From 00b58ec92beb23c9805c3db314282644c2392873 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: Elliott Sales de Andrade <quantum.analyst@gmail.com>
Date: Fri, 11 Jul 2025 02:53:58 -0400
Subject: [PATCH 1/6] BLD: Bump pybind11 minimum to 3.0.0

---
 meson.build                             | 2 +-
 pyproject.toml                          | 4 ++--
 requirements/dev/build-requirements.txt | 2 +-
 3 files changed, 4 insertions(+), 4 deletions(-)

diff --git a/meson.build b/meson.build
index 54249473fe8e..49415fb5a397 100644
--- a/meson.build
+++ b/meson.build
@@ -39,7 +39,7 @@ py_mod = import('python')
 py3 = py_mod.find_installation(pure: false)
 py3_dep = py3.dependency()
 
-pybind11_dep = dependency('pybind11', version: '>=2.13.2')
+pybind11_dep = dependency('pybind11', version: '>=3')
 
 subdir('extern')
 subdir('src')
diff --git a/pyproject.toml b/pyproject.toml
index cf8503a0f3fe..3b4f01b91214 100644
--- a/pyproject.toml
+++ b/pyproject.toml
@@ -47,7 +47,7 @@ requires-python = ">=3.11"
 # Should be a copy of the build dependencies below.
 dev = [
     "meson-python>=0.13.1,!=0.17.*",
-    "pybind11>=2.13.2,!=2.13.3",
+    "pybind11>=3",
     "setuptools_scm>=7",
     # Not required by us but setuptools_scm without a version, cso _if_
     # installed, then setuptools_scm 8 requires at least this version.
@@ -73,7 +73,7 @@ requires = [
     # meson-python 0.17.x breaks symlinks in sdists. You can remove this pin if
     # you really need it and aren't using an sdist.
     "meson-python>=0.13.1,!=0.17.*",
-    "pybind11>=2.13.2,!=2.13.3",
+    "pybind11>=3",
     "setuptools_scm>=7",
 ]
 
diff --git a/requirements/dev/build-requirements.txt b/requirements/dev/build-requirements.txt
index 4d2a098c3c4f..7b1c77f6fdd3 100644
--- a/requirements/dev/build-requirements.txt
+++ b/requirements/dev/build-requirements.txt
@@ -1,3 +1,3 @@
-pybind11>=2.13.2,!=2.13.3
+pybind11>=3
 meson-python
 setuptools-scm

From cdc717302f931f5643172a15415c1435647bdd09 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: Elliott Sales de Andrade <quantum.analyst@gmail.com>
Date: Fri, 11 Jul 2025 03:24:08 -0400
Subject: [PATCH 2/6] Remove workaround for unqualified Buffer in pybind11

---
 src/ft2font_wrapper.cpp | 22 ++++++----------------
 1 file changed, 6 insertions(+), 16 deletions(-)

diff --git a/src/ft2font_wrapper.cpp b/src/ft2font_wrapper.cpp
index ca2db6aa0e5b..268235597c37 100644
--- a/src/ft2font_wrapper.cpp
+++ b/src/ft2font_wrapper.cpp
@@ -1605,8 +1605,8 @@ PYBIND11_MODULE(ft2font, m, py::mod_gil_not_used())
         .def_property_readonly("bbox", &PyGlyph_get_bbox,
                                "The control box of the glyph.");
 
-        auto cls = py::class_<PyFT2Font>(m, "FT2Font", py::is_final(), py::buffer_protocol(),
-                                         PyFT2Font__doc__)
+    py::class_<PyFT2Font>(m, "FT2Font", py::is_final(), py::buffer_protocol(),
+                          PyFT2Font__doc__)
         .def(py::init(&PyFT2Font_init),
              "filename"_a, "hinting_factor"_a=8, py::kw_only(),
              "_fallback_list"_a=py::none(), "_kerning_factor"_a=0,
@@ -1640,20 +1640,10 @@ PYBIND11_MODULE(ft2font, m, py::mod_gil_not_used())
         .def("get_descent", &PyFT2Font_get_descent, PyFT2Font_get_descent__doc__)
         .def("draw_glyphs_to_bitmap", &PyFT2Font_draw_glyphs_to_bitmap,
              py::kw_only(), "antialiased"_a=true,
-             PyFT2Font_draw_glyphs_to_bitmap__doc__);
-        // The generated docstring uses an unqualified "Buffer" as type hint,
-        // which causes an error in sphinx.  This is fixed as of pybind11
-        // master (since #5566) which now uses "collections.abc.Buffer";
-        // restore the signature once that version is released.
-        {
-            py::options options{};
-            options.disable_function_signatures();
-            cls
-            .def("draw_glyph_to_bitmap", &PyFT2Font_draw_glyph_to_bitmap,
-                "image"_a, "x"_a, "y"_a, "glyph"_a, py::kw_only(), "antialiased"_a=true,
-                PyFT2Font_draw_glyph_to_bitmap__doc__);
-        }
-        cls
+             PyFT2Font_draw_glyphs_to_bitmap__doc__)
+        .def("draw_glyph_to_bitmap", &PyFT2Font_draw_glyph_to_bitmap,
+            "image"_a, "x"_a, "y"_a, "glyph"_a, py::kw_only(), "antialiased"_a=true,
+            PyFT2Font_draw_glyph_to_bitmap__doc__)
         .def("get_glyph_name", &PyFT2Font_get_glyph_name, "index"_a,
              PyFT2Font_get_glyph_name__doc__)
         .def("get_charmap", &PyFT2Font_get_charmap, PyFT2Font_get_charmap__doc__)

