© Physics 71 Arciags CHAPTER 1. UNITS, PHYSICAL QUANTITIES, AND VECTORS ® A. Physics * Science of mattec ana energy “one of the most fundamental sciences” 1. Classical physics - mechanics, light, heat, sound, elect.icity - Newton, Galileo, Maxwsti 2. Moder physics - relativity, quantum theory ~~ Binstein . B, Froblem-solving: “I SEE” strategy + Identify the relevant concepts ‘+ Setup the problem + Execute the solution + Evaluate your answer C. Units * Physics as ascience -> there is measurement -> there are standards end units * 3 basic quantities (oi fundamental quantities) > system of units. i. Length, 2. Mass 3. Time ‘* 8! Gntemational System) or MKS systeza 1. Length — meter 2. Mass ~logram 3. Tune ~second a * CGS system 1. Length — centimeter 2. Mass — gram 3. Time~second - + British system 1. Length — foot 2. Mass— slog = 2. Time ~ second Jnit consistency end conversions + Units can be weaved just like algebraic symbols in conversions + Dimensiouel analysis : E. Uncertainty and significant figures gnifcant figures _ © Addition or subtraction: Determained by tne number with the smaulest uncertainty = _Muluptizetion or division: nc more than in the number with the fewest significant figures + Scientific notation F, Estimates and ondors of magnitude * Order-of- magnitude estiipate ~ a number rounded oif to tne nearest power of 10 + Femi probleras© Physics 71 Arciaga Two types of quantities 1. Scalar - has magnitade only ex: distance, speed 2. Vector - has both magnitude and directior: ~ ex: position, displacement, velucity. «cceleration H. Vector * Notation of vector: Aor A ord © Magnitude af vector: WAlorA * Graphical representation; “arrow” © length is proportional to the magnitude of the vector © direction is same as the direction of tnx: vector NOTES: I. Two vectors are said to be equal they have equal magnitude AND same durectivn. 2. Parallel ~ same direction 3. Anti-paralle! ~ opposite directions, L. Basic operations with vectors * Addition: = C=A+B 5 where NOTES: 1. Graphical methods: Tail-head method * Parallelogram method 2. Algebraic method * Multiplication with a scalar: B=sA 3 where s = any scalar NOTES: 1. is parallel to A if's > 0 (i.e. positive scalar) 2. Bis anti-parallel to A ifs <0 (i.e. negative scalar) © Subtraction, C=A-B=A+(-B) sum or resultant or net vector Components of vectors * Rectangular components ~ along the 2, y, and 2, axes of a rectangular Cartesian coordinate systein * In 2-D Cartesian coordinate system (x-y plane): + A,=A.cos® (if @ is measured from the +%-axis, rotating toward the +y-axis) * Ay sin@ (if @ is measured from the +x-axis, rotating toward the ty-axis) NOTES: 1 Vector ‘component van be (+) or {-) 2. Magnitudess A= /Ab+ Az? ¥ (a S.Directions — @= tan!» Reminders: 1. The above relations are correct when the angle from the 4x-axis, rotating toward the +y-axis, 2. In determining the direction 8, always take note of the quadrant measured,© Phiysies 71 Accinga Unit vectors + Unit vector ~ vector without dimension and wishout unit; it only indicates direction © Magnitude =} (i.e. “unit” means “one”) + Notation: A. (earet” or “hat” symbol) A ‘| Mathematically: = A= A * Rectangular unit veetors a Tori - points toward the +x axis b. jorj. - points toward the +y axis c. Lor k = points toward the +2 axis ein 3-D Cartesian coordinate system (x-y-2 phune): LitA,j+Aik +B, j+B,k + B=(A, +B,)i+ (A, +B)I+(A, + Bk « 0 a 4 ‘The Got BFOdER (or also called “sealan product’) © Notation: AeB=ABcos="ABY=AyB where . and B = magnitudes of vectors A and B , respectively = angie between vectors A and B i component of B in the direction of A ‘Ay = component of A in the direction of B NOTES: |. The dot product of twe vectors is a scalar. 2. Key idea: paralle! component of one vector to the other © Properties: Tt A and B are perpendicular AeB=0 1 2. 1 A and B are parallel, AeB= AB 3. if AeB=0, either(i) A=0, or Gi) B=0, or (iii) A and B are perpendicular 4. AvAsA’ 5. AeB=BeA 6. (A+ByeC=AeC+BbeS 7. AeB=A,B,+A,B,+A,B, in 3D Cartesian coordinate system 8, Ae A,, Aek=A, in 3D Cartesian coordinate system * Some uses: © Yo describe work and power (to be discussed in Chapter 6) © To determine the angle @ between any two vectors with known components© Physics 71 Atci M_ The erossspredien(or also called “weetor product”; Notuiva: GaAxB=(ABsinori py =(ABMOA Ty = ATRB TRE where A and B = magnitudes of vectors A and B . respectively g =angle between vectors A and B (use she small angle: 0" to 180°) i unit vector perpenaicular to both A and B component of B perpendicular to A Ax =component of A perpendicular to B NOTES: 1. The cross product of two vectors is also a vector. agnitude: C= ABsind = area of the parallelogram formed by A end B 3. Direction: perpendicular to both A and B snd determined by using the tight-hand rule (RAR} 4, Key idea: perpendicular component of one vector to the other Properties: 1. tf A and B are perpendicular, AxB=(AB)A, ay 2. WA and B ave parallel, AxB 3. If AxB=0, either (i) A=0. or =0.or (iii) A and B are parallel cee 5. -BxA 6. (A+ ByxC= AxC+Bx€ In 3D Cartesian coordinate system: 7, AxB=1A,B,-A,B,)- A,B, A,B, 1+K(A,B, - A,B) kxi Some ties’ ‘©. To describe torque and angular momentum (to be discussed in Chapter 10) co To describe magnetic fields {tu be discussed in Physics 72)© Physics 71 Arciaga CHAPTER 2. MOTION ALONG A’STRAIGHT LINE © Kinematics ~ the study of motion © NOTE: For now, ONE dimension only (ie. motion in a straight line) and treat objects as particles A. Displacement © Def: change in a particle's position 0 Ax= 2 — NOTES: 1. The origin is arbitrary (e.g. can be at x1, or at x2, of to the right of x2) 2, ‘The direction of +x is arbitrary (ie. can be to the right or to the left) 3, Displacement is a vector and can be (+), (-) or zero = Ifdisplacement is (+), the particle moved to the + direction = if displacement is (-), the particle moved to the ~x direction + If displacement is zero, the particle either did not move or it moved but returned to its original position 4, Displacement is different from distance 5 Distance is a scalar and is always positive B. Velocity «Def: rate of change of the position with time: change in position per change in time Average velocity - ratio of the displacement to the tisne interval Ax _x,=X, mene NOTES: 1 “Average velocity is a veotor and can be (+), (-) or zero * Tf Vave is (+), the displacement is (+) * If Vave is (2), the displacement is (-) # Tf Vay is zero, the displaceraent is zero 2. Average velocity is defined using two instants of time © Instantaneous velocity ~ slop? of the line tangent to the x-t curve — Jimt of the ratio Ax/At as At approaches zero x _ dx v=lim— as at dt — “derivative of x with respect to t” NOTES: |, Instantaneous velocity is a veotor and can be (+), (-) or zer0 2. Instantaneous velocity is defined using one Mnstant of time only C. Sneed @ Average speed ~ ratio of the foal distar.ce traveled to the time inerval averspeed=S9 at NOTES: 1. Ave. speed is a scalar and can be (+) or zero; never (-) + Ifeve. speed is zero, the particle did not move 2, Ave. speed may or may NOT be equal to the magnitude of the ave. velocity + Instantaneous speed — magnitude (or absolute value) of the instantaneous velocity NOTES: I. Inst. speed is a scalar and can be (+) or zero; never -) 2 Inst, sneed is always equal to the magnitude of tie inst. velocity© Physics 71 Arciaga D. Acceleration 4 «Def: rate of change of the velocity with time; change in velocity per change in time © Average acceleration ~ ratio ofthe change of the instantaneous velocity to the time interval Ay sree NOTES: L: Ave. acceleration is a vector and can be (+), (-) or zero 2. Ave. acceleration is defined using vo instants of time ¢ Instantaneous acceleration = slope of the line tangent to the v-t curve ~ limit of the ratio Av/At as At approaches zero im Ov 2 ov a0 At dt “derivative of v with respect to t” NOTES: 1. Inst, acceleration is a vector and can be (+), (-) or zero 2. In some old textbooks, negative acceleration is also culled deceleration 3. If inst. acceleration is zero, then the velocity is constant (i.e, not changing) “4 if inst. acceleration is constant and non-zero, the velocity is constantly varying E, interpretation of plots® © Froman x-t graph: ie How to determine Po: Negative. Zero a Postion | Value at the vertical axis | Above the Below the ‘Along the if horizontal axis_| horizontal axis _| horizontal axis ‘Average | Slope of the line segment | Segment is ‘Segment is ‘Segment is velocity connecting two points _| upward downward horizontal Velocity] Slope of the tangent Jin | Tangent line is | Tangent line is | Tangent line is atonepoint | upward. downward hosizontal Aecdleration |Concavity of cervature at | Concave up | Concave down | Stiaight line or one paint inflection point © Fromav-t gra How to determine Positive ____| Negative Zero Velocity ‘Value at the vertical axis | Above the Below the Along the horizontal axis_| horizonta’ axis _| horizontal axis Average | Slop of the fine segment | Segment is Segment is ‘Segment is acceleration | connecting two points _| upward downward horizontal ‘Acceleration | Slope of the tangent line | Tangent line is | Tangent line is | Tangent line is at one point upward downward horizontal© Physics 71 Arciaga F. Motion with constant acceleration © If accelera.ion is constant, then a= © The 4 Kinematic equations: L wasp cebad love (i €. inst. acceleration = ave. acceleration) 2. awimvgchaty 3. vimevet2a(x= x5? 4 wen 0 NOTES: 1. If acceleration is constant, Vase = (Vo+ ¥) 2, Use the 4 kinematic equations ubove for cases with constant acceleration only#t! 3. Use dimensional analysis as an aid in memorizing these equations 4. Know which equation(s) to use in a particular problem © Free fall motion: an example of constant acceleration “NEAR the earth's surface, objects fall with constant acceleration due to gravity ~ Acceleration due to gravity near the earth's surface = lal = g = 9.81 mis? = 32.2 fus® ~ Assumptions in free fall: 1. The only force acting on the particle is gravity. 2, It occurs near the earth’s surface. 3. The effect of air resistance is negligible. 4. The effect of earth’s rotation is neglected. NOTES" 1. In reality, g is lower at higher elevations, But for now, we assume that g is constant. 2. In free fall, speed up equals speed down - 3, In free fall, time up equals time down. 4. At the peak of a vertical free fll, the speed is zero but the acceleration is not© Physics 71 Arciaga CHAPTER 3. MOTION IN TWO OR THREE DIMENSIONS A Position, velocity, and acceleration vectors Position vector: io vector from the origin of the coordinate systera to the location of the particle o Feaxityj+zk © Displacement vector: ‘0. final position vector minus initial pesition vector 826K O2 “WIFE © Average velocity vector: © displacement vector divided by the time interval At bok oe AE # instantaneous velocity vector: © velocity vector that is tangent to the path taken by che particle Niet, Ft im Se = v,i+v, J+ Vek uo At © Average acceleration vector: ‘o. change in the velocity vector divided by the time interval av at -t ° 4, ‘* Justantareous acceleration vector: © change in the velocity vector divided by a very very very small time interval Na itajta,k 0 At MOTES: 1. Acceleration vector can have two components: a. parallel to the velocity b. perpendicular to the velocity 2. Parallel component ~- also called tangential acceleration an change the magnitude (increase or decrease) of the velocity ~ can change the direction (forward or backward) of the velocity 3. Perpendicular component © xlso called radial 0 centripetal acceleration v can change the direction (left or right) of the velocity ~ can NOT change the magnivude of the velocity© Physics 71 Arciaga B. Relative velocity «Def; velocity of a particle as seen by a particular observer 8 Sagar RTT j where Vp_= velocity of P relative to B Ypya = velocity of P relative to A Tip = velocity of A relative to B NOTES: 1. This equation is known as the Galilean velocity transformation. 