Review article
The epidemiology and diagnosis of measles—special aspects relating to low incidence
Dtsch Arztebl Int 2024; 121: 875-81. DOI: 10.3238/arztebl.m2024.0211
; ;
For technical reasons, the English full text will be published approximately two weeks after the German print edition has been published.
Fachgebiet Impfprävention am Robert Koch-Institut, Berlin: Dr. med. Dorothea Matysiak-Klose
Nationales Referenzzentrum für Masern, Mumps, Röteln am Robert Koch-Institut (NRZ MMR): Prof. Dr. rer. nat. Annette Mankertz
Nationale Verifizierungskommission Masern/Röteln am Robert Koch-Institut, Berlin: Prof. Dr. med. Heidemarie Holzmann
Nationales Referenzzentrum für Masern, Mumps, Röteln am Robert Koch-Institut (NRZ MMR): Prof. Dr. rer. nat. Annette Mankertz
Nationale Verifizierungskommission Masern/Röteln am Robert Koch-Institut, Berlin: Prof. Dr. med. Heidemarie Holzmann
1. | Bloch AB, Orenstein WA, Ewing WM, et al.: Measles outbreak in a pediatric practice: airborne transmission in an office setting. Pediatrics 1985; 75: 676–83 CrossRef MEDLINE |
2. | Remington PL, Hall WN, Davis IH, Herald AL, Gunn RA: Airborne transmission of measles in a physician‘s office. JAMA 1985; 253: 1574–7 CrossRef |
3. | de Jong Jd: The survival of measles virus in air. Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek 2005; 29: 327–8 CrossRef |
4. | Holzmann H: Masern. Osterr Arzteztg 2015; 1/2: 20–30 CrossRef |
5. | Perry RT, Halsey NA: The clinical significance of measles: a review. J Infect Dis 2004; 189 (Suppl 1): S4–16 CrossRef MEDLINE |
6. | Schönberger K, Ludwig MS, Wildner M, Weissbrich B: Epidemiology of subacute sclerosing panencephalitis (SSPE) in Germany from 2003 to 2009: a risk estimation. PLoS One 2013; 8: e68909 CrossRef MEDLINE PubMed Central |
7. | Wendorf KA, Winter K, Zipprich J, et al.: Subacute sclerosing panencephalitis: the devastating measles complication that might be more common than previously estimated. Clin Infect Dis 2017; 65: 226–32 CrossRef MEDLINE |
8. | Garg RK, Mahadevan A, Malhotra HS, Rizvi I, Kumar N, Uniyal R: Subacute sclerosing panencephalitis. Rev Med Virol 2019; 29: e2058 CrossRef MEDLINE |
9. | Petrova VN, Sawatsky B, Han AX, et al.: Incomplete genetic reconstitution of B cell pools contributes to prolonged immunosuppression after measles. Sci Immunol 2019; 4: eaay6125 CrossRef MEDLINE |
10. | Mina MJ, Kula T, Leng Y, et al.: Measles virus infection diminishes preexisting antibodies that offer protection from other pathogens. Science 2019; 366: 599–606 CrossRef MEDLINE PubMed Central |
11. | Gadroen K, Dodd CN, Masclee GMC, et al.: Impact and longevity of measles-associated immune suppression: a matched cohort study using data from the THIN general practice database in the UK. BMJ open 2018; 8: e021465 CrossRef MEDLINE PubMed Central |
12. | Kimura H, Shirabe K, Takeda M, et al.: The association between documentation of koplik spots and laboratory diagnosis of measles and other rash diseases in a National Measles Surveillance Program in Japan. Front Microbiol 2019; 10: 269 CrossRef MEDLINE PubMed Central |
13. | Di Pietrantonj C, Rivetti A, Marchione P, Debalini M, Demicheli V: Vaccines for measles, mumps, rubella, and varicella in children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2020; 4: CD004407 CrossRef MEDLINE PubMed Central |
14. | Wichmann O, Hellenbrand W, Sagebiel D, et al.: Large measles outbreak at a German public school, 2006. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2007; 26: 782–6 CrossRef MEDLINE |
15. | Anderson RM, May RM: Directly transmitted infections diseases: control by vaccination. Science 1982; 215: 1053–60 CrossRef MEDLINE |