From 2774815cb3f1db492dc2beca1e2a00c496b84155 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: Elliott Sales de Andrade <quantum.analyst@gmail.com>
Date: Fri, 11 Jul 2025 04:54:34 -0400
Subject: [PATCH 3/6] Convert to py::native_enum

And drop the manual wrapper to emulate it.
---
 src/_enums.h            |  95 ----------------------------
 src/_image_wrapper.cpp  |   6 +-
 src/ft2font_wrapper.cpp | 136 +++++++++++++++++++---------------------
 3 files changed, 67 insertions(+), 170 deletions(-)
 delete mode 100644 src/_enums.h

diff --git a/src/_enums.h b/src/_enums.h
deleted file mode 100644
index 18f3d9aac9fa..000000000000
--- a/src/_enums.h
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,95 +0,0 @@
-#ifndef MPL_ENUMS_H
-#define MPL_ENUMS_H
-
-#include <pybind11/pybind11.h>
-
-// Extension for pybind11: Pythonic enums.
-// This allows creating classes based on ``enum.*`` types.
-// This code was copied from mplcairo, with some slight tweaks.
-// The API is:
-//
-// - P11X_DECLARE_ENUM(py_name: str, py_base_cls: str, ...: {str, enum value}):
-//   py_name: The name to expose in the module.
-//   py_base_cls: The name of the enum base class to use.
-//   ...: The enum name/value pairs to expose.
-//
-//   Use this macro to declare an enum and its values.
-//
-// - py11x::bind_enums(m: pybind11::module):
-//   m: The module to use to register the enum classes.
-//
-//   Place this in PYBIND11_MODULE to register the enums declared by P11X_DECLARE_ENUM.
-
-// a1 includes the opening brace and a2 the closing brace.
-// This definition is compatible with older compiler versions compared to
-// #define P11X_ENUM_TYPE(...) decltype(std::map{std::pair __VA_ARGS__})::mapped_type
-#define P11X_ENUM_TYPE(a1, a2, ...) decltype(std::pair a1, a2)::second_type
-
-#define P11X_CAT2(a, b) a##b
-#define P11X_CAT(a, b) P11X_CAT2(a, b)
-
-namespace p11x {
-  namespace {
-    namespace py = pybind11;
-
-    // Holder is (py_base_cls, [(name, value), ...]) before module init;
-    // converted to the Python class object after init.
-    auto enums = std::unordered_map<std::string, py::object>{};
-
-    auto bind_enums(py::module mod) -> void
-    {
-      for (auto& [py_name, spec]: enums) {
-        auto const& [py_base_cls, pairs] =
-          spec.cast<std::pair<std::string, py::object>>();
-        mod.attr(py::cast(py_name)) = spec =
-          py::module::import("enum").attr(py_base_cls.c_str())(
-            py_name, pairs, py::arg("module") = mod.attr("__name__"));
-      }
-    }
-  }
-}
-
-// Immediately converting the args to a vector outside of the lambda avoids
-// name collisions.
-#define P11X_DECLARE_ENUM(py_name, py_base_cls, ...) \
-  namespace p11x { \
-    namespace { \
-      [[maybe_unused]] auto const P11X_CAT(enum_placeholder_, __COUNTER__) = \
-        [](auto args) { \
-          py::gil_scoped_acquire gil; \
-          using int_t = std::underlying_type_t<decltype(args[0].second)>; \
-          auto pairs = std::vector<std::pair<std::string, int_t>>{}; \
-          for (auto& [k, v]: args) { \
-            pairs.emplace_back(k, int_t(v)); \
-          } \
-          p11x::enums[py_name] = pybind11::cast(std::pair{py_base_cls, pairs}); \
-          return 0; \
-        } (std::vector{std::pair __VA_ARGS__}); \
-    } \
-  } \
-  namespace pybind11::detail { \
-    template<> struct type_caster<P11X_ENUM_TYPE(__VA_ARGS__)> { \
-      using type = P11X_ENUM_TYPE(__VA_ARGS__); \
-      static_assert(std::is_enum_v<type>, "Not an enum"); \
-      PYBIND11_TYPE_CASTER(type, _(py_name)); \
-      bool load(handle src, bool) { \
-        auto cls = p11x::enums.at(py_name); \
-        PyObject* tmp = nullptr; \
-        if (pybind11::isinstance(src, cls) \
-            && (tmp = PyNumber_Index(src.attr("value").ptr()))) { \
-          auto ival = PyLong_AsLong(tmp); \
-          value = decltype(value)(ival); \
-          Py_DECREF(tmp); \
-          return !(ival == -1 && !PyErr_Occurred()); \
-        } else { \
-          return false; \
-        } \
-      } \
-      static handle cast(decltype(value) obj, return_value_policy, handle) { \
-        auto cls = p11x::enums.at(py_name); \
-        return cls(std::underlying_type_t<type>(obj)).inc_ref(); \
-      } \
-    }; \
-  }
-
-#endif /* MPL_ENUMS_H */
diff --git a/src/_image_wrapper.cpp b/src/_image_wrapper.cpp
index 6528c4a9270c..07de3462e412 100644
--- a/src/_image_wrapper.cpp
+++ b/src/_image_wrapper.cpp
@@ -1,4 +1,5 @@
 #include <pybind11/pybind11.h>
+#include <pybind11/native_enum.h>
 #include <pybind11/numpy.h>
 
