Phys 271 Lab Manual Phys 271ISBN 9781119040446 Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, ‘scanning or otherwise, except as permitted under Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, ‘without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per- copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, Web site: ‘www.copyright.com. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc, 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030-5774, (201)748-6011, fax (201)748-6008, Web site: |hup:/www.wiley.com/go/permissions. Printed in the United States of America 10987654321Physics 271 Laboratory Manual Table of Contents ‘Table of Contents 1 Introduction 271 2 Experiment | - Electric and Magnetic Fields 9 Experiment I] - The Multimeter and Oscilloscope 21 Experiment [I Resistors and Capacitors 39 Experiment IV — Faraday’s Law of Induction. Sl Experiment V ~ Resonance in LRC Circuits 63 Experiment VI —Review for the First Culminating Lab 74 Experiment VII The First Culminating Lab 82 Experiment VIII - Photovoltaic Cell 83 Experiment IX ~ Polarized Light 94 Experiment X— Interference and Diffraction 105, Experiment XI— Optical Spectroscopy 116 Experiment XI -Review for the Second Culminating Lab 126 Experiment XIII —The Second Culminating Lab 134 Appendix A — Data and Error Analysis 135 Appendix B ~ Introduction to Spreadsheets and EXCEL 201 148 Published and Printed by: Department of Physics University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742 www.physies.umd.edu Copyright University of Maryland S. Cowen and F. C. Wellstood, June 2014. ‘This Fall 2014 edition was revised from and replaces the Fall 2006 edition. Contact well@squid.umd.edu00000006 660000008 006090006 060000000090090000Introduction What You Need to Bring to the Lab This lab manual. Itis essential that you have this Fall 2014 version of the Physics 271 Lab ‘Manual and bring it to each lab class. New experiments have been introduced and all of the original experiments have been updated and changed significantly from previous versions of the lab manual. = Allab notebook for taking notes, making sketches, recording data and doing analysis. - A penoor pencil. Policies for Working in the Lab Food and drinks are not permitted in the lab. = Proper attire is required for working in the labs. Tie back long hair. = Do not leave backpacks, coats, books or other personal items on the floor where people can trip over them. = You should never use a calculator in Physics 271. Instead, you must use the EXCEL templates provided for all calculations. The spreadsheet template is better than a calculator, you can save all of your work, and you will need to learn to use it for the lab exams. = Do not bring your laptop to the lab. Instead you must use the computer that is provided at each lab station, In most of the experiments the computer must be connected to the apparatus to take data, there is very little room on the bench for additional equipment, and it is difficult for your lab partner or the TA to view a small and dim laptop screen. = Ifyou bring a cell phone into the lab, tum it off. The lab computers are only to be used for ‘working on the labs, When you are in class, you should not be talking on your phone, texting, browsing, answering e-mail, watching videos or otherwise distracting yourself and others from the work at hand, = You do not need to print out anything to complete these labs and all printers have been removed from the labs. = Follow all safety warnings given in the lab and let your TA know immediately of any broken or damaged equipment. = At the completion of the lab, tum off all of the equipment, especially if it uses batteries. - You must leave the lab at the end of your scheduled lab period. How To Geta Good Grade in the Physics 271 Lab Read the lab write-up and watch the short videos of the experiment before coming to class. = Ifyou do not understand the physics or analysis in an experiment, read the references given in the lab write-up. = Log onto ELMS and answer the Pre-lab Questions before coming to class. Your answers are due before the start of your lab session and are a significant part of your grade. = Don’t be late for class. During the first five minutes, your instructor may discuss the experiment, give helpful suggestions, and alert you to any changes in procedure. = Make sure that you use the EXCEL spreadsheet template provided for each lab. - Leam how to use EXCEL for calculating and plotting. = When you make a plot in EXCEL, make sure to always use an xy-seatter chart. Also, makesure you always label the axes, include proper units and include a clear chart ttle + These labs generally use SI units (meters, kilograms, seconds ...) for all physical quantities Use the correct number of significant figures when recording measurements and reporting results, Learn how to use EXCEL to set the number of decimal digits displayed. Learn how to propagate uncertainties and how to correctly fit to data. Don’t forget to add units to your spreadsheet template when an open cell is provided for them. + Stay focused, don’t waste time in the lab, and don’t skip questions or steps in the procedure. If something does not make sense, ask your lab partner or your TA to explain. You can and should discuss your answers to the questions with your lab partner, but be sure to write your own answers to the questions when you disagree. - Remember to save your data on the computer at regular intervals. The only place that you can save documents is to the “My Documents” folder. The templates will save a copy for you and your lab partner when you click the save button in the template. - Each and every student needs to log in to ELMS Canvas and submit a copy of his or her completed spreadsheet lab report before leaving the lab. You cannot submit a report after your lab section period ends. You cannot get a grade for a report someone else submitted, even if that someone is your lab partner. It is great that your lab partner turned in a report to their own area in ELMS Canvas, but if you don’t want to get a score of zero, you need to submit your report to your own area in ELMS Canvas before your session ends and before you leave the lab - In your report, don’t forget to include your name, the date, your lab partner's name, your data, analysis, plots and brief answers to the Final Questions. The new templates highlight cells that are missing entries and also provide some feedback when there is a problem - make sure there are no missing entries and that all the issues have been dealt with, ~ Get the name and e-mail of your lab partner before you leave the lab. Purpose of Physies 271 The main purpose of Physics 271 is to allow you to study experimentally some of the physical laws, concepts and phenomena covered in Physics 260 and Physics 270. Most of the experiments in 271 are concerned with electric, magnetic, and optical phenomena. Another purpose of the course is to give you direct experience with measurement instruments and techniques used in the physical sciences and industry. A third purpose of Physics 271 is to give you a better understanding of measurement uncertainty and its importance in the physical sciences, including the related topics of error propagation and how to compare data to a theory in a meaningful way. A final aim of the course is to introduce you to accepted scientific standards for recording data, plotting results, and reporting values including the proper use of axes and cell labels, units, and significant figures. Philosophy Behind the Labs In developing these labs, we started from existing experiments but made many changes in an attempt to improve the pedagogy, the apparatus, and the look and feel of the experiments. We did not have unlimited time or budget and numerous compromises had to be made, Two big constraints we needed to work with were that you will have only two and a half hours to complete a lab and when you do run into trouble, you will have just one TA to assist you in a room with 35 other students. This drove several key decisions. That is why we changed the labsso that they now use EXCEL templates, why we increased the number and power of the macros you will be using in the analysis of your data, and why we incorporated automatic feedback into the templates. This is also why each lab has explicit and clear instructions about what needs to be done. Our aim was to make sure that you and 35 other students can complete complex data taking and analysis without running into easily foreseen problems at every step. ‘Asa student, you should understand that there are some potential