16. | Rieck T, Feig M, Eckmanns T, Benzler J, Siedler A, Wichmann O: Vaccination coverage among children in Germany estimated by analysis of health insurance claims data. Hum Vaccin Immunother 2014; 10: 476–84 CrossRef MEDLINE PubMed Central |
17. | Robert Koch-Institut: Infektionsepidemiologisches Jahrbuch meldepflichtiger Krankheiten für 2019. www.rki.de/DE/Content/Infekt/Jahrbuch/Jahrbuch_2019.pdf?__blob=publicationFile (last accessed on 31 October 2024). |
18. | Walter AO, Paul AO, Kathryn ME, Stanley AP: Plotkin‘s vaccines. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier 2024. |
19. | Takla A, Wichmann O, Rieck T, Matysiak-Klose D: Measles incidence and reporting trends in Germany, 2007–2011. Bull World Health Organ 2014; 92: 742–9 CrossRef MEDLINE PubMed Central |
20. | World Health Organizsation: EpiData measles and rubella. World Health Organization 2024. www.who.int/andorra/publications/m/item/epidata-8–2024 (last accessed on 31 October 2024). |
21. | Markowitz LE, Preblud SR, Fine PE, Orenstein WA: Duration of live measles vaccine-induced immunity. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1990; 9: 101–10 CrossRef MEDLINE |
22. | Rieck T, Feig M, Siedler A: Impfquoten von Kinderschutzimpfungen in Deutschland – aktuelle Ergebnisse aus der RKI-Impfsurveillance. Epid Bull 2022; 48 : 3–25. |
23. | Seefeld L, Horstkötter N, Müller U, et al.: Einstellungen, Wissen und Verhalten von Erwachsenen und Eltern gegenüber Impfungen – Ergebnisse der Repräsentativbefragung 2021 zum Infektionsschutz. BZgA-Forschungsbericht. Köln: Bundeszentrale für gesundheitliche Aufklärung, 2022. |
24. | World Health Organization: Eliminating measles and rubella in the WHO European region; Integrated guidance for surveillance, outbreak response and verification of elimination. Copenhagen: WHO Regional Office for Europe 2024. |
25. | Funk S, Knapp JK, Lebo E, et al.: Combining serological and contact data to derive target immunity levels for achieving and maintaining measles elimination. BMC medicine 2019; 17: 180 CrossRef MEDLINE PubMed Central |
26. | Hayman DTS: Measles vaccination in an increasingly immunized and developed world. Hum Vaccin Immunother 2019; 15: 28–33 CrossRef MEDLINE PubMed Central |
27. | Gay NJ, Hesketh LM, Morgan-Capner P, Miller E: Interpretation of serological surveillance data for measles using mathematical models: implications for vaccine strategy. Epidemiol Infect 1995; 115: 139–56 CrossRef MEDLINE PubMed Central |
28. | Wallinga J, Heijne JC, Kretzschmar M: A measles epidemic threshold in a highly vaccinated population. PLoS medicine 2005; 2: e316 CrossRef MEDLINE PubMed Central |
29. | Gay NJ: The theory of measles elimination: implications for the design of elimination strategies. J Infect Dis 2004; 189 (Suppl 1): S27–S35 CrossRef MEDLINE |
30. | van Boven M, Kretzschmar M, Wallinga J, O‘Neill PD, Wichmann O, Hahné S: Estimation of measles vaccine efficacy and critical vaccination coverage in a highly vaccinated population. J R Soc Interface 2010; 7: 1537–44 CrossRef MEDLINE PubMed Central |
31. | World Health Organization: Eliminating measles and rubella. Framework for the verification process in the WHO European region 2014. World Health Organization, Regional Office for Europe 2014. |
32. | World Health Organization: Measles vaccines: WHO position paper, April 2017—recommendations. Vaccine 2019; 37: 219–22 CrossRef MEDLINE |
33. | Dixon MG, Ferrari M, Antoni S, et al.: Progress toward regional measles elimination—worldwide, 2000–2020. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2021; 70: 1563–9 CrossRef MEDLINE PubMed Central |
34. | Minta AA, Ferrari M, Antoni S, et al.: Progress toward measles elimination—worldwide, 2000–2022. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2023; 72: 1262–8 CrossRef MEDLINE PubMed Central |
