews started coming after 1840. German Catholics started coming after the war of 1812.
The Palatine migration to the Hudson River Valley in New York turned out to be the largest single immigration to America in the colonial period. By 1711, for example, seven villages had been established in New York on the Robert Livingston manor. By 1750, the Germans occupied a strip some 12 miles long along the left bank of the Mohawk River. The soil was excellent; some 500 houses had been built, mostly of stone; and the region prospered in spite of Indian raids. Herkimer was the best-known of the German settlements in a region long known as the "German Flats." The most famous figure was editor John Peter Zenger, who led the fight for freedom of the press in America. Later John Jacob Astor, a German immigrant from Baden, became the richest man in America from his fur trading and real estate investments in New York.
The first German settlement in Pennsylvania was founded in 1683. The tide of German immigration to Pennsylvania swelled between 1725 and 1775, with many immigrants arriving as redemptioners. By 1775, Germans constituted about one-third of the population of Pennsylvania. The German farmers were renowned for the highly productive animal husbandry and agricultural practices. Politically, they were inactive until 1740, when they joined a Quaker-led coalition that took control of the legislature, which generally supported the American Revolution. The Germans, comprising Lutherans, Reformed, Mennonites, Amish, and other sects, developed a rich religious life with a strong musical culture. They were called the Pennsylvania Dutch. There were few German Catholics in Pennsylvania before the 1810s.[2]
A large German colony in Virginia called Germanna was located near Culpeper and was founded by two waves of colonists in 1714 and 1717. Large settlements were formed in North Carolina, especially near Salem, North Carolina.
Between 1742 and 1753, roughly 1,000 Germans settled in Broad Bay, Massachusetts (now Waldoboro, Maine). Many of the colonists fled to Boston, Nova Scotia, and North Carolina after their houses were burned and their neighbors killed or carried into captivity by Native Americans. The Germans who remained found it difficult to survive on farming and eventually turned to the shipping and fishing industries.
In the 1790 U.S. census, the first taken by the new country, Germans are estimated to have constituted nearly 9% of the white population in the United States.
German Americans throughout the country
Heavy German immigration to the United States occurred between 1848 and World War I, during which time nearly six million Germans immigrated to the U.S. The great cities of Chicago, Detroit, and New York were favored destinations. By 1900, the cities of Cleveland, Milwaukee, Hoboken and Cincinnati were all over 40% German. Dubuque and Davenport Iowa had even larger proportions. The Over-the-Rhine neighborhood in Cincinnati was one of the largest German Catholic-American cultural centers. In many other cities, such as Fort Wayne, Indiana, Richmond, Virginia, German Americans were at least 30% of the population. About half went to cities, the other half went to farms in the Midwest; by the mid-20th century they were the predominant rural element in much of the Midwest as they were more likely than others to remain on farms. Texas attracted many Germans, such as Paul Machemehl, as did cities in the border states such as Baltimore, Louisville and St. Louis. Few Germans went to the deep South.
Following the revolutions in German states in 1848, a wave of political refugees fled to America, and became known as Forty-Eighters. They included professionals, journalists and politicians. Prominent names included Carl Schurz and Henry Villard.[3]
Present population
German Americans are the largest self-reported ethnic group in the United States today.
According to the 2000 U.S. census, 47 million Americans are of German ancestry. German Americans represent 16% of the total U.S. population and 24% of the non-Hispanic white population. Only 1.5 million of these speak German.
Of the four major U.S. regions, German was the most-reported ancestry in the Midwest, second in the West, and third in the Northeast and South regions. German was the top reported ancestry in 23 states, and it was one of the top five reported ancestries in every state except Maine and Rhode Island.