pedagogical problems with giving you detailed instructions. Critics call this a cook-book approach and argue that students just follow the steps blindly without understanding what they are doing. Instead, some instructors advocate for a minimalist approach with few if any instructions, and correspondingly simple equipment and data analysis, so students have to figure out almost everything. While we have sympathy for minimalist approaches, it is not the approach taken here. It's not just that successful engineering students at UMD tend to be smarter than average and don’t blindly follow instructions. In reality, you will find that there is an incredible amount you will need to figure out in each lab. The experiments are not simple and the instructions will enable you to use complex equipment in a much more sophisticated and professional manner than would otherwise be possible. Although we hope the instructions are clear enough that anyone ean follow them, we know that we are asking a lot of you and you have a limited time to figure it out. Much of what you encounter may well be completely new to you - and you will need to understand it well ‘enough to pass the practical exam at the end of the course. You will need to be well-prepared and on your toes to understand and finish each experiment in the available time. Finally, as a prospective engineer, you should understand that real engineers do have to figure some things out from scratch, but they also have to know how to follow instructions and how to interpret numerous codes, rules and laws. There is a good reason why engineers in particular write and follow explicit instructions and codes - it makes it possible to plan and accomplish complex, technically challenging and sometimes dangerous work in a well-thought ‘out, reproducible, efficient and safe manner. It is good practice and learning to follow good practice is a key part of every engineer's training, Analytical Tools for the Lab Ti this class you will use two analytical tools: a computer spreadsheet and error analysis. By using a computer spreadsheet, you will save time and trouble when analyzing data and making plots. You should already be very familiar with the spreadsheet program Excel, which is what you used in Physics 261 and will use in these labs. If you don’t know how to use EXCEL, you won't be able to do the labs. If you need to brush up on your EXCEL skills, you can read through Appendix B in this manual. It is best to do so with EXCEL open and running so you can see for yourself how things work. In Physics 271, we assume that you have some basic understanding of uncertainty in measurements and error analysis from having taken Physics 261. Error analysis is a large and challenging subject that includes techniques for estimating uncertainties in measured quantities, propagation of errors, least square fitting, 7? fitting, determining the error in fitted quantities, and determining in a statistically meaningful way whether a theory is in agreement with a data set. Appendix A contains a review of the subject. ‘As you work on these labs, you may wonder what is the point of error analysis? In some of the experiments, the idea is to determine whether a given result or law of physics is actually obeyed. One soon finds that this is not so easy to do because any measurement of a physicalquantity, such as mass or velocity, can only be made to within a certain precision or experimental uncertainty. Because of this, it turns out that one cannot prove with mathematical rigor that a physical law is true by doing experiments. The best you can ever do is show that your ‘measurements agree with theory to within your experimental errors, or that they do not, Thus, it essential to learn about measurement errors before you can decide whether your results agree with a theory or an accepted result. By the end of the course, you should understand how to estimate the uncertainty in a measurement, whether two results are in agreement or disagree significantly, and what it means to prove something experimentally. As engineers who will soon be entering the job market, you should also know that simulations and more advanced data analysis techniques, which go beyond simple error analysis, are important because of their application to design, quality control and process control in manufacturing, Units ‘Many of the experiments in Physics 271 involve measurements on electrical circuits. ‘There are many different electrical quantities and many different units that can be used, We will use the SI or rationalized MKS system of units. Quantity SI Unit ‘Symbol length meter m time seconds 8 frequency Hertz Hz voltage Volt Vv current ‘Ampere A resistance ‘Ohm. 2 ‘capacitance Farad F magnetic field Tesla re inductance Henry H There is Something else you need to Know about electrical quantities. Unlike most things you deal with on a daily basis, electrical quantities can vary over an exceedingly large range ~ often by a factor of 10" in the same circuit, To deal with this very large range, engineers use a special’ prefixes to represent multiplication by powers of 10. For example, “k” or “kilo” represents 10°, Here is a list of the multiplier prefixes you will encounter in the 271 labs: M_ mega 10° k kilo 10° © centi 107, m milli 10° micro 10° n nano 10° Pp pico 10°? ‘Thus if capacitor is sted as “100 pF”, you will know to read this as “100 pico Farads” and that itis equal to 100x10" Farads or 10°"? F, About the Equipment The electrical and optical instruments you will be using in Physics 271 are not cheap. Treat all of the equipment with care. Do not apply large forces when you connect or disconnect cables from am instrument or tum switches on equipment. If you think something is stuck, ask your TAor the lab technician for help. Arrange the apparatus, cables and wires so that nothing can get snagged accidentally as you are working and result in equipment being pulled off the benches. If something is broken, leaking, smoking or otherwise misbehaving, let your TA or the lab technicians know. Not only will the students who follow you be grateful, but you will have fewer problems and get better results. Finally, we occasionally find that equipment has been deliberately damaged or defaced - don’t do it - deliberately damaging the lab equipment harms other students and can result in expulsion. Lab Safety and Electrical Safety ‘Always be aware of potential dangers when using any tool or equipment. Every experiment now includes a section on known hazards, Be sure to read all safety warnings carefully and heed them. If you find something that is hazardous, let your instructor or the lab technicians know immediately. You also need to be aware of common hazards such as tripping over a backpack someone has carelessly left on the floor, Many of the experiments in Physics 271 involve hooking up and measuring electrical circuits, Electricity can kill you and it is important to use safe procedures: = Before working on electrical equipment, turn off the power and disconnect the equipment from the power source. = Do not touch exposed wiring or conducting surfaces. They may be at high voltage, Power switches can fail, wires can short, and things can just be hooked up wrong. High voltage is invisible, so you can’t be certain by looking at a circuit that dangerous voltages are not present. - Keep water and other liquids away from circuits. = When working on electrical circuits, avoid using common metal tools such as screwdrivers and other objects such as pencils (the graphite is conducting) that can short out a circuit or deliver a shock by connecting you to high voltage. Only use tools that have been properly insulated for electrical work. = Never remove third wire grounds or use cheater plugs to defeat a third wire ground. The third wire ground is there to protect you from being electrocuted if a wire in an instrument or device is shorted to the case. ~ When working on circuits, keep one hand in your pocket so that if your other hand does make contact with high voltage it will not deliver a shock across your chest. = Do not work on high voltage or high power equipment unless you have the necessary training and expertise. Nothing in these labs will prepare you for dealing with the lethal voltages that can be encountered in such equipment. If you don’t have the training, leave such equipment to the experts - Many instruments and devices contain power supplies that have large capacitors that can retain dangerously high voltage for many minutes. Do not open up or ‘work on power supplies unless you have the necessary training and