2. Property: The velocity of A relative to B is negative of the velocity of B relative to A. (Mathematically, Vqr9 =—Vora ) 3, In some textbooks, the notation Vag is used instead of Vqyp- C. Projectile motion «Zxamples: a baseball batted by a player, acannonbl! shot from a cannon; « stone thrown into the air, a jackstone ball rolling off the edge ofa table, a bullet shot from a rifle * Idealized assumptions: ono air resistance (or negligible ais resistance) © occurs near the earth's surface, suchr that g is (approximately) constant © Scere at a small location, such that the surface of the earth is (approximately) flat + The idea of independent motions: 1. Projectile motion is two dimensional (2-D) and can be divided into 2 independent motions: ‘a. 1-D horizontal motion b. LD vertical motion 2. Horizontal motion: & (x-acceleration is zero) 3. Vertical motion: aj=-2 _(y-acceleration is downward and constan') * (Mathematicalfourriations: _ = Horizontal («) Vertical (y) Initial velocity component Vor = V5 C050 Voy = Vo sin€ ‘Acceleration component ay=—g = -9.81 mis Position component equation Yo Voyt— gr ‘Velocity component equation Vy=Voy— gt and Vy? = Voy" = 283 NOTES! 1. The 4 Kinematic equations in chapter 2 can still be applied for each of the horizontal and vertical parts of the motion. 2, The equations in the table above assign + to the upward direction. 3 The angle 8 in the table above is measured with respect 0 the horizontal x-axis «Trajectory path of a projectile; the shape is a parabola Range (maximum horizoatal distance): 2 2 o R=2=2singeoso="=sin(26) g g NOTES: 1. Maximum zange:«Rwse=29 happens if @=45% Equal ranges: Ri =R2 happens if 6; +82 = 90° ‘The above equation and notes | and 2 are true only ifthe launching and landing points ue at the same elevation (c.g. projectile launched above a horizontal level floor). | Ifthe elevation of the launching point is very very high compared to the landing point (ee high cliff), maxitmum range happens if projectile is launched horizontally.© Physics 71 Arciaga © Peak (maximum vertical height): . o Helesinter 2g © Some helpful notes about projectile motion with negligible air resistance: 1. Time up equals time down 2. Speed up equals speed down (but not same direction) 3. At the peak of a 2-D trajectory: = velocity is purely horizontal (i.e. v, ® speed is minimum, but not zero (i.e. v= Vx = Vos) = acceleration is purely vertical and not zero (i.e. a= ay = 8) D. Circular motion © Examples: orbiting satellite, swinging stonz attached to a string, car in a circular track, loop-the- loop roller coaster © Uniform circular motion 1.Constent radius (i.e. ciscular) 2. Constant speed _[i.e. uniform] ® Direction of velocity is always tangent to the path (i.e. perpendicular to the radius) 3. Non-zero acceleration * Called centripetal acceleration (or radial acceleration) «Direction: Along the radial direction and points toward tie center (i.e. “radially inward”), = Magnitude: a= v"/r where ac = centripetal acceleration v= speed r=redius 4, Period ~ time for one complete revolution ne /T where T= period © Non-uniform circuler motion 1. Constant radius [ie circular] 2. Changing speed [i.e. non-uniform] ‘Direction of velocity is always tangent to the path 3. Non-zero acceleration — has two components ‘a.fadial component _- the centripetal acceleratioa (see above) sage T b. tangential component - parallel (or aat eag=idvide? [ic * Some other notations found in other textbooks: roy arallel) to , tangent to path, perpendicular to a. “derivative of velocity with respect to time”)© Physics 71 Arciaga CHAPTER 4. NEWTON’S LAWS © Kinematics - the study of the description of motion based on displacement, velocity, and acceleration «Classical mechanics the study of the causes of motion based on force and mass ©. Statics — study of the effect of forces on stationary objects 6. Dynamics — study of the effect of forces on moving objects A. Brief history © Aristotle © Aristotelian mechanics © 2types of motion: 1. natural motion — not caused by forces a, up/down motion: “objects seek their natural resting places” (ex: rocks fall down, smoke rises up) b. circular motion: “without beginning and end”; “around the earth” (ex: planets and sun move in circles around the earth) 2. violent motion -- caused by forces; imposed motion (ex: cart-and-horse, ship-and-wind) Nicolaus Copernicus - “planets and earth revolve around the sun” Johannes Kepler — Kepler's 3 laws of planetary motion (Chapter 12) Gaiileo Gelilei ‘©. “without friction, objects can keep on moving even without an applied force” ©. “every object resists change to its state of motion” > called INERTIA Isaze Newton ‘© Newtonian mechanics ~> also called classical mechanics 5. “standing on the shoulders of the giants” © Newton's 3 laws of motion B. Force and interactions ‘© Long-range forces (or action-at-a-distance forces): 1, Gravity 2. Blectric force (Physics 72) 3. Magnetic force (Physics 72) © Contact forces: 1, (Normalyforce always directed perpendiculanto the surface 2, Brictional force - always directedparailei:to the surface 3, Tension - ex: force‘along a string, rope, cable, etc. 4. Restoring force — ex: force by a spring, = Hooke’s law: YSERA; where F, = restoring force k = force constant or spring constant Ax = displacement from equilibrium «Force — any influence on the motion of an object; a vector quantity NOTES: |. SI unit of force is Newton (N): 1 N= 1 kg-mls 2, CGS unit of force is dyne (@yn): 1 dyn= 1 g-omls* 3, British unit of force is pound (Ib): 1 Ib = 1 slug-fts* = 4.448 N 4, Obeys the principle of superp\© Physics 71 Arcir «Principle of superposition of forces: © Forces can be combined using yectoraddition (WARNING: not scalar addition !!!) o E,7 EF =R+h+K+. of, is usually called the “sum of forces”, “total force”, “net force”, oF “resultant force” Newton’ sfirstlawof miosiony (also called tlawof inertia) «An object acted on by Zero net extemal foree has zero acceleration. The object will not change its velocity. Either it will remain stationary (i.e. not moving) or it wil continue moving with constant velocity. © Equilibrium: 3. Ifa puint particle is acted on by zero net external force, then itis in equilibrium. © Ry =0eeseqailibrium Gf point particle only)” ‘+ Inettial Reference Frames (IRF): ©. reference frame in which Newton's first law is obeyed © ex: car moving with constant velocity, classroom, earth's surface NOTES: 1. Ary reference frame moving with constant velocity relative to an TRF is lso an IRF. 2. An accelerating reference frame is a non-inertial reference frame. 3 The earth's surface is approximately an IRF because its acceleration due to its oration (ne = 0.034 mvs!) and revolution (anv = 0.0060 mvs") are very small 1! ‘Newton’s second law of motion (also called “law of accelezation”) + An object acted on by a net external force has acceleration. The object's acceleration has a magnitude equal to the magnitude of the net extemal force divided by the object's mass The bject’s acceleration has the same direction as the net external force. a or arnnit NOTES: 1. Only external forces acting on an object affect the motion ofthe object 2, Newton's second law is obeyed only in IRFs !t! 3. (ma) is not a force; it is not even a type of force 4. B= cK (see principle of superposition of forces) «Mass — measure of object’s inertia; a scalar quantity NOTES: |. Object with more mass will accelerate less; and vice-versa. 2 Independent of location (earth's surface, moon's surface, peak of Mt, Everest, ete) 3. ST unit of mass is kilogram (kg) ‘© Weight — force on an object due to gravity; a vector quantity NOTES: 1. SEEM@ ; where = accoleration due to gravity 2. Dependent on location (earth's surface, moon’s surface, peak of Mt. Everest etc.) 3, The unit of weight is the same as the unit of force (see section B)- ‘+ ‘Two physical roles of mass in mechani ‘©. Gravitational mass — related to its © Mathematically: role regarding gravity (i.e. mass in W =m) +> Inertial mass ~ related to its role regarding inertia (Je. mass in F,, = mE) NOTE: 1, Precise measurements show that gravitational mass and inertial mass are the sa© Physics 71 Arciaga CHAPTER 5. APPLYING NEWTON’S LAWS A. Probiem-solving using Newton's laws of motion 1. Identify the object of interest. 2, Establish the orientation of the most convenient coordinate system. 3. Draw ihe “free-body diagram" for the object of interest, a. Draw the forces acting on the object of interest. 'b. Forces are drawn as vector arrows. ¢. Do NOT include the forces exerted by the object of interest. 4. Apply Newton's 2% law in component form. a. Re, =ma, b. R,, =ma, cP, =, Check your answers by doing dimensional analysis and/or by intuitive analysis. 6. Ifthe problem involves more than one object of interest, draw separate free-body diagrams for each object of interest. B, Some useful morals © Apparent weight in an elevator 1, Blevator is not accelerating: apparent weight is EQUAL to the true weight. 2. Elevator is accelerating upward: apparent weight is GREATER than the true weight. 3. Elevator is accelerating downward: apparent weight is LESS than the true weight. ©. Weightlessness - phenomenon in which the apparent weight is zero (true weight is not zero) ‘© For an object sliding down a frictionless inclined plane, with no other applied forces: + acceleration of the object along the incline: qasgesin® + normal force on the object: (Fe=mgcosey © Acceleration is independent of the mass of the object. + Tension ‘© Tension ac one point of the rope is the force acting at that point. © Two special cases in which the tension is constant all through-out a non-stretchable rope: 1. If the rope is massless or has negligible mass (i.e. Mrope = 0). 