Diversity
The immigrants were as diverse as Germany itself, except that very few aristocrats or upper middle class businessmen arrived. For example, consider Texas, with about 20,000 Germans in the 1850s (from Handbook of Texas Online):
The Germans who settled Texas were diverse in many ways. They included peasant farmers and intellectuals; Protestants, Catholics, Jews, and atheists; Prussians, Saxons, Hessians, and Alsatians; abolitionists and slaveowners; farmers and townsfolk; frugal, honest folk and ax murderers. They differed in dialect, customs, and physical features. A majority had been farmers in Germany, and most arrived seeking economic opportunities. A few dissident intellectuals fleeing the 1848 revolutions sought political freedom, but few, save perhaps the Wends, went for religious freedom. The German settlements in Texas reflected their diversity. Even in the confined area of the Hill Country, each valley offered a different kind of German. The Llano valley had stern, teetotaling German Methodists, who renounced dancing and fraternal organizations; the Pedernales valley had fun-loving, hardworking Lutherans and Catholics who enjoyed drinking and dancing; and the Guadalupe valley had atheist Germans descended from intellectual political refugees. The scattered German ethnic islands were also diverse. These small enclaves included Lindsay in Cooke County, largely Westphalian Catholic; Waka in Ochiltree County, Midwestern Mennonite; Hurnville in Clay County, Russian German Baptist; and Lockett in Wilbarger County, Wendish Lutheran.
Religious affiliations
Immigrants from Germany in the early to late 1800s brought many different religions with them. The largest numbers were generally Catholic or Lutheran, although the Lutherans were themselves split several ways. The more conservative groups comprised the Lutheran Church - Missouri Synod and the Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod. Other Lutherans formed a complex checkerboard of synods, most of which in 1988 merged, along with Scandinavian synods, into the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America. Still other German Protestants were not Lutherans but were descendants of the united "Evangelical Church" in Germany. They created the Reformed denomination (especially in New York and Pennsyslvania), and the Evangelical denomination (strongest in the Midwest). They are now part of the United Church of Christ. Many immigrants joined quite different churches from those in Germany, especially the Methodist church.
Before 1800, communities of Amish, Mennonites, and Hutterite had formed and are still in existence today. Some still speak dialects of German, including Pennsylvania German.
Some 19th century immigrants, especially the 48ers, were secular, rejecting formal religion.
German American communities
Today, most German Americans have assimilated to the point that they no longer have readily identifiable ethnic communities, though there are still many metropolitan areas where German is the most reported ethnicity, such as Detroit, Chicago, Kansas City, Cleveland, Indianapolis, Minneapolis-St. Paul, St. Louis, Cincinnati, Louisville, Richmond, Virginia, and Milwaukee. The following list shows specifically German neighborhoods and areas that are now largely extinct. (It focuses on urban areas and does not include the rural areas extending from western New Jersey and Upstate New York to the Great Plains that were, or still are, heavily German.)
- Irvington, New Jersey
- Hoboken, New Jersey
- Over-the-Rhine, Cincinnati, Ohio
- German Village, Columbus, Ohio
- Yorkville, Manhattan
- Woodhaven, Queens
- Ridgewood, Queens
- College Point, Queens
- Glendale, Queens
- Bushwick, Brooklyn
- Gerritsen Beach, Brooklyn
- Williamsburg, Brooklyn
- Lindenhurst, New York
- Rahway, New Jersey
- Lincoln Square, Chicago
- Bevo Mill Neighborhood, St. Louis, MO
- Foggy Bottom, Washington, D.C.
- Germantown, Philadelphia
- Yorkville, Pottsville, Pennsylvania
- Helena, Georgia
- Frankenmuth, Michigan
- German Coast, Louisiana
- Fredericksburg, Texas
Assimilation and World War I
After two or three generations in America the Germans assimilated to American customs—some of which they heavily influenced—and switched their language to English. As one scholar concludes, "The overwhelming evidence ... indicates that the German-American school was a bilingual one much (perhaps a whole generation or more) earlier than 1917, and that the majority of the pupils may have been English-dominant bilinguals from the early 1880s on." [2] By 1914 the older members were attending German language church services while the younger members were attending English services (in Lutheran, Evangelical and Catholic churches). In German parochial schools the children spoke English among themselves, though some of their classes were in German. In 1917–18, nearly all German language instruction ended, as did most (but not all) German language church services.