 #include <algorithm>
@@ -280,7 +281,7 @@ calculate_rms_and_diff(py::array_t<unsigned char> expected_image,
 
 PYBIND11_MODULE(_image, m, py::mod_gil_not_used())
 {
-    py::enum_<interpolation_e>(m, "_InterpolationType")
+    py::native_enum<interpolation_e>(m, "_InterpolationType", "enum.Enum")
         .value("NEAREST", NEAREST)
         .value("BILINEAR", BILINEAR)
         .value("BICUBIC", BICUBIC)
@@ -298,7 +299,8 @@ PYBIND11_MODULE(_image, m, py::mod_gil_not_used())
         .value("SINC", SINC)
         .value("LANCZOS", LANCZOS)
         .value("BLACKMAN", BLACKMAN)
-        .export_values();
+        .export_values()
+        .finalize();
 
     m.def("resample", &image_resample,
         "input_array"_a,
diff --git a/src/ft2font_wrapper.cpp b/src/ft2font_wrapper.cpp
index 268235597c37..32998f4cdfc8 100644
--- a/src/ft2font_wrapper.cpp
+++ b/src/ft2font_wrapper.cpp
@@ -1,10 +1,10 @@
 #define NPY_NO_DEPRECATED_API NPY_1_7_API_VERSION
 #include <pybind11/pybind11.h>
+#include <pybind11/native_enum.h>
 #include <pybind11/numpy.h>
 #include <pybind11/stl.h>
 
 #include "ft2font.h"
-#include "_enums.h"
 
 #include <set>
 #include <sstream>
@@ -50,13 +50,6 @@ const char *Kerning__doc__ = R"""(
     .. versionadded:: 3.10
 )""";
 
-P11X_DECLARE_ENUM(
-    "Kerning", "Enum",
-    {"DEFAULT", FT_KERNING_DEFAULT},
-    {"UNFITTED", FT_KERNING_UNFITTED},
-    {"UNSCALED", FT_KERNING_UNSCALED},
-);
-
 const char *FaceFlags__doc__ = R"""(
     Flags returned by `FT2Font.face_flags`.
 
@@ -103,29 +96,6 @@ enum class FaceFlags : FT_Long {
 #undef DECLARE_FLAG
 };
 
-P11X_DECLARE_ENUM(
-    "FaceFlags", "Flag",
-    {"SCALABLE", FaceFlags::SCALABLE},
-    {"FIXED_SIZES", FaceFlags::FIXED_SIZES},
-    {"FIXED_WIDTH", FaceFlags::FIXED_WIDTH},
-    {"SFNT", FaceFlags::SFNT},
-    {"HORIZONTAL", FaceFlags::HORIZONTAL},
-    {"VERTICAL", FaceFlags::VERTICAL},
-    {"KERNING", FaceFlags::KERNING},
-    {"FAST_GLYPHS", FaceFlags::FAST_GLYPHS},
-    {"MULTIPLE_MASTERS", FaceFlags::MULTIPLE_MASTERS},
-    {"GLYPH_NAMES", FaceFlags::GLYPH_NAMES},
-    {"EXTERNAL_STREAM", FaceFlags::EXTERNAL_STREAM},
-    {"HINTER", FaceFlags::HINTER},
-    {"CID_KEYED", FaceFlags::CID_KEYED},
-    {"TRICKY", FaceFlags::TRICKY},
-    {"COLOR", FaceFlags::COLOR},
-    {"VARIATION", FaceFlags::VARIATION},
-    {"SVG", FaceFlags::SVG},
-    {"SBIX", FaceFlags::SBIX},
-    {"SBIX_OVERLAY", FaceFlags::SBIX_OVERLAY},
-);
-
 const char *LoadFlags__doc__ = R"""(
     Flags for `FT2Font.load_char`, `FT2Font.load_glyph`, and `FT2Font.set_text`.
 
@@ -174,36 +144,6 @@ enum class LoadFlags : FT_Int32 {
 #undef DECLARE_FLAG
 };
 
-P11X_DECLARE_ENUM(
-    "LoadFlags", "Flag",
-    {"DEFAULT", LoadFlags::DEFAULT},
-    {"NO_SCALE", LoadFlags::NO_SCALE},
-    {"NO_HINTING", LoadFlags::NO_HINTING},
-    {"RENDER", LoadFlags::RENDER},
-    {"NO_BITMAP", LoadFlags::NO_BITMAP},
-    {"VERTICAL_LAYOUT", LoadFlags::VERTICAL_LAYOUT},
-    {"FORCE_AUTOHINT", LoadFlags::FORCE_AUTOHINT},
-    {"CROP_BITMAP", LoadFlags::CROP_BITMAP},
-    {"PEDANTIC", LoadFlags::PEDANTIC},
-    {"IGNORE_GLOBAL_ADVANCE_WIDTH", LoadFlags::IGNORE_GLOBAL_ADVANCE_WIDTH},
-    {"NO_RECURSE", LoadFlags::NO_RECURSE},
-    {"IGNORE_TRANSFORM", LoadFlags::IGNORE_TRANSFORM},
-    {"MONOCHROME", LoadFlags::MONOCHROME},
-    {"LINEAR_DESIGN", LoadFlags::LINEAR_DESIGN},
-    {"NO_AUTOHINT", LoadFlags::NO_AUTOHINT},
-    {"COLOR", LoadFlags::COLOR},
-    {"COMPUTE_METRICS", LoadFlags::COMPUTE_METRICS},
-    {"BITMAP_METRICS_ONLY", LoadFlags::BITMAP_METRICS_ONLY},
-    {"NO_SVG", LoadFlags::NO_SVG},
-    // These must be unique, but the others can be OR'd together; I don't know if
-    // there's any way to really enforce that.
-    {"TARGET_NORMAL", LoadFlags::TARGET_NORMAL},
-    {"TARGET_LIGHT", LoadFlags::TARGET_LIGHT},
-    {"TARGET_MONO", LoadFlags::TARGET_MONO},
-    {"TARGET_LCD", LoadFlags::TARGET_LCD},
-    {"TARGET_LCD_V", LoadFlags::TARGET_LCD_V},
-);
-
 const char *StyleFlags__doc__ = R"""(
     Flags returned by `FT2Font.style_flags`.
 