2. If the rope is not accelerating (7.2. dpe = 0) and is horizontally oriented. © Tension is NOT always equal to the weight of the hanging object. + Objects connected by massless and unstretchable ropes (and frictionless and massless pulleys} Draw separate free-body diagrams for each object. ©. Make us: of these facts: 1. The tension is constant all through-oat a single rope 2. All the connected objects have the same magnitude of acceleration. > Shortcut technique: where Tug ing = Acceleration parallel to the rope ™, YFramenpe = Ret force paralle! to the rope ‘= total mass of all the connected objects© Physics 71 Arciaga C. Friction ; «Duc to the bonding of molecules between two surfaces that are in close contact. «Friction for objects in contact with a solid surface ° (Statie‘friction (f,)" = For objects that are i iv i * Direction is opposite to the direction of intended motion + OSteste=HFe where fim = Maximum static friction = [.F, 1, = coefficient of static friction F, = normal force on the object * fis not constant for a particular situation (i.e it has a range of values) + fis dependent on the applied “push or pull” + fis approximately independent of the area of contact (Kinetic friction (£7 = For objects that are moving relativexo the point of contact jon is opposite to the direction of motion * Gexmhe ; where 1, = coefficient of kinetic friction F, = normat force on the object + fy is constant for a particular situation (ie. it has only one value) = fi is independent of the applied “push or pull” «fy is approximately independent of the area of contact = generaliy, Wy SB, (Le. fp Sf,yq.] > “easier to keep moving than to start moving” + 1, isepproximately constant for low speeds (such as ems to mvs) * Frictioa for rolling objects ° ° ° If object rolls withoursliding orssipping, friction is statiefrietion” Ifobject rolls with’sliding orstippings friction is kinetie*frictionr Rolling friction: ® Sometimes, the concent of “rolling friction” is used by engineers. coefficient of rolling friction (also called “tractive resistance”) force needed to keep object rolling at constant velocity normal force exerted by the surface on the object, + Objects with wheels are easier to move because His typically small «Friction for objects moving in a fluid (.e. liquid or gas) ° Fluid resistance (also called “resisting force”) * Direction is opposite to the direction of motion + Depends on the following: 1, shape and size of the object 2. properties of the fluid 3. speed of object relative to the fluid * Mathematically: 9) in general: Fr=Bv" — ; where fluid resistance B = constant of proportionality v= speed of the object b) for low speeds: Fr= BY 2) for high speeds: Fy = B > called “air drag” or “drag force”© Physics 71 Arciaga E, Newton's thiré'lawrof motions also-called “lawof action-reaction”) Tf object A exerts a foree on object B, then an equal but oppasite Force is also exerted by object B on object A. These two forces are equal in raagnitnde but opposite in direction. Mathematically: s8(@e= Fen? NOTES: 1. Forces always occur in pairs (called “action-reaction pais”) 2. Both forces occur simultaneous}y. 3, Fither can be called “action” or “reaction”. 4, Neither force exists without the other. They never cancel each other because they act on DIFFERENT objects F. Problem-solving using Newton's laws of modion 1, wp Identify tne object of interest. Establish the orientation of the most convenient coordinate system, Drara the “free-body diagram” for the object of interest. ‘a. Draw the forces acting on the object of interest. b. Forces are dsawn'as vector arrows, . Do NOT include the forces exerted by the object of interest. Apply Newton's 2" law in component form. a Kea = Ma, b. Rey =ma, CFs = Ma, Check your answers by doing dimensional analysis and/or by intuitive analysis. If the problem involves more than one object of interest, draw separate free-body diagrams for each object of interest.© Physics 71 Arciaga CHAPTER 6, WORK AND SINETIC ENERGY A, Work Work done by a constant force on a particle: * W=RAs=(Fcos6)As — ; where W = work done by a constant force on a particle constant force acting on the particle displacement of the particle component of F along the displacement @ = angle between F and As NOTES: 1. Work is scular. 2. It is F, that matters, not just F 3. Work can be (+), (-), or zero. ‘a, Positive when F, is in the same direction as As [i.e. 0 $ 8 < 90°], b. Negative when F, is in tae opposite direction of As {i.e. 90° < @ < 180°) ©. Zeto when F, is perpendicular to As [i.e. = 90°). 4. Zero when For As is zero 4, S} unit of work is Joule QJ): 1 J = 1 Nem 5. British unit of work is foot-pound (ft-lb): 1 fb = 1.356 J 6. Another common unit is eleccronvolt (eV): 1 eV = 1.6 x10!) > (Physics 72) © Total work done by several constant forces on «. particle: © Waa =i = Fads 3 where Wioai = total work dene by several constant fo W, = work done by a constant force F) F.,.. =. F,.= component of the net f nce along As © Wovk expressed in terms of dot product (review “dot product” in Chapter 1): = Weteds and Wry = (Fe)? AS + Work done by a force that may be constant or varying: «We ft Eds [“integral of F, from s; t0 52”) : where W = work done by a force that may or may not be co) F, = component of force along the displacement ds = indica’es the infinitesimal displacement $1 = initial position so= final position NOTES: |. Graphical meaning: W = area under the F, vs. s curve € this is what you need tit 2 ‘The (4), (), or zero nature of work can also be seen from F. vs. ¢ plot. Shape is above the axis | Shape is below the Work is positive Work is negative [Work is negative [Goes toward the positive direct {Goes toward the negative© Physics 71 Ar B. Work and Kinetic energy + Kinetic energy of a particle: NOTBS: 1. Kinetic energy i: * K=mv? 5 Kinetic energy of a particle mass of the particle speed of the particle v scalar, 2. Kinetic energy is a form of evergy; itis thé “energy dve to motion”. 3. Kinetic euergy can be (+) 0° zeros but never {-). 4. STunit of energy is Joule (J): 1J=1N-m= 1 kg-m’/s? {sane as the unit of “wo + Work-energy theorem (WET) * Wout = AK = % inv, - % my? s where Wioui = total work done on a particle 4K = change in kinetic energy of the part mass of the particle final speed of the particle ¥; = initial speed of the particle NOTES: 1. When the Wir is 2ero, it will not change the speed of the particle. C. Power 2. When the Wout is positive, it will increase the speed of the patticle. 3. When the Wiaa is negative, it will decrease the speed of the particle. 4, The WET is valid only in IRFs. 5. The WET is valid even when the total force that does the total work is not constant 6. The WET is valid even when the path is curved (ie. not along a straight line). 7. In some textbooks, the above equation is called the “work-kinetic energy theorem” + Def: time-rate at which the force does work miev jwhere P=power W = work done on a particle = force done on the particle isplacemient of the particle ime interval during which the work is done . ¥= velocity of the particle a= acceleration of the particle NOTES: 1. Power is scalar. 2. SLunit is Watt (W): 1 W =1J/s 3. British unit is toot-pound per secend (ft-lb/s): 1 fe-lb/s = 1.356 W 4, Another common unit is horsepower (hp): 1 hp = 746 W = 550 f-lb/s 5. Energy can have a unit based on “power x time”: * kilowatthour: 1 kW-h= 3.6% 10°F [i.e. “energy = power x time”]© Physics 71 Arciaga C. Friction : ‘© Due to the bonding of molecules between two surfaces that are in close contact. * Friction for objects in contact with a solid surface ‘©. Static friction (f,) + For objects that are NOT moving relative to the point of contact + Direction is opposite to the direction of intended motion = OSf, Sfiue =HF, j where fax = Maximum static friction = UF, , = coefficient of static friction F, = norraal force on the object f, is not constant for a particular situation (i.e. it has a range of values) f,is dopendent on the applied “push or pull” = fis approximately independent of the area of contact o Kinetic friction (¥,) = For objects that are moving relative to the point of contact * Direction is opposite to the direction of motion * f=hh ; where 1, = coefficient of kinetic friction F, = normal force on the object = fg is constant for a particular situation (ie. it has only one value) * fi is independent of the applied “push cr pull” «fi is approximately independent of the area of contact «generally, 2, Si, [ies fy Sf,qu] > “easier to keep moving than to start moving” * 41, is approximately constant for low speeds (such as cm/s to m/s) ‘+ Friciion for rolling objects © if object rolls without sliding or slipping, friction is static friction. (© If object rolls with sliding or slipping, friction is kinetic friction. © Rolling friction: Sometimes, the concept of “rolling friction” is used by engineers. Ea F, Uy jwhere [lp = coefficient of rolling friction (also called “tractive resistance” Fru = force needed to keep object rolling at constant velocity F, = norinal force exerted by the surface on the object © Objects with wheels are easier to move because MH, is typically small. «Friction for objects moving in a fluid (.e. liquid or gas) ©. Fluid resistance (also called “resisting force”) = Direction is opposite to the direction of motion * Depends on the following: 1. shape and size of the object 2. properties of the fluid 3. speed of object rel = Mathematically: a) ingeneral: Fy=Bv' —; where Fy= fluid resistance B = constant of proportionality v = speed of the object e to the tluid b) for low speeds: Fr c) for high speeds: F; By? > called “air drag” or “drag force”© Physics 71 Arciaga 5 Inthe presence of fluid resistaice, acceleration is NOT constant o Terminal speed mmaxinnuim speed that a falling object can have in the presence of fluid resistance ( ey’ (B where v= terminal speed m= mass of the falling object g =-acceleration due to gravity B = constant of proportionality (Le. in BV") D. Circular motion Centripetal force Tie sum ofall radial forces acting on an object moving in circular motion. ‘Associated with the centripetal acceleration (RECALL: a =v'/1) Direction is always radially inward (ic. parallel to ac) Ex: tension in string, normal force, friction, gravity (can be any combination) Centripetal force is NOT a type of force. Mathematically: + E=DE.=mi, 000000 ; where F.= centripetal force F,, =all the radial forees acting on the object ‘m = mass of tlie object in circular motion centripetal acceleration of the object » NOTE: The centripetal force is the sun of all radial forces > F= wea Ifthe ceatripetal force is removed, the object will fly off tangentially. Some examples: 3 UCM along a banked curve (banked rozd) + v=yRgtan6 — ; where ve = speed to safely negotiate a frictionless banked curve R = radius of curvature of the curve = acceleration due to gravity 6 = banking angle of the road «Ifthe car’s speed is greater than vp, it slides UP the bank 1 Ththe car's speed is less than vp, it slides DOWN the bank. @ UCM along a vertical circle (Ferris wheel) + Bottom of the circle: apparent weight is LARGE + ‘Top of the citele: apparent weight is SMALL ¢ Non-tiCM along a vertical circle (Loop-the-loop roller coaster) + Bottom of the circle: faster speed + Tep of the circle: slower speed JRE where Viop = minimur speed at the top to safely ‘complete the loop R = radius of curvature of the loop = acceleration due to gravity a igthe cart’s speed at the Zop is less than Vion it FALLS ‘OFF the track of the loop.© Physics 71 Arciaga CHAPTER 7. POTENTIAL ENERGY AND ENERGY CONSERVATION ‘A Potential energy (“energy due to position or configuration”} 1, Gravitational potential energy of a partic'e near the earth’s surface © Ucre = Us + mgy ; where Ucre = GPE near the earth’s surface ‘Ug = GPE at y = 0 (ie. reference level) m= mass of the particle y = vertical elevation of the particle NOTES: 1. Uses increases when elevation increases 2. Us is arbitrary in value; it can be chosen to be equal to any value 3. Up is arbitrary in position; it can be chosen at any reference elevation. 