expertise. Your Lab Partner Tn order for every student to have a chance to operate the equipment and take data, it is not permitied for more than two students to work together at one set up and you should ordinarily expect that you will work with one other student. If there are an odd number ofstudents in a section you may find you are in luck and have a set-up all to yourself. Be sure to work closely with your lab partner, and discuss all aspects of the experiment with her or him. Your data will be the same, but you will each need to turn in your own lab report to ELMS. If there is some part of the lab, that does not make sense to you, by all means ask your lab partner or other students or the TA. Also, make sure that both of you have a chance to operate the equipment. Do not let one person always be the one who records the data. Letting everyone work on the different parts of an experiment is not only the fair way to do it, but it also is the best way to catch mistakes before it is too late. The easiest way to find if you are ‘measuring something wrong is to have another person try to measure the same quantity and then check if the answer is the same, Also, don’t forget that there are practical exams in this course ~ you're not going to do well on the culminating labs if you don’t try your hand at all parts of every experiment. If you are not getting along with your lab partner discuss this with your TA and arrange for a switch, One point is worth repeating here. Each and every student needs to log in to ELMS Canvas and submit a copy of their own lab report before leaving the lab, There are no exceptions to this policy. It is great that your lab partner tumed in a report, but if you want to get a grade for doing the lab, you need to tur in a report to your own area in ELMS. Your Teaching Assistant Your Teaching Assistant is in the lab to help you succeed, help sort out problems and explain things that you don’t understand. Your TA should always be in the lab during your session and, unless your TA is already dealing with a student, he or she should respond promptly when you raise your hand because you are stuck or have a question. You should understand that TA’s are also students, they are still learning and they have their own classes and homework to deal with. However, your TA should not spend his or her time sitting at the front of the lab working on the computer, doing homework or grading lab reports, Instead your TA should continually work their way around the lab, checking how students are doing, talking to students to see if they are getting it, letting you know if something looks wrong, and watching out for everyone's safety. If you have a great TA, let your Physics 271 course instructor know. Similarly, if your TA is not doing their job, let your Physics 271 course instructor know. One last thing concerning your TA - he or she cannot make exceptions to the course rules. As you read through the labs, you will notice some repeated serious reminders: for each lab each student needs to tum in a spreadsheet report to their own area in ELMS before they leave the lab, the Pre-Lab Questions are due before your lab session starts, and the Review and Exam are required and graded labs. These are part of the course rules and the TA cannot make exceptions to them. Lost Property Laboratory staff will contact you if they find lost property in the labs, but we can’t contact you if there is no name on it.” Although students should never use a calculator in Phys 271, we still find them left in the labs: if you are reluctant to scratch your name on the case, just write your name and e-mail address on a slip of paper in the battery compartment, Lost computer discs can be reclaimed from a “LOST DISCS” box, and lost pens efc. can be claimed from a LOST LITERACY TOOLS box at the front of the lab. Any other property you left in the lab should be claimed ASAP in room 3308/3304.‘The Spreadsheet Templates One of the big changes from previous versions of Physics 271 is that each lab now comes with a spreadsheet template that you need to download from ELMS Canvas. You must use the templates. The templates provide a standardized common layout for recording your data, doing analysis and answering questions. This helps your TA understand what you have done and grade your work efficiently and consistently. The templates also have custom macros for doing analysis and providing automated feedback - the template can let you know when you left something out and alert you to some problems in your data or analysis. Acknowledgements This version of the Physics 271 Lab Manual was put together in the Spring 2014 semester by Drs. Steve Cowen and Fred Wellstood. We have made many changes and would like to thank the people that have made this possible. The Physics Lab Staff (Allen Monroe, Bill Norwood, Tom Baldwin and Rory Finneren) ‘was critical to the development of the new labs, We would like to especially thank Allen Monroe for making this all possible by applying for, getting and managing the STEM money from the College for expanding and upgrading the equipment. Allen, along with Tom McMullen and Sean Davis from the College, was responsible for managing the construction to expand and renovate the room, and installing new lights, new lab benches, new flooring and fresh paint. Allen was also responsible for ordering most of the equipment you will be using and for converting our prototypes into actual equipment that you could use. Allen, Bill, Tom and Rory provided many fresh ideas, pointed out problems with existing equipment, suggested replacements, dug out odd parts and test equipment from their supplies, and let us duct tape things together to create prototypes. They helped us in a hundred other ways during the development process, all while keeping the labs running for a couple of thousands students during the semester. They not only made our job fun but we would not have succeeded without their ideas, enthusiasm, support, criticism and deep knowledge of the labs. We would also like to acknowledge technical help from two other staff members, Tuck Owens in OIT for helping us with numerous computer related issues and Clay Daetwyler in Physics Lecture Demonstrations for equipment and ideas. While some of the experiments are completely new, most have been adapted from earlier versions, In fact, some of these labs existed in a recognizable form twenty years ago when computers were first introduced into the engineering sequence physics labs by Jordan Goodman and one of us (FW). Within the last decade, Derek Boyd upgraded many of the experiments, not only fixing many mistakes but also increasing the sophistication of the data analysis, creating custom EXCEL macros for fitting the data and developing greatly improved hardware. While many other faculty and staff have worked on the labs, the present version of the manual would not have been possible without Derek’s creativity and hard work. His insight and dedication to improving the Physics labs has been a real inspiration. Finally, we would like to thank Donna Hammer, the Director of Education Services in the Physics Department, and Tom Cohen, the Associate Chair for Undergraduate Education. They understood the need to make changes and the risks involved in doing so in such a short time. Our effort would not have been possible without their continuing support and commitment, Fred Wellstood and Steve Cowen June 15,201400000000 09090000600 00090000000900000090090000Experiment 1 Electric and Magnetic Fields I. Purpose The purpose of this lab is to observe and measure the electric potential or magnetic field from some different sources. Il. Preparing for the Lab ‘You need to prepare for this lab before your lab session starts. Start by reading through this lab write-up and see Chapters 29 and 32 of Knight’s Physics for Scientists and Engineers. Next, go to the Physics 271 site on ELMS Canvas and click on the video link for the experiment. Finally, don’t forget to do the Pre-Lab questions and turn them in to ELMS Canvas before your lab starts. ILL Pre-lab Questions (Submit answers to ELMS Canvas before The questions on Canvas will typically vary somewhat from those given below - be sure to read the ELMS questions and choices carefully before answering. #1, True or False, Electric field lines point along equipotential surfaces. #2, Which of the following equipotential mappings is most accurate? #3. A very long wire has a linear charge density 2 = 2 wC/m, What is the potential difference between points at radial distances r= lem and r) = 2cm? (use €,=8.85x10"? C/ V"'m'!) a oy | | #4, Why can’t we determine the declination of the Earth’s magnetic field using just the apparatus in this experiment? a) We don’t have a compass. b) The apparatus can't measure the magnitude of a magnetic field. ¢) We can’t measure the direction of the Geographic North Pole. d) The vertical component of the magnetic field is too small to measure. #5. In 2014, about how far would you have to travel on the surface of the Earth from the North ‘Magnetic Pole to the Geographic North Pole? Take the radius of the Earth to be 6378.1 km. #6. What is the magnitude of the magnetic field in the center of a very long solenoid with n= 30,000 turns per meter with current I= 8 mA (1) = 1.26x10 mkgs*A™)? 