@@ -221,13 +161,6 @@ enum class StyleFlags : FT_Long {
 #undef DECLARE_FLAG
 };
 
-P11X_DECLARE_ENUM(
-    "StyleFlags", "Flag",
-    {"NORMAL", StyleFlags::NORMAL},
-    {"ITALIC", StyleFlags::ITALIC},
-    {"BOLD", StyleFlags::BOLD},
-);
-
 /**********************************************************************
  * FT2Image
  * */
@@ -1552,11 +1485,68 @@ PYBIND11_MODULE(ft2font, m, py::mod_gil_not_used())
     FT_Library_Version(_ft2Library, &major, &minor, &patch);
     snprintf(version_string, sizeof(version_string), "%d.%d.%d", major, minor, patch);
 
-    p11x::bind_enums(m);
-    p11x::enums["Kerning"].attr("__doc__") = Kerning__doc__;
-    p11x::enums["LoadFlags"].attr("__doc__") = LoadFlags__doc__;
-    p11x::enums["FaceFlags"].attr("__doc__") = FaceFlags__doc__;
-    p11x::enums["StyleFlags"].attr("__doc__") = StyleFlags__doc__;
+    py::native_enum<FT_Kerning_Mode>(m, "Kerning", "enum.Enum", Kerning__doc__)
+        .value("DEFAULT", FT_KERNING_DEFAULT)
+        .value("UNFITTED", FT_KERNING_UNFITTED)
+        .value("UNSCALED", FT_KERNING_UNSCALED)
+        .finalize();
+
+    py::native_enum<LoadFlags>(m, "LoadFlags", "enum.Flag", LoadFlags__doc__)
+        .value("DEFAULT", LoadFlags::DEFAULT)
+        .value("NO_SCALE", LoadFlags::NO_SCALE)
+        .value("NO_HINTING", LoadFlags::NO_HINTING)
+        .value("RENDER", LoadFlags::RENDER)
+        .value("NO_BITMAP", LoadFlags::NO_BITMAP)
+        .value("VERTICAL_LAYOUT", LoadFlags::VERTICAL_LAYOUT)
+        .value("FORCE_AUTOHINT", LoadFlags::FORCE_AUTOHINT)
+        .value("CROP_BITMAP", LoadFlags::CROP_BITMAP)
+        .value("PEDANTIC", LoadFlags::PEDANTIC)
+        .value("IGNORE_GLOBAL_ADVANCE_WIDTH", LoadFlags::IGNORE_GLOBAL_ADVANCE_WIDTH)
+        .value("NO_RECURSE", LoadFlags::NO_RECURSE)
+        .value("IGNORE_TRANSFORM", LoadFlags::IGNORE_TRANSFORM)
+        .value("MONOCHROME", LoadFlags::MONOCHROME)
+        .value("LINEAR_DESIGN", LoadFlags::LINEAR_DESIGN)
+        .value("NO_AUTOHINT", LoadFlags::NO_AUTOHINT)
+        .value("COLOR", LoadFlags::COLOR)
+        .value("COMPUTE_METRICS", LoadFlags::COMPUTE_METRICS)
+        .value("BITMAP_METRICS_ONLY", LoadFlags::BITMAP_METRICS_ONLY)
+        .value("NO_SVG", LoadFlags::NO_SVG)
+        // These must be unique, but the others can be OR'd together; I don't know if
+        // there's any way to really enforce that.
+        .value("TARGET_NORMAL", LoadFlags::TARGET_NORMAL)
+        .value("TARGET_LIGHT", LoadFlags::TARGET_LIGHT)
+        .value("TARGET_MONO", LoadFlags::TARGET_MONO)
+        .value("TARGET_LCD", LoadFlags::TARGET_LCD)
+        .value("TARGET_LCD_V", LoadFlags::TARGET_LCD_V)
+        .finalize();
+
+    py::native_enum<FaceFlags>(m, "FaceFlags", "enum.Flag", FaceFlags__doc__)
+        .value("SCALABLE", FaceFlags::SCALABLE)
+        .value("FIXED_SIZES", FaceFlags::FIXED_SIZES)
+        .value("FIXED_WIDTH", FaceFlags::FIXED_WIDTH)
+        .value("SFNT", FaceFlags::SFNT)
+        .value("HORIZONTAL", FaceFlags::HORIZONTAL)
+        .value("VERTICAL", FaceFlags::VERTICAL)
+        .value("KERNING", FaceFlags::KERNING)
+        .value("FAST_GLYPHS", FaceFlags::FAST_GLYPHS)
+        .value("MULTIPLE_MASTERS", FaceFlags::MULTIPLE_MASTERS)
+        .value("GLYPH_NAMES", FaceFlags::GLYPH_NAMES)
+        .value("EXTERNAL_STREAM", FaceFlags::EXTERNAL_STREAM)
+        .value("HINTER", FaceFlags::HINTER)
+        .value("CID_KEYED", FaceFlags::CID_KEYED)
+        .value("TRICKY", FaceFlags::TRICKY)
+        .value("COLOR", FaceFlags::COLOR)
+        .value("VARIATION", FaceFlags::VARIATION)
+        .value("SVG", FaceFlags::SVG)
+        .value("SBIX", FaceFlags::SBIX)
+        .value("SBIX_OVERLAY", FaceFlags::SBIX_OVERLAY)
+        .finalize();
+
+    py::native_enum<StyleFlags>(m, "StyleFlags", "enum.Flag", StyleFlags__doc__)
+        .value("NORMAL", StyleFlags::NORMAL)
+        .value("ITALIC", StyleFlags::ITALIC)
+        .value("BOLD", StyleFlags::BOLD)
+        .finalize();
 