4, Ucee is NOT unique; it can have different values depending on Us. 5. Ucee can be (+), (-), oF zero. 6. Uceu only exists if the system in consideration includes the earth !!! © AUGre = Ur- Ui = mg(yr— yi) = mgdy ; where AUcpe = change in the GPE near the earth’s surface Ur and U; = final GPE and initial GPE, respectively yeand y;= final elevation and initial elevation, respectively ‘Ay = change in elevation of the particle NOTES: 1. AUcre is unique. 2. AlJgps > 0 if the elevation of the particie increased. 3. AUces < 0 if the elevation of the particle decreased. 4, AUcps = 0 if the elevation of the particle did not change. REMINDER: The above expressions are valid only for the special case when the particl> is near the earth’s surface !!! In Chapter 12, we will discuss the general case.© Elastic potential energy (er also called “spring's potential energy”) © Uspe=2 kx” ; where Usp. = EPE of a spring k = force constant (recall Hooke’s law: F = ~kx; Chapter 4) x= length of stretching or compressing NOTES: 1. Urre increases when length of stretching/compressing increases. 2. User is unique. 3. Usps can be (+) or zero; but never (-). 4. Usps = 0 at equilibrium position x = 0 (i.e. unstretched/uncompressed position) B. Total energy © Mechanical energy: = sum of kinetic and potential ener; © Bnet =K+U ; where Eyech = mechanical nergy of the system K = Kinetic energy U= potential energy + Internal energy: * enerzy associated with the (internal) state of the system © Ui = Banermn + Botem + where Uis:= internal energy of the system Ege = thermal energy (associated with temperature) Espom = chesnical energy© Physics 71 Arciaga Total energy: «sum of all forms of energy Exe =Encen + Uin ; Where Eyys = total energy of the system Enech = mechanical energy of the system Ula = internal energy of the system Work-energy theorem: revisited * Wea = AB sys = AEmech + AUint where Wey = work done by external forces on the system ‘AEs: = change in the total energy of the system = Byes Esysi ‘AB mech = change in the mechanical energy of the system = Eyesns— Frcs ‘AUin = change in the internal energy of the system = Uin.¢— Vici + Fora L-particle system: Wen = AEs = AK C. Conservative forces Examples: gravitational force and force by a spring Properties of a CONSERVATIVE FORCE: 1. The work it does on a particle is independent of the path taken by the particle and depends only on the initial and final position: 2. The total work it does on a particle is zero when the particle moves around any closed path, in which the initial and final positions are the same. 3. The work it does on a particle can be expressed as the difference between the initial and final values of a potential-energy function. = Wy =-AU=U;- Ur; where Wer=work done by a conservative force AU = change ir the potential energy Uj = initial potential energy Ur= final potential energy 4. ‘The work it does on a particle is reversible, i.e. energy can always be recovered without loss. D. Nonconservative forces Examples: friction, fluid resistance and force from chemical reaction Properties of a NONCONSERVATIVE FORCE: 1. ‘The work it does on a particle is dependent on te path taken by the particle. 2. ‘The total work it does on a particle is non-zero when the particle moves around any closed path, in which the initial and firall positions -we the same. 3. The work it does on a particle cannot be represemted by a potential-energy function. 4. The work ic does on a particle is imeversible. © Mechanical energy is lost: kinetic friction, fluid resistance > called “dissipative forces” © Mechanical energy is increased: force from chemical reaction in an explosion Force appiied by a man can be nonconservative. E. Conservation of mechanical energy (COME) ‘When only internal force and conservative force do work on the system, then the mechanical energy of the system is conserved (i.e. constant). Mathematically: © AB nan = AK + AU =0 © Enech = K + U = constant o Ky+Uj=Kr+Uy © Becht© Physics 71 Arciaga NOTES: 1. COME is always valid when there are no external force and no nonconservative force acting on the system. 2, COME can still be valid even when there are external force and nonconservative force ‘acting on the system, as long as these forces do not work on the system. F, Conservation of energy (COE) * The law of conservation of energy: ‘© The total eaergy of the universe is constant. Energy can never be created or destroyed. Energy can only be converted from one form to another, or transmitted from one region to another. NOTES: 1. COB is a “universal law”; it has no exceptions. 2, COBis highly related to WET (1.¢. Wex = AEsys = AEmech + AUin)) G. Energy diagrams : + Force and potential energy: aU Bin, Uetvatve of U with respect to s"] ; where F, = component of force along ¢ position * Graphical meaning: F, = negative slope of tangent line in the U vs. s curves !!! + Equilibrium: ‘© A particle is in equilibrium if the next externat force acting on it is zero (Fre = 0). ‘© Equilibrium position <> position in U vs. s curves where tangent line is horizontal © Types of equilibrium: 1. Stable equilibrium + a small displacement results in a restoring force that accelerates the particle back toward its equilibriuin position + aminimum in the U vs. s cveve 2. Unstable equilibrium + a small dispiacement results in a force that accelerates the particle away from its equilibrium position = amoximum in the U vs. s curve 3. Neutral equilibrium = a small displacement results in zero force and the particle remains in equilibrium + a flailing in the U vs. s curve 1. Summary table’ [ [__ Force due to “Work done by. Potential energy | | Gravitational —mg_ =mgAy = -mg(yr= yo) Up + mgy (Elastic (spring) kx KG =x) Yk NOTE: In the above table, the positive direction is upward (for the gravitational case).© Physics 71 Arciaga CHAPTER 8. MOMENTUM, IMPULSE, AND COJ.LISIONS © Kids, please take note of the formal “summation” notation: )'x, =x, +x, +X5 4..4%y c Exes © But sometimes, for simplicity, I will use the equivalent notations: )”: A. Center of mass (CM) * May )omi,=mj+m,5+..+myhy 3 where M al mass in the system = )) m,j =m, +m, +...+my position of the center of mass of the system N = number of particles in the system m = mass of the i particle position of the i particle ynt - Sa = position of the center of mass of the system NOTES: 1. fay 2. The location of the CM is the mass-weighted aversige of positions [cf. GWA] 3. The location of the CM may or may not have mass in it. [example?] + Finding the CM by symmetry analysis: * For regularly-shaped and uniformly-massed objects (called homogeneous objects), the CM is located at the geometric center of the object. © Finding the CM by experiment: + The CM lies somewhere on the vertical line passing through the pivot. NOTES: 1. Ucpe = Mghew + Us; where User = GPE of aa object M = total mass of the object how = elevation of the CM of the object U, = reference potential (GPE at y = 0) 2. The object is in neutral equilibrium if the CM lies at the pivot. 3. The object is in stable equilibrium if the CM lies below the pivot. 4. The object is in unstable equilibrium if the CM lies above the pivot. B. Motion of the ceuter of mass © The CM of a system moves like a single particle of mass M-= Y'm, under the influence of the net external force acting on the system * Newton's 2" law: revisited * Een = Magy Ba ew = DK,.,, = total (or net) external force acting on the system Ym, = total mass of the system Aqu= acceleration of the CM of the system NOTES: 1. Internal forces can affect the acceleration of the individual particles in the system ~ but NOT the acceleration of the center of mass of the system. 2. Only extemal forces can affect the acceleration of the center of mass of the system, 3. If there is zero net external force, the CM has zero acceleration (4g, =0).© Physics 7* Arciaga C. Momentum and impulse * pemv 3 where momentum of an object (more specifically, linear momentum) mass of the object = velocity of the object NOTE: Momentum is a vector (with the same direction as ¥). © Ba =MVon ; where p,, = ),B = total momentum of the system B m v M= Ym, = total mass of the system = velocity of the CM of the system o * Newton's 2™ law: revisited again . om Sta. Pu At at j where Avjgy,= change in the velocity of the CM of the system AB, = change in the total momentum of the system At= time interval during which F,,, .., acts on the system NOTES: 1. Internal forces can affect the momentum of the individual particles in the system ‘but NOT the foral momentum of the system. 2. Only external forces can affect the zotal momentum of the system. 3, If there is zero net external force, the otal momentum does NOT change (Af. = 0). impulse of a force average force At= time interval during which F,, acts NOTE: Impulse is a-vector (with the same direction as F..). © Impulse-momentuns theorem (IMT): > Fe ot = AP s-where J.,,= impulse of the net external force acting on tue system AB, = change in the total momentum of the system F,., = average net external force acting on the system At= time interval during which F,,,,.,, acts NOTES: 1, Compare IMT with WET (ie. W,, =, °48=AK). 2, Change in momentum is related to external impulse and time, 3. Change in kinetic energy is related to external work and displacement. D. Conservation of momentum (COM) © If chere is zero net exte! ailforce (ie. F, |, =O) acting on a system, then the total linear momentum of the system is conserved (j.e. constant). © Mathematically: © By isconstant (i.e. AB, = 9) © Vou is constant (Ie. AVey = 0) us 18 2210 (LC. Tey = 0) NOTES: 1. Total momentum can still be conserved even if Enesh is NOT conserved. 2. An isolated system is a system with po external forces acting on it© Physics 71 Arciaga E. Collisions in 1-D + Some key ideas: * During collisions, the external forces are very negligible compared to the internal forces hetween the colliding objects. Thus, the total momentum is conserved in all collisions. * A collision does not affect the acceleration of the center of mass of the system. = Insome collisious, the internal forces between the colliding objects are conservative forces. ‘Thus, the mechanical energy is conserved in some collisions. * Types of collisions: 1. Elastic collision no energy is lost by the system (e.g. no deformation, no heat generated, no sound produced) ex: collisions of atoms, “perfect” balls, billiard balls (2), hockey pucks (2) imomentum is conserved Kinetic ensrgy is conserved 2 equations that can be used to solve for 2 unknowns: a) m,¥, +m,¥,,=m,¥,, +m,Vy, DY (a, - %1) = Var Ve NOTES: 1. Equation (a) came from COM. 2. Equation (b) came from COME (i.e. KE; + KE = KE, + KE). 3. Equation (b) tells that the “speed of approach is equal to the speed of recession”. (© speed of approach = zelative speed before collision = ~(¥,, -¥,,) 2. speed of recession = relative speed after collision y 4. Equations (a) end (b) will result to the follewing 2 equations: m,—m, m, +m, b*) ww REMINDER: Use (a*) and (b*} for ELASTIC collisions in 1-D only !!! 