9IV. Equipment: 2 electrode boards template for drawing electrodes docking station for electrode boards % meter stick 15 em ruler tape DC power supply Digital multimeter LabPro interface box Vernier Magnetic field probe Large solenoid coil paper webcam protractor Safety Warning: Avoid touching exposed conducting surfaces with your hands. Make sure that the DC power supply is properly grounded via a third-wire ground pin. V. Introduction The concept of a field is a very useful and important one in the study of electricity and magnetism. According to Coulomb’s Law, one charged body exerts a force on another, and vice versa. A more modem way of looking at this is to view a charged body as a source of an electric field, and another charged body placed in that field feels a force that is proportional to the field, This may seem like an unnecessary complication. It can be for simple cases, but it becomes usefull when the charged bodies have more complicated shapes than a point or sphere. The field concept becomes indispensable when discussing electromagnetic waves (radio, light, x-rays). While electric fields are generated by charges, magnetic fields are generated by currents, i.e, moving electric charges. A moving charge in a magnetic field experiences a force, just as a charge in an electric field also experiences a force. The full force that a moving charge experiences in the presence of both electric and magnetic fields is described by the Lorentz, force law. ‘The details of this law are beyond the scope of this lab; instead we will focus on the electric potential in the first two sections and the magnetic field in the last two. Equipotential surfaces The electrical potential is a key physical concept that is closely related to the electric field. An equipotential surface is the collection of points that all have the same value of potential or voltage. An equipotential surface always forms a closed surface around a charged body. A different value of potential gives a different surface, and no two surfaces can eross each other because this would require that the potential have two values at the same point. We will be interested in the case when the charged body is also a conductor. In this case, the surface of the body itself is an equipotential, and the equipotentials nearby will have a shape that is similar to the body. As you move away from the body, the equipotentials tend to smooth out and get rounder. The potential difference or voltage difference is the potential (voltage) at one point ‘s the potential (voltage) at another point. Potential difference can be measured with a voltmeter and is usually much easier to calculate or measure than the electric field itself. Once you know the potential field, you can easily calculate the associated electric field. In the first part of this lab, you will examine the equipotentials around some 2-D conducting shapes (sce Figure 1). To keep things simple, you will just be mapping out equipotentials on the 2D xy-plane rather than trying to map out the full equipotential surface in 3D. You can think of the equipotential curves as the intersection of the full equipotential surface 10Figure 1, Equipotential curves around positive and negative charges. Dashed curves show electric field lines. with the x-y plane. The resulting equipotential curves are a series of closed curves around the electrodes (see solid curves in Figure 1), with each curve corresponding to a different voltage level. The magnitude of the electric field is approximately given by the difference in voltage divided by the perpendicular distance between successive equipotentials. The direction of the electric field is pointing from higher to lower potential and perpendicular to the equipotential surfaces (see dashed curves in Figure 1). ‘A good analogy to an equipotential mapping is a contour map with hills and valleys. If a ball is released on the side of a hill it will roll downhill along the steepest route down the slope. Similarly, a positively charged particle that is released in an electric potential will move “down- hill” towards lower potential and it will move perpendicular to the equipotentials, which is exactly the direction the electric field points The definition of the electric field E is ~grad(V)= oy where V is the electric potential. The minus sign ensures that electric field lines point “downhill” (toward smaller V). For example the dashed lines in Figure 1 show the direction of the electric field at a few locations near a positive and negative charge. Note that the field lines must intersect equipotentials at right angles and they can only meet at charges. In the first part of this lab, you will determine the electric potential in the space around. two oppositely charged electrodes in the shape of a parallel plate capacitor. The apparatus you will use is called a “current board” or “electric field mapping board”. Figure 2 shows one of the boards - there are two highly conducting metal electrodes near the center of a dark, flat poorly conducting board, If the positive terminal on a de power supply is connected to the left metal electrode and the negative terminal of the supply connected to the right electrode on the board, a current will flow from the positive power supply terminal to the left electrode, spread through the board, flow over to the right electrode, and return to the negative power supply terminal. ‘The 11Figure 2. Electric field mapping board with electric dipole electrodes. metal electrodes are made from very good conductors (brass and silver paint) whereas the boards are arather poor conductor. This large difference in conductivity is what ensures that every point on an electrode is at the same potential throughout. A voltmeter will be connected between one electrode and a probe that you can move around on the board. In general, if you touch the probe at an arbitrary place on the board there will be a potential difference across the voltmeter. As you move the probe around, you can find a series of points where the potential is equal. Connecting the points that are at the same potential maps an equipotential curve. Potential of two oppositely charged wires ‘One of the silver painted boards in this experiment resembles an electric dipole (See Figure 2). An electric dipole is a separation of positive and negative charges, usually equal in ‘magnitude. In this case, the “dipole” in your 2D current board produces the same field in the plane as that produced by a pair of oppositely charged long straight charged wires going into and coming out of the current board. The potential V around a single long straight wire is: a r V=h— of), PR) 2m, La where a is the radius of the wire, Mp is a constant that sets the potential at the wire, 2 is the linear charge density on the wire, and ¢,=8.85x10"? C/ V"'m'' is the permittivity of free space, and In is the natural log. For two wires with opposite charges, the potential is v=n- of 2+ 4 of) by 2ne, a)” Ine, "La where again Vo is a constant. If we are only concerned about measuring the potential on a line between the centers of the two charged wires, we can write Vea) = Vs tne) 4 5 tE2 41 ms, a Dae, where x is the distance from the left wire to some point between the wi d is the distance 12between the centers of the two wires (see Figure 2), and we have combined the two Yo constants into a single constant also renamed V», If the metal that forms the circular electrodes on the board were identical, then the charge per unit length would be the same, ie.4,=4,, and Vo would be an average of the potentials of the two electrodes (in this experiment since one is ‘grounded, it would be 1% the value of one of the electrodes). Unfortunately, due to imperfections in the electrodes, we cannot make this assumption and you will use something similar to the more general formula given by Equation [4] when you fit a theory to your data. Magnetic field of the Earth The