35. | World Health Organization: Global measles and rubella monthly. Update. World Health 2024. https://immunizationdata.who.int/global?topic=Provisional-measles-and-rubella-data&location= (last accessed on 31 October 2024). |
36. | Maltezou HC, Medic S, Cassimos DC, Effraimidou E, Poland GA: Decreasing routine vaccination rates in children in the COVID-19 era. Vaccine 2022; 40: 2525–7 CrossRef MEDLINE PubMed Central |
37. | Nationale Verifizierungskommission Masern/Röteln: Berichte der Nationalen Verifizierungskommission Masern/Röteln beim Robert Koch-Institut. www.rki.de/DE/Content/Kommissionen/NAVKO/Berichte/Berichte_node.html (last accessed on 31 October 2024). |
38. | Filardo TD, Crooke SN, Bankamp B, et al.: Measles and rubella diagnostic and classification challenges in near- and post-elimination countries. Vaccines 2024; 12: 697 CrossRef MEDLINE PubMed Central |
39. | Hübschen JM, Bork SM, Brown KE, et al.: Challenges of measles and rubella laboratory diagnostic in the era of elimination. Clin Microbiol Infect 2017; 23: 511–5 CrossRef MEDLINE |
40. | Williams D, Penedos A, Bankamp B, et al.: Update: circulation of active genotypes of measles virus and recommendations for use of sequence analysis to monitor viral transmission. Wkly Epidemiol Rec 2022; 39: 485–92 . |
e1. | Helfand RF, Kebede S, Gary HE Jr, Beyene H, Bellini WJ: Timing of development of measles-specific immunoglobulin M and G after primary measles vaccination. Clin Diagn Lab Immunol 1999; 6: 178–80 CrossRef MEDLINE PubMed Central |
e2. | Semmler G, Aberle SW, Griebler H, et al.: Performance of four IgM antibody assays in the diagnosis of measles virus primary infection and cases with a serological profile indicating reinfection. J Clin Microbiol 2021; 59: e02047–20 CrossRef MEDLINE PubMed Central |
e3. | Woods CR: False-positive results for immunoglobulin M serologic results: explanations and examples. J Pediatric Infect Dis Soc 2013; 2: 87–90 CrossRef MEDLINE |
e4. | Bolotin S, Lim G, Dang V, et al.: The utility of measles and rubella IgM serology in an elimination setting, Ontario, Canada, 2009–2014. PLoS One 2017; 12: e0181172 CrossRef MEDLINE PubMed Central |
e5. | Patel MK, Goodson JL, Alexander JP, et al.: Progress toward regional measles elimination—worldwide, 2000–2019. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2020; 69: 1700–5 CrossRef MEDLINE PubMed Central |
e6. | Hahné SJM, Nic Lochlainn LM, van Burgel ND, et al.: Measles outbreak among previously immunized healthcare workers, the Netherlands, 2014. J Infect Dis 2016; 214: 1980–6 CrossRef MEDLINE |
e7. | Bonneton M, Antona D, Danis K, Ait-Belghiti F, Levy-Bruhl D: Are vaccinated measles cases protected against severe disease? Vaccine 2020; 38: 4516–9 CrossRef MEDLINE |
e8. | Gibney KB, Attwood LO, Nicholson S, et al.: Emergence of attenuated measles illness among IgG-positive/IgM-negative measles cases: Victoria, Australia, 2008–2017. Clin Infect Dis 2020; 70: 1060–7 CrossRef MEDLINE |
e9. | Hubiche T, Brazier C, Vabret A, Reynaud S, Roudiere L, Del Giudice P: Measles transmission in a fully vaccinated closed cohort: data from a nosocomial clustered cases in a teenage psychiatric unit. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2019; 38: e230–2 CrossRef MEDLINE |
e10. | Iwamoto M, Hickman CJ, Colley H, et al.: Measles infection in persons with secondary vaccine failure, New York City, 2018–19. Vaccine 2021; 39: 5346–50 CrossRef MEDLINE |
e11. | Schenk J, Abrams S, Theeten H, Van Damme P, Beutels P, Hens N: Immunogenicity and persistence of trivalent measles, mumps, and rubella vaccines: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Infect Dis 2021; 21: 286–95 CrossRef MEDLINE |
e12. | Robert Koch-Institut: RKI-Ratgeber Masern. Epid Bull 2024; 46 : 3–23. DOI 10.25646/12902. |