2. Inelastic collision = energy is lost by the system (e.g. witn deformation, heat generated, or sound produced) * ex: most collisions of physical objects in the real world * momentum is conserved + _ kinetic energy is not conserved; kinetic energy decreases 3. Completely inelastic collision (or perfectly inelastic collision) * special case of inelastic collision in which the 2 colliding objects stick together and have the same velocity after the collision (i.e. ¥y = Va; =¥,) * ex: collisions of cars locking together, catching of balls, ballistic pendulum * Lequation that can be used to solve for 1 unknown: a) m,¥,+m,¥,, =(m,+m,, Bi:© Physics 71 Arciaga F, Collisiors in 2-D and 3-D * Insolviag collisions in 2-D and 3-D, always bear in mind that momentum is a vector. You have to do vector addition, not scalar addition. Completely inelastic collision in 2-D and 3-D: a) m¥,+m,¥, =(m, +m,)¥, * Elastic collision in 2-D and 3-D: * * For the special case when m, = my and voi = 0: a) Hy = Ty + Vee b) vi=vietVip NOTES: 1. The vectors form « right triangle. 2. %, is the hypotenuse, 3. Vy and ¥,, are perpendicular to each other. :© Physics 71 Arciaga CHAPTER 9. ROTATION OF RIGID BODIES 7 * Rigid body — a body that has a perfectly definite and unchanging shape and size. * Fixed axis —an axis that is at rest in some inertial zeference frame and does not change direction relative to that frame, + Kidz, understanding the rotational concepts is easy. Just examine its analogies with the linear concepts that we have studied before. + The analogy table: } i LINEAR TANGULAR UNITS ‘Type of motion | translation Displacement x rad Velocity vs AwAt rad/s Acceleration asAvAt rad/s’ “Measure of inertia |_mass =m kgur Cause of motion _| forces F Nan Kinetic energy Kans = 5 av x Work W=F,As J Power P=Fv W ‘Momentum p=mv kgm’/s Newton's 27 law | Foeeu=ma=Ap/At | Teron =10= ALV/At A. Kinematics of rotation = TO rem * Rotational kinematic quantites: = Angulardisplacement; * * Angular velocity: = AG/At * Angular acceleration: vat * Some important notes: "vy => moving along the x-axis ©, = rotating around the 2-axis * 4x, 4v, => moving left or right / up or down 40,40, => rotating clockwise or counterclockwise (use the right-hand vule) * radian (rad) ~ measurement unit 6f angle; dimensionless (pure number) * conversion relation between revolutions, radians, and degrees: 1 rey = 2m rad = 360° * conversion relation between revolution per minute and radian per second: J tevimin = 1 rpm = 27/60 rad/s * Relations between linear and angular quantivies © Arc length: s=10 * Tangential velocity: Van = 0 * Tangential acceleration: _ aig, = 10. 2 Cenvipetal acceleration: ard = Vin'/t= 10" " NOTES: !. ris the perpendicular distance from the axis of rotation or the radius of rotation 2. Use the above relations ONLY IF the angular quantities are in terms of RADIANS !!!© Physics 71 Arciaga + Rotational kinematic equations with constant ct » 6=8,+t+Kor » o=a+ut = = a? + 20(8 - 6) 0 +4 (O+ at NOTES: 1. If angular acceleration 0. is constant, then (aye = ¥2 ((ay + @). 2. Use the kinematic equations above for cases with CONSTANT conly!!! B. Moment of inertia (MOD * Moment of inertia — the rotational counterpart of mass; a scalar quantity higher MOL is more difficult to change ite angular velocity. 3. Mess is unique; but MOI is not anique. 4, MOI depends on the location and orientation of the axis of rotation. © Calculation of MOE: + System of particles: o 1=Dmn? ‘where Ts MOLof hayes = mass of the i particle f= perpendicular distance of the i particle from the axis of rotation NOTE: The farther the mass from the axis, the greater the MOTs. * Continuous, homogeneous, and uniform object: © (see Table 9-2, page 342 of Young and Freedman, 11" ed.) NOTE: Usually, thas the form: I= BMR? ; where I= MOTof the object M = total mass of the object R=a dimension of the object (e.g. radius, length, width, etc.) B =a pure number (e.g. 1, 1/2, 1/3, 1/12, 2/3, 245, etc.) + Parallel-evis theorem: © Toy + Md? vhere I= MOI of the system about the parallel axis Tow = MOI of the system about an axis pessing through the CM total mass of the system. d= perpendicular distance of the parallel axis from the CM NOTE: MOlis minimum when the axis of rotation passes throught the CM. C. Energy of rotation ‘© Rotational kinetic energy — the rotational counterpart of translational kinetic energy = Ko = 4 lo ; where Kyo = rotational kinetic energy of the system T= MOI of the systein = angular spzed of the system NOTES: 1. Ky should be added in COME when an object in the system is rotating. 2. Total kinetic enurgy of a system: Kg = Krans + Kroc =¥ Mvew? + ¥ Towa?: © Physics 71 Arciaga CHAPTER 10, DYNAMICS OF ROTATIONAL MOTION A. Mechanics of rotation + Recall: Moment of inertia — the rotational counterpart of mass; a scalar quantity + Torque- the rotational counterpart of force; a vector quantity ~ the measure of the tendency of a force to cause or change the rotational motion of a body NOTES: 1. force => push or pull => affects linear acceleration torque => twist or turn => affects angular acceleration 2. In some textbooks, torque is also called “moment” or “moment of the force”. {Do not confuse it with “momentum”, “momen: of inertia”, “moment arm”, ete.) © Torque in terms of cross product (review “cross product” in Chapter I): * 4 =IxF — ; where %,= torque of force F with respect to reference point P T= position vector from point P to the point of action of F F= force NOTE: A reference point (sometimes called “pivot”) is nesded to define the torque of a force. ‘= Magaitude of torque: tp =rFsing=1,F=:F, s where 1) = torque of force F with respect to a reference point P F = force 1 = distance between reference point P and the point of action of F = small-tail-to-tail angle between f and F 1 = perpendicular distance of the line of action of F from reference point P F, = component of force F perpendicular to the line of F NOTES: 1. point of action of F — the exact point at which the force F is applied 2. line of action of F — the imaginary line that passes through the force F 3. r1 is also called the “lever arm” or “tnoment arn” of force F 4, Perpendicular component is the relevant component ction of torque: * 7 is perpendicular to both ¥ and * ‘ + tis NOT always parallel to @ (i.e. torque is NOT always along the axis of rotation) © Newton's 2™ law for rotation of a rigid body: rt 1= moment of inertia of the body about pivot P G= angular acceleration of the body about pivot P NOTES: 1. In using the above equation, the pivot used in calculating the torque should also be the same pivot used to caiculat= the MOT. 2. In using the above eqvation, d should be in rad/s !!! 3. Only external torques can affect the angular acceleration of a rigid body. 4, Sum of internal torques (caused by internal forces) is ZERO. 5. Conditions for validity of the above equation: © rotating body is rigid © moment of inertia is constant © axis of rotation is not changing direction ‘otal (or net) external torque on the body about pivot P© Fhysics 71 Arciaga Probiem-solving using Newton's laws of motion: i 2, 3, Identify the object of interest Establish the orientation of the most convenient coordinate system, and choose a positive sense of direction for roiational motion, Draw the “free-body diagram” for the object of interest, & Draw the “orces acting on the object of interest. Do NOT include the forces exerted by the object of interest. b. Forces are drawn as vector arrows. © For a rotating object, it is importani to draw its shape. 4. For a rotating object, the points of action of the forces must be indicated, including the relevant angles and distances. ;rpely Newton's 2" law for translation, rotation, or both depending on whether the object is transloting, rotating, or both. Use their component forms. m Check your answers by doing dimensional analysis and/or by intuitive analysis. FF the problem involves more than one object of interest, draw separate free-body diagrams for gach object of interest. Apply Newton's 2™ law Separately on each objec: of interest. REMINDER: To avoid error, itis better to convert angular quantities in terms of radians before using the rotational relations and equations !!! > Rotating without slipping/stretching (or non-slip rotation): Rolling without slipping/sliding: RO © length of string pulled: s © velocity of string pulled: Vu, = RO © acceleration of string pulled: aay = Ra. © static friction acts between the rotating object and the string © COME can still be used (when the friction does zero work) © displacement of object dea’ = RO © velocity of object: Vem = Roo acceleration of object: tem = Raw total Kinetic energy of object: Kio = Kyane + Kea = 4 MVen? + Y4 lant? friction between the rolling object and the surface is zero (when the surface is horizontal) Static friction pointing upward acts between the rotating object and the surface (when the surfice is inclined) rolling friction can be neglected (when the surface is perfectly rigid) COME can still be used (when the friction does zero work) © Newton’s 2™ law for rotation can be nsed by considering the axis passing through the Mer OF MASS, Le. Tye cuom = Loy’ (When the axis through the CM is an axis of symmetry ° ° ° ° oo and does not change its direction)- © Physics 71 Arciaga B, Work and power in rotation * Work done by a constant torque — the rotational counterpart of work done by a constant force * W=1,A0 — :where W-= work done by a constant torque = constant torque about the axis of rotation A@ = angular displacement + Work-energy theorem for rotation of a rigid body: Woo = AK or = 4 Lay? = Y2 Tea? j where 'W = total work done by the net external torque on the rotating body AK... = change in the rotational kinetic energy of tine rotating body = momeit of inertia of the rotating body about the axis of rotation ©; and @ = final and initial angular speeds of the rotating body * Power done by a torque ~ the rotational counte:part of power done by a force + paW BAO At At ns i where P= power done by a torque = torque about the axis of rotation = angular velocity C. Angular momentum * Angular momentum ~ the rotational counterpart of (lixear) momentum © Fora particle: * L,=fxp=mexv s where C, = angular momentum of a particle relative io a reference point P F= position vector of the particle relative to the reference point P B= m¥= (linear) momentum m= mass of the particle ¥= velocity of the particle NOTES: 1. Ly is dependent on the location of tne reference point P 2. L, 18 NOT always parallel to @ (ie. L, is NOT always along the axis of rotation) 3. A particle moving in a straight line can have a nonzero angular momentum !!! cle moving in a circle: + Forapi * L.=mR7O=10 i where L,= angular momentum relative to the center of the circular path C mass of the particle R = radius of the circular path ingular velocity of the particle I= mR’ = MOI of the particle about the center of the circular path NOTE: Leis always paraliel to @ (i.e. Leis always along the axis of rotation) * Fora rigid body rotating about a symmetry axis : Low = Low j where L,,,= angular momentum of a rotating body relative to the ‘center of mass Tey = MOI of the rigid body about the symmetry axis @= angular velocity of the rigid body NOTE: Leq, is always parallel to @ (1:2. Ley, is always along the axis of rotation)© Physics 71 Arciags © Fora rigid body rotating about an axis parallel to the symmetry axis: | Dye =Tpe= ey + MAYO : where £,,,= angular momentum of a rotating rigid body relative to the parallel axis par Igy +Md?= MOI of the rigid body about the parallel axis angular velocity of the rigid body total mass of the rigid body M d= perpendicular distance between the parallel axis and the symmetry axis NOTE: It can also be interpreted as, I... 3 where Ley = Tou Ly, »s = Md?