magnetic field produced by the Earth is similar to that of a giant bar magnet that is tilted 10° from the Earth’s axis of rotation. This is the situation in 2014 - the year is relevant because the position of the Earth's north and south magnetic poles changes slowly over time. The field lines of a bar magnet emanate from the magnetic north pole and end at the magnetic south pole (see Figure 3), Counterintuitively, the Earth’s “South Magnetic Pole” is actually a physical magnetic north pole, and the Earth’s North Magnetic Pole is a magnetic south pole. Since the north end of a bar magnet is attracted to the south end of another bar magnet, this means that the north pole of a compass needle will point towards the Earth’s North Magnetic Pole. The Earth’s magnetic field is due to a dynamo effect involving the movement of molten iron in the Earth’s outer core, ‘Any magnetic field is a vector field, ie. it has direction and magnitude. The Earth's magnetic field direction is typically described in terms of two angles, inclination and declination. The inclination or dip angle is the angle the field makes with the horizontal and the declination is the angle between the field and true north (the Geographic North Pole, where the Earth’s axis of rotation meets its surface). In Part D of this experiment you will use a simple magnetic probe to measure the inclination and magnitude of the Earth's magnetic ficld. Magnetic field of a solenoi ‘A solenoid is a coil of wire wound into a helix. They are frequently used as inductors in circuits, Inductors will be discussed in detail in Experiments 4 and 5. For our purposes here, it is Figure 3. Conceptual sketch showing magnetic field of the Earth is like that from bar magnet. 13(a) (b) L Figure 4. (a) Solenoid of infinite length. ‘The coils are not drawn, An Amperian rectangular loop is drawn with top and bottom length, Z;. (b) Magnetic field of a finite solenoid. The spacing between coils is greatly exaggerated. enough to know that when a current flows through a solenoid, an approximately uniform ‘magnetic field is generated inside the solenoid in the axial direction (See Figure 4(a)). ‘The physical law that describes the generation of magnetic field by a current is called Ampere’s Law: fBedl = plone (5] where the integral is around a closed loop, 4) is the permeability of free space, and Jone is the current enclosed by the loop. In simple terms, Ampere’s law allows us to draw a closed loop around some current source, and then determine the magnetic field at the location of the loop from the current enclosed by the loop and some geometry. Using Ampere’s law, we can find the magnetic field of an infinitely long solenoid (see Figure 4(a)). The integration path is shown as a rectangle with one edge completely inside the solenoid, and another well outside of the solenoid, where the magnetic field is zero. The ‘magnetic field points only along the axis of the solenoid in this simplified example, the arrows along the left and right sides of the rectangle are perpendicular to the magnetic field and therefore give zero contribution to the left hand side of Ampere’s Law. The only non-zero contribution is, from the bottom side, so Ampere’s Law for the loop is BL, = pynb,l or: B= pynl (61 where 1 is the number of turns per unit length, and [is the current through the wire A real solenoid will not have infinite length and Equation [6] will only approximate the field. In a finite-length solenoid, the field resembles that shown in Figure 4(b). It is relatively constant in the middle, but becomes weaker towards the ends. The equation for the axial component (along the length of the solenoid) of the magnetic field of finite length solenoid is Hon] x4 L/2 x-L/2 v1 Kx+L/2P +r? f(e-L/2) +r? where L is the length of the solenoid, r is the radius of the solenoid, and x is the displacement 14from the center of the solenoid to some point on the axis (-L/2 ignl , and we recover the equation for the infinite solenoid. VIL. Experiment Part A. Getting started (1) Download the Excel spreadsheet template for Lab 1 from ELMS Canvas. (2) Fill in your name, your lab partner’s name and your lab section number. (3) Point the camera at the apparatus and click “Capture image” in your template. If an error ‘occurs, use the Logitech software and insert the image into your spreadsheet in the designated area, Part B: Mapping the Potential and Electric field of a Parallel-Plate Capacitor The goal of this partis fo map seven equipotential curves of a parallel plate capacitor. (1) Clamp the parallel plate capacitor electrode board underneath the current board. The board looks like two parallel lines. The silver paint should be facing outward. (2) Slide a piece of paper onto the top of the board and hold it in place with the holders. Tape the edges to make sure the paper does not move as measurements are made. Place the metal drawing template on top of the board by sliding the holes at the top of the template through the small pegs on the current board. Trace the shape of the parallel plate capacitor on the paper and then remove the drawing template. (3) Pick up the hand-held Elenco multimeter and turn the big center knob to measure voltage. If you can’t figure it out, take a look at the description of the multimeter in Lab 2. (4) Set up the apparatus as shown in Figure 5. The Extech DC power supply is a source that provides a constant voltage and current, Make sure it is turned off for now. The power supply is hooked directly to the two metal electrodes. The voltmeter (multimeter) is connected between one electrode and the probe. If you touch the probe at an arbitrary place on the board, there will be a potential difference across the voltmeter. Make sure that the voltage leads are plugged into the multimeter as shown in the figure. Caution: In order to prevent a short circuit and possible electrode damage, do not allow the metal templates or other metal objects to get under the current boards. (4) Slide the probe onto the current board so that the tweezer end with the metal electrode presses ‘up against the parallel plate capacitor electrode board underneath the current board and the other end presses down on the paper. There is a hole through the upper tweezer arm so that you can use a pencil to mark the equipotential points through it on the paper. 15Figure 5. Current board setup for parts B and C. The Extech DC power supply is on the left and the Elenco multimeter is on the right. (5) Turn on the DC power supply and set it to 7.1 V and make sure the current knob is not tumed down all the way. Use the probe and voltmeter to mark points of equal potential on the sheet, as follows: By moving the probe over the surface, identify and mark with a pencil at least 10, points that yield a voltage reading of about 6.0 V. Try to spread the points out as much as possible. Connect the points with a smooth, continuous curve, It is 0.k. if your lines do not form a closed loop. (6) Without changing the power supply setting, repeat this process to identify equipotential lines for 5.0 4.0, 3.0, 2.0, and 1.0 V. Label the lines and make sure none of your equipotential lines overlap. (7) Turn off the power supply. Part C: Measuring the Potential of a Dipole The goal of this part is to measure the potential along a line between two opposite charges. (1) Unplug all wires from the current board and remove the parallel plate capacitor electrode board and replace it with the dipole electrode board underneath the current board. (2) Remove your drawing of equipotential lines and attach a new piece of paper to the top of the board, tape it at the edges, and use the metal drawing template to trace the dipole. Remove the metal drawing template. (3) Mark the center of each circle with a point, then use a ruler to draw a straight line from the center of one circle to the center of the other. (4) Measure the length d of the line between the two circles and the radius ap of one of the circles (both radii should be identical). Enter these values in units of meters into your template. 