     py::class_<FT2Image>(m, "FT2Image", py::is_final(), py::buffer_protocol(),
                          PyFT2Image__doc__)

From ae5b8f9bf105d2def3d3b3c2d4a5db279b01f693 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: Elliott Sales de Andrade <quantum.analyst@gmail.com>
Date: Fri, 11 Jul 2025 23:30:16 -0400
Subject: [PATCH 4/6] Switch pybind11 classes to smart holders

This is the recommended, but not-yet-default, holder for C++ classes.
---
 src/_backend_agg_wrapper.cpp | 4 ++--
 src/ft2font_wrapper.cpp      | 6 +++---
 src/tri/_tri_wrapper.cpp     | 6 +++---
 3 files changed, 8 insertions(+), 8 deletions(-)

diff --git a/src/_backend_agg_wrapper.cpp b/src/_backend_agg_wrapper.cpp
index 3dd50b31f64a..6eb25a12e807 100644
--- a/src/_backend_agg_wrapper.cpp
+++ b/src/_backend_agg_wrapper.cpp
@@ -216,7 +216,7 @@ PyRendererAgg_draw_gouraud_triangles(RendererAgg *self,
 
 PYBIND11_MODULE(_backend_agg, m, py::mod_gil_not_used())
 {
-    py::class_<RendererAgg>(m, "RendererAgg", py::buffer_protocol())
+    py::classh<RendererAgg>(m, "RendererAgg", py::buffer_protocol())
         .def(py::init<unsigned int, unsigned int, double>(),
              "width"_a, "height"_a, "dpi"_a)
 
@@ -266,7 +266,7 @@ PYBIND11_MODULE(_backend_agg, m, py::mod_gil_not_used())
             return py::buffer_info(renderer->pixBuffer, shape, strides);
         });
 
-    py::class_<BufferRegion>(m, "BufferRegion", py::buffer_protocol())
+    py::classh<BufferRegion>(m, "BufferRegion", py::buffer_protocol())
         // BufferRegion is not constructible from Python, thus no py::init is added.
         .def("set_x", &PyBufferRegion_set_x)
         .def("set_y", &PyBufferRegion_set_y)
diff --git a/src/ft2font_wrapper.cpp b/src/ft2font_wrapper.cpp
index 32998f4cdfc8..a4bf64445749 100644
--- a/src/ft2font_wrapper.cpp
+++ b/src/ft2font_wrapper.cpp
@@ -1548,7 +1548,7 @@ PYBIND11_MODULE(ft2font, m, py::mod_gil_not_used())
         .value("BOLD", StyleFlags::BOLD)
         .finalize();
 
-    py::class_<FT2Image>(m, "FT2Image", py::is_final(), py::buffer_protocol(),
+    py::classh<FT2Image>(m, "FT2Image", py::is_final(), py::buffer_protocol(),
                          PyFT2Image__doc__)
         .def(py::init(
                 [](double_or_<long> width, double_or_<long> height) {
@@ -1571,7 +1571,7 @@ PYBIND11_MODULE(ft2font, m, py::mod_gil_not_used())
             return py::buffer_info(self.get_buffer(), shape, strides);
         });
 
-    py::class_<PyGlyph>(m, "Glyph", py::is_final(), PyGlyph__doc__)
+    py::classh<PyGlyph>(m, "Glyph", py::is_final(), PyGlyph__doc__)
         .def(py::init<>([]() -> PyGlyph {
             // Glyph is not useful from Python, so mark it as not constructible.
             throw std::runtime_error("Glyph is not constructible");
@@ -1595,7 +1595,7 @@ PYBIND11_MODULE(ft2font, m, py::mod_gil_not_used())
         .def_property_readonly("bbox", &PyGlyph_get_bbox,
                                "The control box of the glyph.");
 
-    py::class_<PyFT2Font>(m, "FT2Font", py::is_final(), py::buffer_protocol(),
+    py::classh<PyFT2Font>(m, "FT2Font", py::is_final(), py::buffer_protocol(),
                           PyFT2Font__doc__)
         .def(py::init(&PyFT2Font_init),
              "filename"_a, "hinting_factor"_a=8, py::kw_only(),
diff --git a/src/tri/_tri_wrapper.cpp b/src/tri/_tri_wrapper.cpp
index 732e1af5f310..304b387b419e 100644
--- a/src/tri/_tri_wrapper.cpp
+++ b/src/tri/_tri_wrapper.cpp
@@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ using namespace pybind11::literals;
 