@= orbital angniar momentum of the CM (relative to the parallel axis) con +L yen = spin angular momentum (relative to the symmetry axis) D. Newton's 2 law for rotation: revisited AL _ AG@) aera NOTES: 1. If the MOT is constant, then Te = '=16, © special case only at 2. Compare with Newton's 2“ law for translation: ¥ Ap _ A(m¥) Av ma at At at E. Conservation of angular momentum (COAM) © If there is'zero ne: extemal torque acting on a system, then its total angular momentum is constant. * Mathematically, if %,,,., =0 then AL =0. * RECALL the conservation laws: a) (COM} If zero net external force, then momentum is conserved. b) [COAM] If zero net extemal torque, then angular momentum is conserved. ©) [COME] If only internal force and conservative force do work on the system, then mechanical energy is conserved,: “SHIRPTEETIMEQUIEIBRIUMCAND: Bvasticrry A. Conditions for equilibriuin * Fora particle: + Equilibrium: : 1. YE. =0 (orequivatently, i=0) * Static equilibrium: ~ 1 PR, (or equivalesitly, 2. ¥=0 * Fora rigid extended body: * Equilibsium (others call it mechanical equilibrium): LE, =0 (or equivalently, 2=0) 2, Ph =0 about any pivot point (or equivalently, &=0) * Translational equilibrium: LDR, =0 (or equivalently, a * Rotational equilibriuin:. J. SR. £0 about any pivor point (or equivalent * Static equilibeinm: (cr equivalently, 2=0) © Physics 71 Arciaga 9) ) 2. Da = Pabout any pivot p (or equivalently, &=0) 3. ¥=0 4. @=0 B. of gravity - ‘ * Center of mass (recall): o MaXeu = Dmx, iE ow ee Zn * Center of gravity: & WXg= Fs Pie ‘ singkl , Wy, NOTES: 1. 1° is not uniform (ie, not eonstant) throughout the object, then Kew* Xea (e.g World Trade Center, Petronas Towers, moon) 168 is constant or aypraximauely cosstant throughout the object, ther ‘ex {e-g, small things on the earth's surface, even ineluding buildings) 3. Recail: An object acted by gravity hus the tendency to rotate about ts 4. The force of gravity on un object can be thought of being concersirace s 5 An object can be balanced by supporting at the CG !! M.C. Problem-solving tips for eq) © Physics 71 Arciaga 1m problems: Identify the object of interest that is in equilibrium. 2. Establish the orientation of the most convenient coordinate system, and choose a positive sense of direction for torques. ‘3. Draw the “free-body diagram” for the object of interest. 2, Draw the forces acting on the object of interest. Do NOT include the forces exerted by the object of interest. b. Forces are drawn as vector arrows. ©. Itis important to draw the shape of the extended object. 4, The peints of action of the forces must be indicated, including the relevant angles and distances. = 4. Make a clever choice of the location of the pivot point, at which the torques will be evaluated. 5. Apply the two necessary conditions for equilibriuia, Do not forget that forces and torques are vectors, so write the equations in their component forra. 6. Check your answer by doing dime:isional analysis and/or by intuitive analysis. D. Stress, strain, aad elastic moduli . Stress «describes the strength of the applied force that causes the deformation * itis a scalar; describes only the magnitude of the applied force * Stunit of stress is Pascal (Pa): 1 Pa = 1 N/m? * other cornmon units of stress: © pound ger square inch (psi): 1 psi =.LIb/in.? = 6895 Pa © atmosphere (atm): ! atm = .013x10° Pa = 14.7 psi Stain + describes the deformation beciuse of the applied force "itis a scalar; describes only the magnitude of the deformation * ivisdimensionless; has ro units Elastic modulus * ratio of the suress to the strain “ Ss * Blastic modulus = Strain * itis a svalar; has.the same units of stress Hooke’s lav; . * The strain is direeily proportional to the stress. 1 ) * Stain = (Constant) (Suess) =| — ‘Stress * X Blast reas ) NOTES: 1. Recall Hooke'y law for a spring in Chapter 4: Paying = -FAX 2. Hooke's law is really not a law. Itis only vaiid for small stress and strain ‘Three types of stress’ 1. Tensile/Compressive stress (tensile if pull; compressive if push) Perpendicular force _ Cross-sectional area Elongation/Contracti ~~ Original length Tensile/Compressive stress Tensile/Compressive strain + Tensile/Compressive sires + Tensile/Compressive strain + Y= Young's modulus© Physics 71 Arciaga 2. Bulk stress (sometimes called Volume stress) x + P=Buik stess = Pressure = Perpendicular fores _ Fy : Surface area A Volume change _AV_ V-Vo Original volume V,_ Bulk stress AP. Bulk strain AV/Vg 1 on 1 = k=Compressibility = ———___ = — eee y = Bulk modulus B © * Bulk strain =. © B=Bulk modulus= 3. Shear stress Parallel force _ Fj Cross-sectional area A Parallel-displacement _ AX, Perpendicularlength Hy F Ss Se Sheabmedalins S -eeAwey set Aas : Shear strain AX,/H, "Shear stress = © Shear strain = E, Elasticity and plasticity + Points: © Original point © Proportional point (stress at proportional point 1s called proportional limit) © Yield point (stress at yield point is called elastic timid) o Permanent set © Fractue point (stress at fracture point is called breaking stress, ultimate strength, or ‘tensile strength) ‘+ Regions: ©. Blastic behavior * From original point to yield point * Returns to original length + Two regions : Proportional behavior ‘ ~ From original point to proportional point ' - Hooke’s law is obeyed + Non-proportional behavior + From proportional point to yield point ~ _Hooke's law is not ebeyed © Plastic behavior, plastic flow or plastic deformation * From elastic point to fracture point * Does not retum to original length: + Hooke's law is not obeyed * Ductile material ~ if region of plastic deformation is large * Brittle material - if region of plastic deformation is small + Elastic hysteresis - behavior within the region of elastic behavior in which the stress-strain curve for increasing stress is different from the stress-straia curve for decreasiong stress ¢ Hysteretic material -if the material displays an elastic hysteresis behavior instead, returns to a permanent set© Physics 71 Arciaga CHAPTER 12'GRAVITATION® : * “Gravity cannot he held responsible for people felling in love” —Einstein@® * “Tknow that this defies tae law of gravity, but you see, I never studied law." — Bugs Bunny © “It is harder to get off the bed. ‘during rainy season because gravity increases during that season.” ~ German laboratory © * * “The earth sucks that’s why we have gravity.” ~ MXO © * Some useful constants (but you do NOT have to memorize): * Mass of the Barth = Meagn = 5.98x10"* kg > Radils of the Barth = Reaw = 6.3710 m "Mass of the sun = Myuy = 1.99x10" kg. Average distance of the Earth from the sun = ! Astronomical Unit = AU = 1.50x10" m A. Newton's law of gravitation : * Every parucle of matter in the universe attracts every other particle witha force tha is dvectly Proporonal to the product of the masses ofthe paticles and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.” i where -F, = gravitational force betweer object | and object 2 my = mass of object | mp = mass of object 2 T= distance between the objects or distance between the geometric centers (if the objects are spheres) G= universal gravitational constant = 6.6710"! N. m*/kg? : NOTES: |. Fy is directed along the line connecting the two particles; it is a central force. ' F 2. Fy is an attractive force; it is never repulsive. 3. Fon my dus to m) =~(F, on tm, due to my) = acticn-reaction pair &: ‘This is a “universal law”; it appliss to all objects with mass in the universe. 5. This is an “inverse square law”; inversely proportional to the square of distance, $. Use vector addition when finding the total F, in problems with more than 2 objects, 7, Recall: weight of an object = total F, acting on the object due to all other objects 8. At and near the surface of the earth, ‘ M 2-98 m/s? Mt Rec) 9. Sometimes, g is also called the “gravitational field”, * Inside a homogeneous solid sphere: « ReoM in Sirs iwhere M = mass of the solid sphere R = radius of the solid sphere m= mass of the object inside the solid sphere = distance of the object from the center of the solid sphere * Inside a homogeneous spherical shell: * E=0© Physics 71 Arc B. Gravitational potential energy (in a more general int of view) Uoyy = Gu : iwhere Uor PE in a rhore general form ass of object 1 1ass uf object 2 istance between the geometric centers of the objets NOTES: |. Uses is ALWAYS negative in this form, 2. Ure = 0 at infinite distance (i rye) => the reference level 3. Ugpe increases as r increases, So ee ty is just an approximation and can only be used near the earth's surface WARNING: Do NOT use Ucre = mgy for problems which involve large changes in eleva ion {1 * Escape speed (without ar resistance) v= fo Me uc port : iighere Nae = scape speed = speed to escape completly rom a planet Bor Pe Se ‘mass of the planet beet a i NOTES: |. Kidz, you. do NOT have to memori °Z-TE speed is less than'v,,.. then the Object will NOT escape the planet's ravity. lic. the object will either fall back to the Planet or orbit around the planet] ius of the planct learn to derive this equation using COME !!1 3: H speed is greater thai Vee, then the object will escape the planet's gravity 4 The escepé speed is independent of the mass of the estaping object i [Orbit path taken by an object scted upon by the sxavitationa! force only * Closed orbit also called Bound orbit) 1 Object has a speed less than the required escape speed 7 Object zends te return to its stating pot © Object has u negative total mechanical tleray Types: : 1 Ellipse: parabola approximates a part of an llipse if near the sarth’s surface * _ Object has a speed greater than Object never returns to-its starti the required escape speed ing point 1 Object has a positive total mechanical energy Types: * Parabola * Hyperbola© Physics 71 Arciaga D. Ciscular orbits NOTES: 1. Kidz, you do NOT have té m bea ‘where v = speed of the orbiting object (also called “satellite") Mo = mass of the object atthe center or focus (also called “ventral object”) radius of the orbit or average distance of the orbit. Tana yoe axis Period of evolution of the satellite orbital period mass of the satellite = = total mechanicat energy of tite saellite-centcal object system K-= kinetic energy of the satellite-central object system Ucee = GPE of the satellite-central object system 5. Compare eqtn. 2 with Kepler's 3 law of Planciary motion (see section E) 6. Eqin. 2 can also be'used for elliptical orbits, E. Kepler's three lav¥s of planetary motion First law of planetary motion: “law of ellipse bach planet moves in an elliptical orbit, with the sun at one focus of the ellipse This is because Fy is proportional 1o 1/1? and is a central force. ' Keywords: ellipse, focus (plural foci), major axis, sem'-major axis, average dis ‘mean distance, eccentricity, circle Perihelion (nearest) vs, Aphelion (farthest); Pevigee vs, Apogee Average distance = Semi-major axis 3 Aphelion + Perihelion) Second law of planetary motion: “law of equal areas” {if line connecting the sun and any planet stveeps out -qual aréas in equal times. When the planet comes closer to the sun, it moves faster, when the Planet goes further from the sun, it moves slower, Tre, ingular momentum ofa planet about the sun is constant throughout its orbit This is because Fy is