16(5) Starting from the right edge of the left circle, make a mark on the line every 0.01 m until the ‘edge of the right circle is reached. Don’t mark inside the right circle. You should have 6 marks in total. (6) Set up the apparatus as shown in Figure 5 again. Turn on the power supply and set it to 5 V. (7) Use the voltage probe to measure the potential V at the location of each mark x and record these values in your template. (8) Tum off the power supply. Part D: Determining the ction of the Earth’s magneti id ‘The goal of this part is to determine the inclination and magnitude of the Earth’s magnetic field, (1) Open the “Lab templates” folder on the Desktop and open the Logger Pro template called “Magnetic Fields”. To measure the magnetic field, click “Collect” or simply read off the field given in the lower left corner. (2) The probe you will use in this experiment is a hand-held wand-shaped probe with a Hall- effect magnetic field sensor on the end. Find the magnetic field probe and straighten the tip i it is bent. Test that the probe is working properly by changing the inclination and azimuthal angle and observing the change in the displayed magnetic field in Logger Pro. (3) Change the probe orientation (inclination and azimuth) until you find an orientation that maximizes the signal from the probe - the signal will be a maximum when the probe is pointing in the direction of the Earth’s field. Don’t move the probe near anything that could be magnetized. When you have found the orientation, use a protractor to record the approximate inclination (angle made with the horizontal) and record the magnitude of the Earth’s magnetic field in milli-Tesla given by Logger Pro in your template. Part E: Measuring the axial Magnetic Field of a Solenoid The goal of this part is to measure the axial magnetic field of a solenoid at different locations. (1) Set up the apparatus shown in Figure 6(a). To connect to the solenoid, use the jacks on the base of the solenoid labelled “0” and “1500”. The current flowing through the solenoid will produce a magnetic field inside the solenoid. Set the Elenco multimeter to measure current by rotating the center knob of the multimeter to the 200 mA setting. Also make sure you are plugged into the multimeters red “10 A” plug and the black COM plug, as shown in Figure 6(a). (2) Turn on the power supply. Set the voltage so that a current of about 15 mA flows through the circuit. If the multimeter overloads, try a higher current setting. Record the exact current in your template in milliamps. 7o Holdingbock ’ ameter Figure 6. (a) Setup for Part E. Use the “0” and “1500” sockets, The multimeter is connected here as an ammeter - the wires are going to different plugs than used in Figure 5 where the multimeter ‘was used as a voltmeter. (b) Top-down view of the starting position of the magnetic probe within the solenoid. The 4 meter stick and block should both be touching the side of the solenoid. (3) Make sure the end of the magnetic probe is straight. Pass the probe all the way through the solenoid and note the sign of the field. If it is positive insert the probe into the same end in the following steps and if it is negative insert the probe into the other end in the following steps. (4) Insert the probe into the solenoid. ‘Try your best to keep the probe on the central axis of the solenoid, but it is o.k. if you are unable to do this perfectly. ‘The holding block should keep it vertically centered. Allow the tip of the probe to exit out of the far end of the solenoid 4 cm. The holding block should be touching the near end of the solenoid (See Figure 6(b)). (5) Place the % meter stick against the end of the solenoid as shown in Figure 6(b). Be very careful not to move the ruler or the solenoid as you are taking measurements. (6) The position of the block’s front edge will be measured with the % meter stick for different locations of the probe. The location of the front edge of the block xy on the 1% meter stick should be 0 m, Enter the value of the magnetic field B in milli-Tesla displayed by Logger Pro into your template at the x,=0 em location. (7) Slide the probe back out of the solenoid about 2.5 em from its starting location, Record the magnetic field in your template at the associated position. Repeat this process until you have 9 measurements of position and magnetic field. The tip of the probe should be a few centimeters in front of the solenoid when the ninth measurement is taken 18VU. Analysis (1) Part B: Sketch in some electric field lines on your drawing, The lines should be perpendicular to the equipotential lines and point from areas of high potential to low potential. Draw a few between the plates, and above and below the plates. (2) Part B: Point the webcam directly at your equipotential drawing and click the “Get Equipotential Drawing” button on your template. If you are unsatisfied with the picture, delete it and click the button again, (3) Part C: In your template, plot the Voltage V’ vs the position x. Make sure to label your axes. (4) Part C: In the appropriate column in your template, for each distance x compute the theory, Vy, =C,- c(t } + cof 22), a 4% You will need to choose some starting values for C1, Cz and Cs (try 2.5, for example) and we have provided cells in the template for you to put these values. Add the theory to your plot and then adjust the parameters C), C2, and C3 until the theory fits the data reasonably well. C, will move the points up and down, C2 and C3 will change the curvature. It might help to change the maximum and minimum values on the y-axis to zoom in on the plot. (5) Part D: According to the National Geophysical Data Center, the inclination of the magnetic field in College Park is about 66° downward and the magnitude is 1656.4 nT. By what percentage of these values are your measurements off by? (6) Part E: The solenoid is long enough for the magnetic field in its middle to be roughly constant over the span of | or 2.cm. The magnetic field here should be about the same as a similar solenoid of infinite length, which has a theoretical magnetic field, B= jn, where n is the number of turns per unit length, Using the value of the magnetic field closest to the middle of the solenoid and your measured current, compute the number of turns per unit length n. Since the current is measured in milliamps and the field is measured in milli-Tesla, n will be in turns per meter. (7) Part E: The distance from the tip of the probe to the far end of the solenoid is x where x=4 em. Compute x in the appropriate column. (8) Part E: In your template, plot the axial magnetic field B vs the position on the axis x. Make sure to label your axes appropriately. (9) Part E: In part E of your template, click “Calculate theory” to compute the theory, B= B,, Hom) be x oO oe Tea where Boct is a fitting parameter that represents a small background field and x is the 19displacement from one end of the solenoid to the measured point (a different displacement than the one used in Equation 7). Since the current is measured in milliamps and the field is measured in milli-Tesla, there is no need to convert anything. Add the theory to your plot. ‘The length L and radius r were not measured because it is difficult to know the exact location where the winding stops and also because there are multiple layers of wire. Adjust the values of L, r, and Bec until the theory fits the data reasonably well. IX. Final Questions (1) What happens when an equipotential gets near the edge of the current board? Why? (2) If the positive and negative dipole electrodes were identical, then the value of C should be about 2.5 V. You may have found a value significantly different from this. What does this imply about the amount of charge on the electrodes? (3) In part E, were your measurements of inclination and magnitude consistent with the accepted values? If not, what do you think could have caused any discrepancies? (4) You may have noticed that the number of turns per length, n, is much larger than the observable number of turns per length. This is because the solenoid has multiple layers. Estimate how many turns there are in 1 em by looking at the solenoid’s top layer. Use this estimate and your value for m (converted to units of tuns/em) to get an estimate of the number of layers. X. Finishing Up Before Leaving the Lab (1) Check over your spreadsheet to make sure that you have not missed any steps, have filled everything in, and have no feedback messages displayed. The automatic feedback system on the template has limited ability to detect problems, so check carefully. (2) Save the spreadsheet - the template will generate two files, one with your name in the title and one with your lab partners name in the title. (3) Before leaving the lab, Log onto your area in ELMS Canvas, go to the Physics 271 assignments, and submit your spreadsheet before the deadline, (4) Log off ELMS Canvas and make sure that your lab partner logs onto their own area in ELMS Canyas and submits the copy of the spreadsheet with their own name in the file name. Make sure to log off ELMS Canvas when you are done! Each student needs to submit a copy of their spreadsheet to their own area in ELMS Canyas before leaving the lab ... don’t believe anyone who tells you otherwise. 