During World War I, German Americans, especially those born abroad, were sometimes accused of being too sympathetic to the German Empire. Theodore Roosevelt denounced "hyphenated Americanism" and insisted that dual loyalties were impossible in wartime. A small minority came out for Germany, including H. L. Mencken, who believed the German democratic system was superior to American democracy. Likewise Harvard psychology professor Hugo Munsterberg dropped his efforts to mediate between America and Germany and threw his efforts behind the German cause. See his obituary. Several thousand vocal opponents of the war were imprisoned. [3] Thousands were forced to buy war bonds to show their loyalty. One man was killed in Illinois. Some Germans during this time "Americanized" their names (e.g. Schmidt to Smith) and limited their use of the German language in public places. In Chicago Frederick Stock temporarily stepped down as conductor of the Chicago Symphony Orchestra until he finalized his naturalization papers. Berlioz replaced Wagner on programs. In Cincinnati, reaction to anti-German sentiment during World War I, caused the Public Library of Cincinnati to withdraw all German books from its shelves. [4] German-named streets were renamed [5] (Including in Indianapolis, Indiana a street named Germania Avenue that was renamed Pershing Ave. - a World War I general of German descent). Nebraska banned instruction in any language except English but the U.S. Supreme Court ruled the ban illegal in 1923 (Meyer v. Nebraska), by which time the nativist mood had largely subsided.
World War II
114,000 Germans moved to the United States between 1931 and 1940, many of whom were anti-Nazis fleeing government oppression. [6] About 25,000 people became paying members of the pro-Nazi German American Bund during the years before the war. [7] German Americans who had been born overseas were the subject of some suspicion and discrimination during the war, although prejudice and sheer numbers meant they suffered as a group generally less than Japanese Americans. The Alien Registration Act of 1940 required 300,000 German-born U.S. resident aliens to register with the federal government and restricted their travel and property ownership rights. [8] [9] Under the still active Alien Enemy Act of 1798, the United States government interned nearly 11,000 German Americans between 1940 and 1948. Some of these were United States citizens. Civil rights violations occurred. 500 were arrested without warrant. Others were held without charge for months or interrogated without benefit of legal counsel. Convictions were not eligible for appeal. An unknown number of "voluntary internees" joined their spouses and parents in the camps and were not permitted to leave. [10] [11] [12] [13]
President Franklin D. Roosevelt however kept his promise to German Americans that they would not be hounded as in 1917–18. Roosevelt made a deliberate effort to name prominent German Americans to top war jobs, including General Dwight D. Eisenhower, Admiral Chester Nimitz, General Carl Spaatz, and even Republican Wendell Willkie. German Americans who had fluent German language skills were an important asset to wartime intelligence, serving as translators and even as spies for the United States. [14] The war evoked strong patriotic sentiments among German Americans, few of whom had any contacts with distant relatives in the old country.
From the 1970s onwards, time had largely abated the anti-German sentiment produced by World War II. Today, recent German Americans that immigrated after World War II share the same features as any other Western European immigrant group in the U.S. Mostly professionals, academics, and spouses, they reflect the changing nature of Europe as a preferred destination for immigrants rather than a source of migrating peoples. Although their numbers are far fewer than previous generations of German American immigrants, their personal and cultural ties to Germany and Europe are once again just as strong. [15]
German American influence
Germans have contributed to a vast number of areas in American culture and technology. Baron von Steuben, a former Prussian officer, led the reorganization of the U.S. Army during the War for Independence and helped make the victory against British troops possible. The Steinway & Sons piano manufacturing firm was founded by immigrant Heinrich Engelhard Steinweg in 1853. German settlers brought the Christmas tree custom to the United States. The Studebakers built large numbers of wagons used during the Western migration; Studebaker later became an important early automobile manufacturer. Carl Schurz, a refugee from the unsuccessful first German democratic revolution of 1848 (see also German Confederation), served as U.S. Secretary of the Interior.
Due to the developments in Germany leading from World War I and World War II, many researchers of German (particularly German-Jewish) origin left Germany due to economic problems or as a result of racial, religious, and political persecution. Probably the most famous of them was Albert Einstein, known for his Theory of Relativity.
After World War II, Wernher von Braun, and most of the leading engineers from the former German rocket base Peenemünde, were brought to the U.S. They contributed to the development of U.S. military rockets, as well as of rockets for the NASA space program.
The influence of German cuisine is seen in the cuisine of the United States throughout the country, especially regarding pastries, meats and sausages, and above all, beer. Frankfurters (aka Wieners, originating from Vienna), hamburgers, bratwurst, sauerkraut, strudel are common dishes. Germans almost totally dominated the beer industry since 1850. German bakers introduced the pretzel. The revival of microbreweries is partly due to instruction from German beer masters. One of the areas in which the influence of German cuisine is strongest is the small town Midwest. Among larger cities, Cincinnati, Ohio is known for its German American annual festival Zinzinnati, and Milwaukee, Wisconsin for German Fest which are among the largest German American festivals in the U.S. Oktoberfest celebrations are held throughout the country.