a central force, Thicd law of planetary motion: “law of harmonics” rhe square of the period of any planet is proportional to the cube of its mean distance from the sun.” T=Cr ; where T= planet's period of revolution = meua distance : C= constant of proportionality [sze section D] The ctoser planet to the sun has a shorter period of revolution This is because F, is proportional to I/. ‘The constant C depends only on the mass ofthe object st the focus or center‘ © Physics 71 Arcinga CHAPTER'I3PERIODICMOTION A. Some definitions a ( * Restoring force ~ any force that tends to resiore an object when displaced from stable equilibrium: * Periodic motion ~ repeating motion that occurs when an object is displaced from stable equilibrium © occurs when there is a restoring force © also called “oscillation” or “vibration” © €8. spring-mass, pendulum, rolling ball in a bowl, gravitation tunnel, quartz erystal in a wateh, guitar string, sound vibrations, vibrating tuning fork 2 4% + Amplitude - maximum magnitude of displacement fiom equilibrium * Cycle ~ a complete vibration + Period — time to complete one cys + Frequency ~ number of eycles per unit time = * Angular frequency ~ number of radians per unit time B. Simple harmonic motion (SHM) + _SHM ~ periodic motion that occurs when the net restoring force on an object obeys Hooke’s law 1! * Harmonic oscillator ~ the object that undergoes SHM © Fae ke Swhere Fa = net restoring force on the object = force constant displacement of the object from equilibrium i where a = acceleration of the object m = mass of the object * Position in SHIM: + x= Acosta +8) j where = displacemeni of object [rom equitibrium A= amplitude = maximum displacement = anguier frequency ime phase constant or phase angle (Gt +8) = phase + Velocity in SHM: - 5 A sin(ox +5); where v= velocity of the object, ' A = maximum speed of the object + Acceleration in SHM: = ae-@x 3 where: a= acceleration of the object 7A = maximum acceleration of the object NOTES: 1. ‘The F, x, v, and a are not constant; they are sinusoidal functions of time. 2. Directions: x — opposite direction of Fya and a same direction as Pye 3. Avequilibrium: — x=0 => Fy =0 = a=0 v=o 4. Attuming points: x=+A > Fyy= FKA => a= F v=0 5. Use the identity, sin(9) = cos(@ — 1/2), to convert sine into cosine and vice versa 6. In your calculations, take note of the units of the phase (e.g. degrees or radians)© Phy ies TL Arciaga * Some important reletions you have to remember: 3 where «= angular frequency 3 where T = period of oscillation 3 where f = frequency [NOT angular frequency] © w=2n/T=2af NOTES: 1. The SI unit of f is Hertz (Hz): 1 Hz = 1 2. The SI unit of @ is rad/s or rad-Hz. 3. 5 end A can also be determined from the initial conditions at t = 0 (i.e. from x, and vo): a. B= tan" (-v, /aox,) Vs OthendS=0 £04; then 8 = ¥m/2 4Tk=TosotfolT (Le, higher k has faster oscillation} S.tmaloolrotr (i.e. higher m has slower oscillation) 6. For SHM: -@, f, and T are independent of A, , Xo, and Vo * Analogy between SHM and uniform circular motion (UCM): + Recall from rotation under UCM (i.e. = 0): @= 8,4 @t or 6= at+0, * Note the x-coraponent of the particle's position: x =R cos0 = R cos(ax + 8,) * Compare it with the SHM case: x = A cos(at + 8) i + “SHM is the projection of UCM onto a diameter". * Energy in SHM: + Recall: [ potential energy if F = — kx J * Recall: K=% mv ="%k(v/o)? [kinetic energy if w= k/m J "Bauch j where Eyeeh = total mehcunical enerey A= amplitude k = force constant NOTES: 1. This is just COME; with the assumption that there are no external force and friction 2Tk=> T Baa higher k has higher energy) 3.TA=> TEx higher A has higher energy) 4. The energy is proportional to the square of the amplitude !3!© Physics 71 Arciaga C. Some oscillating systems 1) Horizontal spring mass . « By.=-kx=ma, =A cose +8) + o=Vi/m : + T=2nfo= 2nfm/k 2) Vertical spring-mass + 5y=mg-ky=ma, or A cos(at +8) © @= im © T=2nfo=2nfm/k NOTES: 1. y= is the equlibrium position of the vertical spring without the hanged mass Ge. the spring is unstretched). 2. y= 0 is the equlibrium position of the vertical spring with the hanged imass. 3.y! =O and y =O are separated by adistuace of mg/k-(i. yy’ = mg/k). 4, The motion of a vertical spring-mass is SHM about y’ = 0 (not y= 0). 3) Simple pendulum Fag =—mg sin® = mag, = MLO For small angles, sind = 8, therefore: 7 mLe. = eetae © T=2n/o=2n/t7g a pwhere L-= length of the massless string ‘ ; ei g = ucceleration due to gravity NOTES: |. The above relations apply only if @ is very small. 2. For small angies, the motion of a simple pendulum is approximately SHM. ——* 3. The period is independent of mass m and amplitude Onax for small angles !!! 4) Physical pendulum = q=-MgDsind=Ia* or smatl angles, sin = ®, therefore: i tt ty=—-Mgb0 = Ta. “B= Gna cos(at + 5) Mgb/1 + T= 2a/o=2nJ/MgD : ; where [= moment of inertia of the physical pendulum bout the pivot D = distance beween the center of mass and the pivot 1. The above relations apply only if 6 is very small 2. For small angles, the motion of a physical pendulum is approximately SHM. 3. Sometimes, you first have to compute the moment of inertia using the parallel-axis theorem: I= lea + Md? NOvE:© Physics 71 Ar 5) Angular S| "8 = Ona cos(at +8) + o= Vet © T=2x/w=anf]K i where I= moment of inertia of the object about the pivot : = torsion constant NOTES: 1. The above relations are just the angular analogs for the linear SHM 2. The torsion constant x is the angular analog of the force constant k. ©) Vibrations of diatomic molecules + R=-(72.U,/R,2)x [van der Waals force for small displacements} 2 Acos(at + 8) 2 U RS 72U,/2 Hans mm,/(m, +r + T=2nfm=2x fen, \ ; where R, = separation constant (i.e. equilibrium separation of the 2 ator U, = energy constant at Re Hass = mn /(m, +m) reduced mass of the diatomic molecule 2. For smull disturbance, the vibration of a distomic molecule is approx. SHM. D. Damped oscillations = * Some key concepts about damped oscillation: (a) Itis an oscillation that will eventually stop oscilla (©)... because mechanicai energy is dissipaced. (©)... due to the presence of dissipative forces (e.g. triction, air resistance. or viscosity), + Three cases of damped oscillation: Case I, Underdainped “small” drag force) «There is still an-oscillation. ‘+ The amplitude is “exponentially decreasing” wih time. ‘e “Th angular frequency decreases (ie. pericd increases) as the drag force increases + _ The energy is “exponentially decreasing” with time. (Recall: E= 4 kA?) Case Il. Critically damped (“moderate” drag fo-ce) + There is no oscillation. © The angulur frequency is zero. + The system returns to equilibrium in the shortest time possible. Case II. Overdamped (“large” drag force) + These is no oscillation. * The angular frequency is zero. The system rett:ras to equitiorium for a longer time increases as the drag force increases.© Physics 71 Arciaga E, Forced oscillstions and resonance ‘Some key concepts about forced oscillation: (a) It is a damped oscillation that is... ©)... (c)... which supplies energy into the system. (2) ... such that the oscillation will not stop. - (@) Itis also called “driven oscillation”. Some key concepts about resonance: @) Itis& phenomenon where the amplitude and energy of the forced oscilletor greatly increases... (©)... and it happens when the driving frequency (4) is equal or approximately equal to the natural frequency (,). NOTES: |. Natucal frequency ~ the frequency of an oscillator when no driving forces are present. 2. Driving frequency — the frequency of the driving force, 3. Resonance frequency — the frequency at which resonance occurs (i.e, equal or @pproximately equal to the natural frequency),Physics 71 Arsiaga CHAPTERS EELID MECHANICS? # Fluid «ang substnce that ean flow: includes liquids and gases + Fleid statics ~ study of Nuids in static equilibrium * Fluid dynamics - study of tluids in motion A. Density + Density: Raw swhere p = density of the object ss of the object /olume of the obj NOTES: 1. yer p “sinks” under lower p (and lower p “floats” over higher p). 2. The density of water is maximum atu temperature of 4°C. : 3.AL4"C, pizo = gem" = 10° + Specific gravity: specific gravity of the object | density of the object Xu density of water at 4 °C. NOTES: |. pss is a dimensionless number; itis dimensionless. 2. psc ! “sinks” under HO (and pycs < 1 “Moats” over H:), re and pressure (STP conditions: © Standard corditions for tempera 2 T=0"C iain |. For solids und liquids. the density is approximaiel independent of T and P. 2, For gaves, the density i: strongly dependent on T B. Pressure © Pressure: + Pa pressure on an abject in contact with a fuid perpendicular force on the surface of the object urea of the surface of the object NOTES: 1. Fluid exerts a force perpendicular to the. surface of an object in contact with it. 2. Fluid exerts the of ar ¢dizet in contact with it. 3. Pressure is sear quantity 4. St unit of pressure is Paseal (Pay: | Pas 1 Ném? F utmosphere (atm): 5. Another eoimon unit oF pressure ‘ 101.325 Pa= 14.70 tbvin® atm = ir pressure at sea leve 6. Guier tals of presoves sre mmHy. torr. 2nd bar gum = 76) mnie 2 80 x+ © Physies 71 Arciaga = pressure below = pressure above density of uid acceleration due to gravity ASSUMPTIONS: The prand g are constant or approximately constant throughout the depth h. NOTES: 1. Kidz, use this equation rly ifthe assumptions are valid AND the fluid is at vest 2. The 2quation implies that Pauw > Passes Pressure is the same at ALL points at th + Gauge pressure: P= Pag z j where Pymge = gauge pressure P= absolute pressure (or actual pressure) atmospheric pressure (pressure of the surrounding atmosphere) NOTES: 1. Engineers use the following abbrev a= b. phig = “pounds per square inch gauge” 2. For a partial vacuum ease,.P <.Payn (OF Paw 3. For a perfect vacuum case. P = 0) (ot Pra ‘+ Pascal's principle: * “The pressure applied co an enclosed liquid is trans the fluid and to the walls of the container. struments: Gpen-tube manometer, sphyzmomenometer, barometer, hydraulic lift Buoyancy and Archimedes’ Principle * Buoyancy: + A phenomenon in which the appa parually immersed in a Nuid. + The uppurent weight decrenses because of the buoyant force. © Buoyant fore + Iris an upward force exerted by: fluid or an object that is completely or partially immersed in the fluid. + Itis equal to the weight ef the Nluid displaces by the immersed object. Fuso ziwhere Fy = buoyant force exerted by the Muid wur= weight of the displaced fluid «+ + Its point of action is at the CG of the displaced fluid ‘which doesn’t necessarily coincide with the CG of the imniersed object) + Archimedes” principle: © “An object that is completely or partially immersed in « fluid is buyed up by # force equal to the weight of the displaced fluid.” +> Related instrument: hydrometer + Surface tension: + A phenomenon in which the surface of a gui + [altows relatively small objects to oat on a liquid even if their densities are high me depth in the fluid. breviations: pounds per square inch stbsolute” shed to every point in © Related nt weizht of a body decreuses when completely or ¢ under tension,«© Physies 71 Arcfaga D. Fluids in motion Somé preliminory notes about fluids in motion 2) Fluid motion can become very complex !!! b) Kidz, we will consider only che simple