20Experiment I The multimeter and oscilloscope 1. Purpose ‘The main purpose of this lab is to teach you how to use a multimeter and oscilloscope. You will also make some simple measurements to verify Ohm’s Law. II, Preparing for the Lab You really need to prepare before going to the lab and trying this experiment. Start by reading through this lab write-up. Pay particular attention to the introduction, which describes the controls for the different instruments you will be using. It is much longer than usual because the oscilloscope is not simple to use. Next go to the Physics 271 site on ELMS Canvas and click con the video link for the experiment. If you need to review the Physics of Ohm’s Law and simple de circuits, see Chapters 30.5 and 36 of Knight's Physics for Scientists and Engineers. Finally, don’t forget to do the Pre-Lab questions and turn them in to ELMS Canvas before your lab starts. IIL. Pre-lab Questions (Submit answers to ELMS Canvas before your lab section meets) The questions on Canvas will typically vary somewhat from those given below - be sure to read the ELMS questions and choices carefully before answering. HL. A 100 Q, 300 © and 200 @ resistor are all connected in parallel. What is the resistance? #2. A 100 Q, 300 Q and 200 @ resistor are all connected in series. What is the resistance? #3, How many input channels does the oscilloscope have? #4, List three things that can be measured with the oscilloscope used in this lab. #5. The oscilloscope is such a simple instrument that you can just walk into the lab without any preparation, punch a button or two and be collecting data in a few minutes: (a) True, (b) False. #6, Suppose you tum up the voltage on the de power supply, and the voltage reading does not change from zero. What do you need to do? (a) Increase the voltage more, (b) decrease the voltage some, (d) inerease the current some, (e) replace the fuse, (f) check for an open circuit. IV. Equipment de power supply digital multimeter computer with Excel Agilent 4-channel oscilloscope with intemal signal generator resistor and capacitor board spreadsheet template banana plugs, BNC coaxial cables and banana-to-BNC connectors 21Electrical Safety ‘You need to be careful whenever you make electrical measurements. This is especially true for measuring high voltages, high currents, or high power radio-frequency circuits. Making a ‘mistake on such systems can be lethal and only experts should deal with them. Fortunately, the lexperiments in Physics 271 do not use high voltages, high currents, or high rf power. /Nevertheless, learn to be careful from the start so that at some point later in your career you don't {get seriously injured. There are some rules you should follow: (1) Do not work on circuits that you do not have a schematic for. (2) Always turn the power off before making contact to, or breaking a connection with, a cireuit. Even with the power off, you should be careful - the power switeh itself could be bad, there could be a bad ground, or there could be a short which is connecting the circuit to another power source. Also, be especially wary of power supplies - these often have large capacitors in them which can hold a charge at a painfully large voltage for a very long time. (3) When measuring, don't hold the leads in your hands and never touch the exposed conducting sections of wires. If you hold the leads in your hand, you may accidentally touch a conducting part and get a shock. Instead of holding the leads, plug them into the circuit one at a time and take your hands away. (4) When connecting leads to a circuit, make sure you don't touch any conducting parts of the cireuit. Even if you are working on a low voltage circuit, keep your hands away because something could be wired up wrong and high voltages could actually be present. (5) When connecting leads to a cireuit, make sure that your leads don't short out any components or touch in more than one place. A classic mistake is to connect a Jead to a high voltage part of a circuit and then have the same lead brush against or rest on part of the grounded metal chassis. (6) Make sure you know how to connect a multimeter to measure current, voltage, and resistance (see the lab below). To measure current, the meter must be hooked up in series with the current path. In particular, never try to measure current by hooking an ammeter in parallel ‘with the current source - this can cause a large flow of current which could damage the ammeter or the circuit. To measure voltage, the meter should be hooked up across the voltage source. To measure resistance of an electrical component, the component should always be removed from the circuit. (7) Damaged or broken wires can damage your circuit or lead to inaccurate data. The colored wires with the plastic molded ends are called “banana wires,” and they must be handled /with some care to prevent them from breaking. Just grasp the plastic connector every time you /wish to remove a banana wire. Do not pull on the wire itself, (8) If your equipment is broken or malfunctioning, let your TA or the lab techni ‘know immediately so that it can be repaired and you can resume getting data, 22V. Introduction “Multimeters and oscilloscopes are the most widely used tools for diagnosing problems in electrical circuits. In Physics 271 you will use them to measure voltages and currents in some simple circuits, The most important thing you can learn from these labs is what a multimeter and oscilloscope can measure and how they are operated. To keep you focused on the instruments themselves, we have tried to keep the physics in this lab very simple. Here you will mainly just be using an oscilloscope and multimeter to verify Ohm's law and the behavior of serial and parallel resistors. We will first review the physics and then discuss multimeters and scopes. Ohm's law When a voltage V is applied across a resistor R, a current I flows through the resistor. Ohm's law says that the voltage V across a resistor and the current I are related by V=IR. a Resistance R is measured in Ohms, which is usually denoted with the Greek letter Q. Typical resistors you will find in the lab have values which range from 100 Q to 1 MQ. If you put 10 Volts across a 10 kQ resistor you will get a current of I= V/R = | mA = 0.001 Amp. It is important to realize that Ohm's law works for both constant and time-varying currents and voltages in resistors. In Part A of this lab you will use an ohmmeter to measure the resistance of several resistors. In Part B you will verify that ohm's law works by measuring V as a function of I. Series Resistors If two resistors R, and R; are connected in series, Ry Ry they act like a single resistor R= R+R, 2] For example, connecting two 1 kQ resistors in series yields a resistance of 2 kQ. If N resistors are connected in series, they act as a single resistor with resistance R=R,+R)4..4Ry=DR,- BI Parallel Resistors If two resistors are connected in parallel, Ry R, they act like a single resistor with an effective resistance of 1 R= TT 14] RR, For example, connecting two 1 kQ resistors in parallel yields 500 Q. If N resistors are connected 23in parallel, they behave as a single resistor with an effective resistance of 1 AOD ade de El en R, R, Ry ‘The difference between connecting resistors in series or in parallel can be easily understood by remembering that a resistor restricts the flow of current, much like a small diameter pipe restricts the flow of water. In fact there is a direct analogy between water flow in pipes and electrical current in circuits. The analogy is as follows: water flow corresponds to electrical current, water pressure corresponds to voltage, and the flow impedance of a pipe corresponds to electrical resistance. Having two parallel water pipes allows two paths for water to flow through and the effective resistance to water flow will be cut in half. Assuming the pressure drop across the two pipes is kept constant, the water current will double. It is the same way with resistors. Putting two resistors in parallel cuts in half the effective resistance to electrical current and doubles the flow of electrical current if the voltage is kept fixed. The de Power Supply ‘The Extech direct current power supply (see Figure 1) can output up to about 17 Volts and 3 Amps. The power supply has internal current and voltage regulation that allow it to maintain constant voltage or eonstant current as the load varies or as line voltage varies during data taking. voles 1 This regulation