 PYBIND11_MODULE(_tri, m, py::mod_gil_not_used())
 {
-    py::class_<Triangulation>(m, "Triangulation", py::is_final())
+    py::classh<Triangulation>(m, "Triangulation", py::is_final())
         .def(py::init<const Triangulation::CoordinateArray&,
                       const Triangulation::CoordinateArray&,
                       const Triangulation::TriangleArray&,
@@ -31,7 +31,7 @@ PYBIND11_MODULE(_tri, m, py::mod_gil_not_used())
         .def("set_mask", &Triangulation::set_mask,
             "Set or clear the mask array.");
 
-    py::class_<TriContourGenerator>(m, "TriContourGenerator", py::is_final())
+    py::classh<TriContourGenerator>(m, "TriContourGenerator", py::is_final())
         .def(py::init<Triangulation&,
                       const TriContourGenerator::CoordinateArray&>(),
             "triangulation"_a,
@@ -44,7 +44,7 @@ PYBIND11_MODULE(_tri, m, py::mod_gil_not_used())
         .def("create_filled_contour", &TriContourGenerator::create_filled_contour,
             "Create and return a filled contour.");
 
-    py::class_<TrapezoidMapTriFinder>(m, "TrapezoidMapTriFinder", py::is_final())
+    py::classh<TrapezoidMapTriFinder>(m, "TrapezoidMapTriFinder", py::is_final())
         .def(py::init<Triangulation&>(),
             "triangulation"_a,
             "Create a new C++ TrapezoidMapTriFinder object.\n"

From 629be3fcce70e8124213a4db69af31e7ef84fa0f Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: Elliott Sales de Andrade <quantum.analyst@gmail.com>
Date: Thu, 21 Aug 2025 03:07:45 -0400
Subject: [PATCH 5/6] Make FreeType library tied to the module

This ensures that a new one will be created for each sub-interpreter, or
if the module is reloaded.
---
 src/ft2font.cpp         |  6 ++----
 src/ft2font.h           |  4 +---
 src/ft2font_wrapper.cpp | 33 +++++++++++++++++++++++++++------
 3 files changed, 30 insertions(+), 13 deletions(-)

diff --git a/src/ft2font.cpp b/src/ft2font.cpp
index da1bd19dca57..b4b1e8f5231b 100644
--- a/src/ft2font.cpp
+++ b/src/ft2font.cpp
@@ -41,8 +41,6 @@
       you have disabled hints).
  */
 
-FT_Library _ft2Library;
-
 FT2Image::FT2Image(unsigned long width, unsigned long height)
     : m_buffer((unsigned char *)calloc(width * height, 1)), m_width(width), m_height(height)
 {
@@ -207,7 +205,7 @@ FT2Font::get_path(std::vector<double> &vertices, std::vector<unsigned char> &cod
     codes.push_back(CLOSEPOLY);
 }
 
-FT2Font::FT2Font(FT_Open_Args &open_args,
+FT2Font::FT2Font(FT_Library ft2Library, FT_Open_Args &open_args,
                  long hinting_factor_,
                  std::vector<FT2Font *> &fallback_list,
                  FT2Font::WarnFunc warn, bool warn_if_used)
@@ -217,7 +215,7 @@ FT2Font::FT2Font(FT_Open_Args &open_args,
       kerning_factor(0)
 {
     clear();
-    FT_CHECK(FT_Open_Face, _ft2Library, &open_args, 0, &face);
+    FT_CHECK(FT_Open_Face, ft2Library, &open_args, 0, &face);
     if (open_args.stream != nullptr) {
         face->face_flags |= FT_FACE_FLAG_EXTERNAL_STREAM;
     }
diff --git a/src/ft2font.h b/src/ft2font.h
index 6676a7dd4818..6402b82f2f68 100644
--- a/src/ft2font.h
+++ b/src/ft2font.h
@@ -92,14 +92,12 @@ class FT2Image
     FT2Image &operator=(const FT2Image &);
 };
 
-extern FT_Library _ft2Library;
-
 class FT2Font
 {
     typedef void (*WarnFunc)(FT_ULong charcode, std::set<FT_String*> family_names);
 
   public:
-    FT2Font(FT_Open_Args &open_args, long hinting_factor,
+    FT2Font(FT_Library ft2Library, FT_Open_Args &open_args, long hinting_factor,
             std::vector<FT2Font *> &fallback_list,
             WarnFunc warn, bool warn_if_used);
     virtual ~FT2Font();
diff --git a/src/ft2font_wrapper.cpp b/src/ft2font_wrapper.cpp
index a4bf64445749..de2b96e048cc 100644
--- a/src/ft2font_wrapper.cpp
+++ b/src/ft2font_wrapper.cpp
@@ -379,7 +379,7 @@ const char *PyFT2Font_init__doc__ = R"""(
 )""";
 
 static PyFT2Font *
-PyFT2Font_init(py::object filename, long hinting_factor = 8,
+PyFT2Font_init(FT_Library ft2Library, py::object filename, long hinting_factor = 8,
                std::optional<std::vector<PyFT2Font *>> fallback_list = std::nullopt,
                int kerning_factor = 0, bool warn_if_used = false)
 {
@@ -430,8 +430,8 @@ PyFT2Font_init(py::object filename, long hinting_factor = 8,
         self->stream.close = nullptr;
     }
 