case of non-turbulent, steudy flow of an “ideal” uid, ©) Idea! fluid ~ non-viscous (i.e. no internal Friction, and incompressible (iv, constant density) 4) Liquid - approximately incompressible : @) Gas - wy proxinutels incompressible if the pressure differences rom uiie region to another are ‘not too great (e.g. if the difference in elevation is not tou great) 8)” Flow line ~ the pth of an individual particle in a moving fluid 8) Streamline ~ the curve whose tangent at aay point is in the direction of the fluid velocity hy Steady flow —a flow in which the overall flow pactern does not change in time a flow in which the flow lines and streamlines are identical i) Laminar flow ~ a steady flow in which adjacent layers of fluid slide smoothly past euch other J) Turbulent flow ~ a non-steady flow in which the flow is irregular und chaotic == Av =constant zwhere AV/At = volume flow rate of the fluid i.e. volume flow per unit time] p= density of the flowing Muid ‘A= cross-sectional area of the Now tube v = speed of the fluid NOTES: i. This is a consequence of the conse 2, Assuinptions: ideal fluid 3. The speed of the fluid incr e versa, 4, Ifthe fuid is compressible (i.e. p is not constant). the general continuity equation is: Am 5 = AO paw =constint AL F ‘here AnvAt =,mass flow rate of the fluid [i.e. mass flow per unit time] P = density of the flowing fluid Bernculli’s equation: constant :where P= pressure p =densityof the flowing fluid dieration due to gravity ~ y= elevation or height of the fluid : v= speed of the fluid NOTES: |. This is « consequence’of conservation of energy (or work-energy th 2. Assumptions: ideal fluid, steady flow, and constant ¢ 3. For the special ease when v = 0 (i.e, Muid statics), we obtain + Preis = Patme + PxCYaove — Yooh) = Pade + Pxh => ef. Section B] Toricelli’s law (or Toricelli’s tneorem): 2 “Water emerges from a sniall hole of a big container with a speed equall to the speed it would have if it dropped in free fall a height bh.” For the special case when yy * y> (Le. appooximately constant elevation), we obtain: © Pa+tipy? 6. Venturi effect = “When the speed of a fluid ine em) 8! constant eased. ily pressure deer© Physics 71 Arciaga CHAPTER 15: MECHANICAL WAVES A. Some preliminary concepts about waves * Wave: : © occurs when a system is disturbed from stable equilibrium and when the disturbance can {tavel or propagate from one region of the system to another Santee sons ensta.and momentum through space without tanspo ing mnaiter * Mechanical wave vs, Electromagnetic wave: © mechanical wave 5 Wave that needs a medium to propagate «ck: wave on a string, sound wave, water wave, seismic wave © electromagnetic wave Wave that does not need a medium to propagate Va light tadiowave, x-ray, infrared and UV radiation, inicrowave * Transverse wave'vs. Longitudinal wave: © transverse wave {disturbance is pernendiculac to the direction of propagation * characterized by crests and troughs . ave on a string, electromagnetic waves © longitudinal wave J isturbance is parallel to the direction of propagation * characterized by compressions and ‘Farefactions * ex: sound wave ‘© transverse-longitudinal wave * disturbance has both transverse and longitudinal components, "ex: water wave at the surface * Wave pulse vs. Periodic wave vs. Sinusoidal wave: & wave pulse ~ wave composed of a single “wigele” © Periodic wave ~ wave composed of periodic motion © sinusoidal wave — Periodic wave composed of simple harmonic motion * Wave function © mathen.atical description of the motion of a wave © general form: y = y(x,t) = f(x + ve) here x = position of a Particular point in the medium tstime : displacement from equilibrium of particle at position x at time t speed of propagation of the wave NOTES: I. The wave function is 4 solution of the so-called “wave equation”: 2 20.0. 1 Pye = Kidz, you don’t have to memorize this, ie Ye f(x — vt), the wave travels toward the positive x-dj irection with speed v, 1 Y= f(x + vi), the wave travels toward the negative x-direction with Speed v, $: The speed of the wave is different frome the speed of the particles in the medium 5. The specd of the wave depends on the propery of the medium: 6: The speed of the wave is independent of the motion of the wave source© Physics 71 Arciags B. Sinusoidal waves Characteristics: ‘© “a wave wherein every particle in the medium undergoes SHM about its equilibrium position with the same frequency © also called a “harmonic wave" Wavelength: © length of one complete pattern or cycle in a periodic wave s © wavelength is a property of any periodic wave (not just for a sinusoidal wave) Sinusoidal/harmonic wave function: " * yOst) = A cos(kx t an) = A cos(k(x + vi) © vox) S FWA sin(kx £ at) = FA sin[k(x + vO] ax) =-@y(x0) + YOu =A sinks +) = A sin{k(x + v)] © vyQut) = £OA costkx # at) = £0A coslk(x + v1)) = at) = -ay(x,0) iwhere A = amplitude “k= wave number angular frequency speed of the wave (or phase velocity of the wave) position of a paiticular point in the medium time placement from eauilibrium of particle at position x at time t velocity of the particie at position x at time t . = acceleration of the particle at position x at time ¢ NOTES: |. Do not confuse the force constant with the wave number !!! They ure both symbolized by “k” but they are totally different. = 2. (kx £6) = (K(x EVO » = Ithas the general form of a wave function !!! 3. If y = f(kx ~ a), the wave travels toward the positive x-direction with speed v = wk, 4, Ify = f(kx + a), the wave travels toward the negative x-direction with speed v = wk. Some important relations you have to remiember: [Sl unit of the wave number is rad/n) i where v= speed of the wave 2. = wavelength T= period f= frequency @= angular frequency k = wave number© Physics 71 Arciaga | wave on a string [transverse wave] Speed: peed of wave on a string Fy = tension in the string H= linear mass density of the string (i.e. mass/length expression is an approximation for the ‘casewhen the amplitude of the wave is small ‘compised to the wavelength. * Energy: [example for y = A cos(kx - «xt)] © AR =% 1oPA7AK sin’(kx - aor) © AU=% p07AAx sin’(kx - ax) * AE =AK +AU = po?AAx sin’(kx ~ ot) . * PSAE/At= "Ay sin’(kx - a) i a where, Ax = length of a short segment in the string fie, a shore part ofthe string) = kinetic energy of the wave within Ax in the string tential energy of the wave within Ax tithe string, total mechanical ‘energy of the Wave wishin Ax in the stri = power transmitted in the wave on a string v= speed of the wave NOTES: |. AK, AU, AE, and P vary “sinusoidally” in time. 2. OK, AU, AE, and P are proportional to the square of a sinusoidal. 3. The total mechanical energy is NOT conserved. 4°AK = AU [i.e, the kinetic and potential energies are always equal). 5. Maximum energy and power: © AB max = 1OPAZAx . © Peas = pOrA?y : 6. Average energy and powe-: [average over the ‘oval time] © AB =% pwrA7ax = (cf. E= kA? for SHM) 8 Pave = A MOAN = 4 Prae 7, AE moxs Puats AE ave, and Pyye are proportional to the ‘square of the amplitude, 8. AE mut Puais AEane ad Pre Me proportions! to the square ofthe frequency. « 9. Energy always flows in the same direction as the propagation of the wave !!! i where NOTE. D. Waves in 3-D A {_mtetsity ~ average power per unit area (perpendicular to the direction of propagation) * Mathematically: i "sk /4 i where [= intensity transmitted by a wave aye = average power transniitted ty the wave A= surface area NOTES: 1. The SI unit of intensity is W/m?. 2. For a point source: * T=P,./4me? — ; where r=distance from the point source 3. This is called the “inverse-square law for intensity”, 4. The intensity is proportional to the square of the amplitude.© Physics 71 Arciaga E, Wave interference and standing wave * Interference: x © happens when two or more waves pass through the same region at the same time © overlapping of two or more waves 5 * The principle of superposition: © When two or more waves interfere, ihe actual displacement of any point in the medium at any time is equal to the sum of the displacements of the separate waves. © Mathematically: y(x,t) = yi(x,t) + ya(x,0) + « i where y(x,t) = wave function of the resulting wave = (8,0; YaCs), .». = Wave funtctions of the (wo separate waves 1 + Reftection of a wave:! ; © ata fixed end ~ reflected wave is inverted + © ata frer end — reflected wave is upright (not inverted) * Standing wave: aa : ss © wave formned by reflection of a periodic wave at a fixed end © characterized by nodes and antinodes: * node — position of destructive inteiference * _antinode ~ position of constructive interfereiice © & standing wave does NOT appear to move => [as opposed to a “traveling wave"] © standing wave transmits ZERO averag* encrgy © wave function of a standing wave: * y(t) 2A sin(kx) sin(ot) i Where A = amplitude of the original uaveling wave ave number of the original traveling wave = angular Frequency of the original traveling wave NOTES: |. The above equation corresponds to a standing wave with a fixed end atx =0. 2. The amplitude of a standiny wave is Qwice the amplitude of its original wave. 2. Position of the nodes: . * xq =0,M2, 202, 3222, 3 where xq = position of'a node. 2.= wavelength of the wave *, Standing wave: [when fixed at both ends} © Ag=2Un "f= Wes nv s where L = lengtivof the string (or tube) p ‘= any integer = 1,2, 3, speed of the wave dn possible, wavelengths of a standing wave on the string of length L fa = possible frequencirs of a standing wave on the string of length L NOTES: |. Ifthe frequency of the wave is NOT a multiple of (v/2L), then it CANNOT generate a ssanding wave on the string of Iéngth L. 2. The values of f, are called “harmonics”, 3. The series of values of fy is called a “icrmonic series”. 4. The value.of fj is called the “first harmonic” or “fundamental frequency”. 5. The value of fp is called the "second harmonic” or “first overtone”, 6. The value of fy is called the “third hdtmonic” or “second overtone”... and so on. 7 Naceal mot: atinn -F-» system such that all of its particles move sinusoidally wath the sure frequency 8. Harmonic analysis ~ finding the normal inodes of any wave by expressing it in terms of the so-called Fourier seriesOPER Arciays vl. by Young and Freedmahjzz’- 2 pier effeds [section 16.3 of Univer ity Physics t concepts you hav derstand: © Hi the source and the receiver are relatively movi Shserved freauency is greater than the source freys.oney, @ Uithe source and the recelver are teiaively paving away from each otter, then the sbserved frequency is less thax the soarze frequency. + Mathematically: esha iwhere moe ard each other, then the bserved frequency (i. freqvency heard by the receiy fs source freauency (ie. frequensy produced by the sourcey dof the wave plat e0 the eround i= Speed of receives felative 19 the ground ve = speed of the source relative :o the groiind NOTES:'1. How to choose if + or =? Just remember coasistency with tite basie concepts boy 2. The spred of the wave does nor depend of vs or v1, 3. EF the medium is moving (e.g. blowing wind), then use: " Y=voiVest : where vj speed ofthe wave relativeto the medium ‘wea = speed of the medium relative to the eround #- In (cont of a maving source, the apparent wavelengtl is “shot . v~y, 5. At the back of moving source, the ets fy Apparent wavelength is “lon,