German American presidents
Many presidents of the United States have had some German ancestry; however, there have only been two presidents of primarily German heritage: Dwight Eisenhower (original family name Eisenhauer) and Herbert Hoover (original family name Huber).
See also
- Ethnic German
- German in the United States
- German-American relations
- History of Germany
- Immigration to the United States
- List of famous German Americans
- Pennsylvania Dutch
- German Palatines
- Paul Machemehl
- German Texan
References
- Colman J. Barry, The Catholic Church and German Americans. (1953)
- Angus Baxter, In Search of Your German Roots. The Complete Guide to Tracing Your Ancestors in the Germanic Areas of Europe. Fourth Edition (2001)
- Thomas Cochran, The Pabst Brewing Company: The History of an American Business (1948)
- Carol K. Coburn, Life at Four Corners: Religion, Gender, and Education in a German-Lutheran Community, 1868–1945 (1992).
- Kathleen Neils Conzen, Germans in Minnesota (2003)
- Dobbert, Guido .A. "German-Americans between New and Old Fatherland, 1870–1914". American Quarterly 19 ( 1967): 663-80. In JSTOR
- Ellis, M. and P. Panayi. "German Minorities in World War I: A Comparative Study of Britain and the USA." Ethnic and Racial Studies 17 ( April 1994): 238-59.
- Albert Bernhardt Faust. The German Element in the United States with Special Reference to Its Political, Moral, Social, and Educational Influence 2 vol (1909)]
- Jon Gjerde, The Minds of the West: Ethnocultural Evolution in the Rural Middle West, 1830–1917 (1997)
- Gleason, Philip. The Conservative Reformers: American Catholics and the Social Order. (1968)
- Iverson, Noel. Germania, U.S.A.: Social Change in New Ulm, Minnesota. (1966), emphasizes Turners
- Jensen, Richard. The Winning of the Midwest, Social and Political Conflict 1888–1896" (1971), focus on voting behavior of Germans, prohibition issue, language issue and school issue
- Johnson, Hildegard B. "The Location of German Immigrants in the Middle West". Annals of the Association of American Geographers 41 (1951): 1–41. in JSTOR
- Jordon, Terry G. German Seed in Texas Soil: Immigrant Farmers in Nineteenth-century Texas. (1966)
- Kazal, Russell A. Becoming Old Stock: The Paradox of German-American Identity (2004) ethnicity and assimilation in 20c Philadelphia
- Kazal, Russell A. "Revisiting Assimilation: The Rise, Fall, and Reappraisal of a Concept." American Historical Review 100 (1995): 437-71. in JSTOR
- Luebke, Frederick C. Bonds of Loyalty: German Americans During World War I. (1974)
- Luebke, Frederick C. ed. Ethnic Voters and the Election of Lincoln (1971)
- Luebke, Frederick. Immigrants and Politics: the Germans of Nebraska, 1880–1900. (1969)
- O'Connor, Richard. German-Americans: an Informal History. (1968), popular
- Henry A. Pochmann, and Arthur R. Schultz; German Culture in America, 1600–1900: Philosophical and Literary Influences (1957)
- Roeber, A. G. Palatines, Liberty, and Property: German Lutherans in Colonial British America (1998)
- Tatlock, Lynne and Matt Erlin, eds. German Culture in Nineteenth-Century America: Reception, Adaptation, Transformation (2005)
- Thernstrom, Stephan ed. Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups (1973)
- Tischauser, Leslie V. The Burden of Ethnicity The German Question in Chicago, 1914–1941 1990.
- Tolzmann, Don H., ed. German Americans in the World Wars, vols. 1 and 2. Munich, Germany: K.G. Saur, 1995.
- Don Heinrich Tolzmann, The German-American Experience (2000)
- Carl Frederick Wittke, The German-Language Press in America (1957)
- Carl Wittke, Refugees of Revolution: The German Forty-Eighters in America (1952)
- Carl Wittke, We Who Built America: The Saga of the Immigrant (1939), ch 6, 9
- Wood, Ralph, ed. The Pennsylvania Germans. (1942)
- Catholic Encyclopedia article
- Reasons Germans Came to America