-    self->x = new FT2Font(open_args, hinting_factor, fallback_fonts, ft_glyph_warn,
-                          warn_if_used);
+    self->x = new FT2Font(ft2Library, open_args, hinting_factor, fallback_fonts,
+                          ft_glyph_warn, warn_if_used);
 
     self->x->set_kerning_factor(kerning_factor);
 
@@ -1477,12 +1477,14 @@ ft2font__getattr__(std::string name) {
 
 PYBIND11_MODULE(ft2font, m, py::mod_gil_not_used())
 {
-    if (FT_Init_FreeType(&_ft2Library)) {  // initialize library
+    FT_Library ft2Library = nullptr;
+
+    if (FT_Init_FreeType(&ft2Library)) {  // initialize library
         throw std::runtime_error("Could not initialize the freetype2 library");
     }
     FT_Int major, minor, patch;
     char version_string[64];
-    FT_Library_Version(_ft2Library, &major, &minor, &patch);
+    FT_Library_Version(ft2Library, &major, &minor, &patch);
     snprintf(version_string, sizeof(version_string), "%d.%d.%d", major, minor, patch);
 
     py::native_enum<FT_Kerning_Mode>(m, "Kerning", "enum.Enum", Kerning__doc__)
@@ -1597,7 +1599,14 @@ PYBIND11_MODULE(ft2font, m, py::mod_gil_not_used())
 
     py::classh<PyFT2Font>(m, "FT2Font", py::is_final(), py::buffer_protocol(),
                           PyFT2Font__doc__)
-        .def(py::init(&PyFT2Font_init),
+        .def(py::init(
+            [ft2Library](py::object filename, long hinting_factor = 8,
+                std::optional<std::vector<PyFT2Font *>> fallback_list = std::nullopt,
+                int kerning_factor = 0, bool warn_if_used = false) -> PyFT2Font *
+            {
+                return PyFT2Font_init(ft2Library, filename, hinting_factor,
+                                      fallback_list, kerning_factor, warn_if_used);
+            }),
              "filename"_a, "hinting_factor"_a=8, py::kw_only(),
              "_fallback_list"_a=py::none(), "_kerning_factor"_a=0,
              "_warn_if_used"_a=false,
@@ -1754,6 +1763,18 @@ PYBIND11_MODULE(ft2font, m, py::mod_gil_not_used())
             return self.x->get_image().request();
         });
 
+    // Ensure FreeType library is closed after all instances of FT2Font are gone by
+    // tying a weak ref to the class itself.
+    (void)py::weakref(
+        m.attr("FT2Font"),
+        py::cpp_function(
+            [ft2Library](py::handle weakref) {
+                FT_Done_FreeType(ft2Library);
+                weakref.dec_ref();
+            }
+        )
+    ).release();
+
     m.attr("__freetype_version__") = version_string;
     m.attr("__freetype_build_type__") = FREETYPE_BUILD_TYPE;
     m.def("__getattr__", ft2font__getattr__);

From 0d25798ecba3b962b0e7f27a4e6fcc0d9c9ec769 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: Elliott Sales de Andrade <quantum.analyst@gmail.com>
Date: Thu, 21 Aug 2025 04:02:13 -0400
Subject: [PATCH 6/6] Add support for Python subinterpreters

Note, at this time, NumPy does not support subinterpreters, and so we do
not either.
---
 src/_backend_agg_wrapper.cpp | 10 +++++++++-
 src/_image_wrapper.cpp       |  9 ++++++++-
 src/_path_wrapper.cpp        |  9 ++++++++-
 src/_qhull_wrapper.cpp       |  9 ++++++++-
 src/ft2font_wrapper.cpp      |  9 ++++++++-
 src/tri/_tri_wrapper.cpp     |  9 ++++++++-
 6 files changed, 49 insertions(+), 6 deletions(-)

diff --git a/src/_backend_agg_wrapper.cpp b/src/_backend_agg_wrapper.cpp
index 6eb25a12e807..5e2000c25178 100644
--- a/src/_backend_agg_wrapper.cpp
+++ b/src/_backend_agg_wrapper.cpp
@@ -1,6 +1,10 @@
 #include <pybind11/pybind11.h>
 #include <pybind11/numpy.h>
 #include <pybind11/stl.h>
+#ifdef PYBIND11_HAS_SUBINTERPRETER_SUPPORT
+#include <pybind11/subinterpreter.h>
+#endif
+
 #include "mplutils.h"
 #include "py_converters.h"
 #include "_backend_agg.h"
@@ -214,7 +218,11 @@ PyRendererAgg_draw_gouraud_triangles(RendererAgg *self,
     self->draw_gouraud_triangles(gc, points, colors, trans);
 }
 
-PYBIND11_MODULE(_backend_agg, m, py::mod_gil_not_used())
+PYBIND11_MODULE(_backend_agg, m, py::mod_gil_not_used()
+#ifdef PYBIND11_HAS_SUBINTERPRETER_SUPPORT
+                ,py::multiple_interpreters::per_interpreter_gil()
+#endif
+)
 {
     py::classh<RendererAgg>(m, "RendererAgg", py::buffer_protocol())
         .def(py::init<unsigned int, unsigned int, double>(),
diff --git a/src/_image_wrapper.cpp b/src/_image_wrapper.cpp
index 07de3462e412..9346abb104d4 100644
--- a/src/_image_wrapper.cpp
+++ b/src/_image_wrapper.cpp
@@ -1,6 +1,9 @@
 #include <pybind11/pybind11.h>
 #include <pybind11/native_enum.h>
 #include <pybind11/numpy.h>
+#ifdef PYBIND11_HAS_SUBINTERPRETER_SUPPORT
+#include <pybind11/subinterpreter.h>
+#endif
 
 #include <algorithm>
 
@@ -279,7 +282,11 @@ calculate_rms_and_diff(py::array_t<unsigned char> expected_image,
 }
 
 
-PYBIND11_MODULE(_image, m, py::mod_gil_not_used())
+PYBIND11_MODULE(_image, m, py::mod_gil_not_used()
+#ifdef PYBIND11_HAS_SUBINTERPRETER_SUPPORT
+                ,py::multiple_interpreters::per_interpreter_gil()
+#endif
+)
 {
     py::native_enum<interpolation_e>(m, "_InterpolationType", "enum.Enum")
         .value("NEAREST", NEAREST)
diff --git a/src/_path_wrapper.cpp b/src/_path_wrapper.cpp
index 2a297e49ac92..4b52cb3e2fe1 100644
--- a/src/_path_wrapper.cpp
+++ b/src/_path_wrapper.cpp
@@ -1,5 +1,8 @@
 #include <pybind11/pybind11.h>
 #include <pybind11/stl.h>
+#ifdef PYBIND11_HAS_SUBINTERPRETER_SUPPORT
+#include <pybind11/subinterpreter.h>
+#endif
 
 #include <array>
 #include <limits>
@@ -310,7 +313,11 @@ Py_is_sorted_and_has_non_nan(py::object obj)
     return result;
 }
 
-PYBIND11_MODULE(_path, m, py::mod_gil_not_used())
+PYBIND11_MODULE(_path, m, py::mod_gil_not_used()
+#ifdef PYBIND11_HAS_SUBINTERPRETER_SUPPORT
+                ,py::multiple_interpreters::per_interpreter_gil()
+#endif
+)
 {
     m.def("point_in_path", &Py_point_in_path,
           "x"_a, "y"_a, "radius"_a, "path"_a, "trans"_a);
diff --git a/src/_qhull_wrapper.cpp b/src/_qhull_wrapper.cpp
index f8a3103b65f1..4f3ca648490a 100644
--- a/src/_qhull_wrapper.cpp
+++ b/src/_qhull_wrapper.cpp
@@ -7,6 +7,9 @@
  */
 #include <pybind11/pybind11.h>
 #include <pybind11/numpy.h>
+#ifdef PYBIND11_HAS_SUBINTERPRETER_SUPPORT
+#include <pybind11/subinterpreter.h>
+#endif
 
 #ifdef _MSC_VER
 /* The Qhull header does not declare this as extern "C", but only MSVC seems to
@@ -276,7 +279,11 @@ delaunay(const CoordArray& x, const CoordArray& y, int verbose)
     return delaunay_impl(npoints, x.data(), y.data(), verbose == 0);
 }
 
-PYBIND11_MODULE(_qhull, m, py::mod_gil_not_used())
+PYBIND11_MODULE(_qhull, m, py::mod_gil_not_used()
+#ifdef PYBIND11_HAS_SUBINTERPRETER_SUPPORT
+                ,py::multiple_interpreters::per_interpreter_gil()
+#endif
+)
 {
     m.doc() = "Computing Delaunay triangulations.\n";
 
diff --git a/src/ft2font_wrapper.cpp b/src/ft2font_wrapper.cpp
index de2b96e048cc..99e41bb63be7 100644
--- a/src/ft2font_wrapper.cpp
+++ b/src/ft2font_wrapper.cpp
@@ -3,6 +3,9 @@
 #include <pybind11/native_enum.h>
 #include <pybind11/numpy.h>
 #include <pybind11/stl.h>
+#ifdef PYBIND11_HAS_SUBINTERPRETER_SUPPORT
+#include <pybind11/subinterpreter.h>
+#endif
 
 #include "ft2font.h"
 
@@ -1475,7 +1478,11 @@ ft2font__getattr__(std::string name) {
         "module 'matplotlib.ft2font' has no attribute {!r}"_s.format(name));
 }
 
-PYBIND11_MODULE(ft2font, m, py::mod_gil_not_used())
+PYBIND11_MODULE(ft2font, m, py::mod_gil_not_used()
+#ifdef PYBIND11_HAS_SUBINTERPRETER_SUPPORT
+                ,py::multiple_interpreters::per_interpreter_gil()
+#endif
+)
 {
     FT_Library ft2Library = nullptr;
 
diff --git a/src/tri/_tri_wrapper.cpp b/src/tri/_tri_wrapper.cpp
index 304b387b419e..d3bf30e4153c 100644
--- a/src/tri/_tri_wrapper.cpp
+++ b/src/tri/_tri_wrapper.cpp
@@ -1,8 +1,15 @@
 #include "_tri.h"
+#ifdef PYBIND11_HAS_SUBINTERPRETER_SUPPORT
+#include <pybind11/subinterpreter.h>
+#endif
 
 using namespace pybind11::literals;
 
-PYBIND11_MODULE(_tri, m, py::mod_gil_not_used())
+PYBIND11_MODULE(_tri, m, py::mod_gil_not_used()
+#ifdef PYBIND11_HAS_SUBINTERPRETER_SUPPORT
+                ,py::multiple_interpreters::per_interpreter_gil()
+#endif
+)
 {
     py::classh<Triangulation>(m, "Triangulation", py::is_final())
         .def(py::init<const Triangulation::CoordinateArray&,

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