helps protect the power supply and apparatus it is connected to, and will give you better data, However the fact that the power supply is both current and voltage current regulated can lead to confusion. TA’s get two frequently knob asked questions from students: on/off Q: Ican't get a voltage reading when I change the setting for the voltage control. What is wrong? ‘A: Assuming you have the power on, there are three things that can cause this problem: (1) You may have made the mistake of setting the current control to zero. Try turning up the current a little bit. Yes, that’s right, to get the voltage to respond you need to turn up both the voltage and the current a little. (2) The output may be shorted due to your circuit not being wired up correctly. Check your circuit again to make sure it is wired correctly. (3) You may have incorrect grounding. Check your circuit to make sure that you have not grounded part of your circuit that was not meant to be grounded, Figure 1. Front panel of the Extech power supply. Q Lean't get a current reading when I change the setting for the current control. What is wrong? A: Assuming the power supply is tured on, there are two things that can cause this problem: (1) You may have set the voltage control to zero. Try turning up the voltage knob a little bit. (2) You may have an open circuit (your circuit does not form a closed path) because you wired it up incorrectly. Check your circuit to make sure you have it wired correctly, There may be a discontinuity (missing or broken wire) or excess resistance in the circuit if you put in a wrong component. 24The Multimeter ‘A multimeter is an instrument for measuring ac and de current, ac and de voltage, resistance and other electrical quantities. Multimeters come in a variety of shapes and sizes. There are small, portable, battery powered models, which are very popular, and larger plug-in models usually with greater precision. In this lab you will be using an Elenco multimeter with 3.5 digits (See Figure 2). This multimeter has 4 input jacks at the bottom. Pay close attention - the different inputs are used to measure different things. You need to hook up the meter correctly to make proper measurements and prevent damage to the meter or your circuit. 1. Tum the meter on by pressing the green power button on the front (see Figure 2). 2. To measure resistance, rotate the big center knob to the Q setting and the range button appropriate for your measurement. If you choose too small a resistance range while checking a higher resistance component, the meter will display an over-scale warning indicating it is out of range. Plug one end of a black lead into the COM jack and one end of a red lead into the red V © Hz, input jack. Make sure that there is no power applied to the resistor you would like to measure and then Figure 2. Elenco multimeter. connect the red lead to one side of the resistor and the black lead to the other side. 3. To measure de voltage, rotate the big center knob to the V setting range and make sure the black button labelled -/~ is not pressed in. This button is just below the display screen. To measure ac voltage, make sure the -/~ button is pressed in. Connect a black test lead to the COM jack and a red lead to the V Q Hz input jack. Select a range by setting the rotating knob to a higher voltage range than you expect is present. Voltage is always measured as a difference between two points. To measure the voltage difference, connect the red lead to one point in your circuit and the black lead to the other point in your circuit. 4. To measure de current, rotate the big center knob to the A setting range and make sure the black button labelled -/~ is not pressed in, To measure ac current, make sure the -/~ button Plug a black test lead into the COM jack and a red test lead into the red 10A jack or the red jack labelled °C mA Lx (Try the 10A jack first if you aren’t sure the current level is less than 2000 mA = this will save fuses.) Set the center knob to a range value greater than the expected current. Finally, to measure the current flowing through a location in your circuit, you need to break open the circuit (creating an in-lead and an out-lead) and connect the meter in series by connecting the red lead to the circuit in-lead you created and the black lead to the circuit out-lead you created. Note, you can’t measure the current in a circuit without taking the 25circuit apart and connecting the meter in series. Not clear enough? Part B below will show ‘you what this means. Warning: A rookie mistake is to hook up an ac or de ammeter in parallel with a circuit rather than in series. In a high power application this can destroy the meter or potentially cause a fire. In this lab it can cause a bad reading or cause the fuse to blow, which is embarrassing and annoying since you won't be able 10 collect data until the fuse is replaced. The Oscilloscope The most important function of an oscilloscope is to measure the voltages in electrical circuits and display them as they change in time. You can use a scope to measure DC circuits where all voltages are constant in time, but you can just use a multimeter for that. The real purpose of the scope is to look at circuits with AC signals, which is to say circuits where the voltages across the circuit elements are not constant in time. The oscilloscope you will be using is an Agilent MSO-X 2024A 4-channel digital oscilloscope. This is a very up-to-date and remarkably powerful instrument. The power comes with real complexity that will challenge your ability to use the instrument to its full potential. Fortunately you don't need to know how the scope does its job. You just need to learn how to use it. Figure 3 shows a photo of the front panel of the oscilloscope, Yes, there are many knobs and buttons and inputs. To use the scope effectively you will need to learn what many of them do and this is one of the main purposes of this lab. In the following description we will walk you through the most important parts of the scope, but the easiest way to figure out how to use the scope is to go through the lab, try the different buttons and knobs, and refer back to this section as you go through things or when you get stuck. eral WIVDi# Henao and ‘Main contol_—harontalconbole wggersecton settngs city ger sing iy ZZ sdecsey juchuye “ante chanel? Chanel} cranal wave gientor satiey tease “eat “iat ‘ing Ik uae comnectesto ane ‘Ne conde tty eae ‘sat Figure 3. Front panel of the Agilent MSO-X 2024A 4-channel digital oscilloscope. 26‘The front panel of the scope is divided into several different sections (see Figure 4). The left side of the scope is mainly filled with the display screen. The screen will show plots of voltage (vertical) vs time (horizontal) of input signals. The right side of the screen can also show many other measurements, such as the amplitude or frequency of a signal or the settings you have chosen using the knobs. Under the display screen on the left side of the front panel is the on/off power button, After you tum the scope on, it will go through a series of self-tests and after about a minute will be ready to measure. Right next to the power button is the output for the Wave Generator (described below). The wave generator is a voltage source or function generator that you can use to apply ac or de voltages to a circuit. This is a very nice feature that ‘you won't find in budget-priced scopes - it means you don’t need a separate function generator to drive your circuits but can use the one built right into the scope. The back button is just above the power button and functions as an undo button - if you change something in the scope by pushing a button on the front panel, and then realize you want to get back to where you were before you pushed that button, just push the back button. The only other buttons on the left half of the scope are the sofi-keys, which we will come back to. The auto-scale button in the upper right hand of the panel is also worth knowing about. If you are having trouble getting the scope to display a signal, you can try pushing this button and the scope will try to adjust things automatically - it’s not perfect but neither are you. Figure 4 shows the right sid Hortotaleoeas of the scope’s front panel. In this — = picture, we divided the control F wson panel into major sections that we will go through below. First note the four coaxial input channels at the bottom. This is where you feed in signals that you want to measure, Next take a look at all of the other buttons and knobs and notice that some are larger than others. Also some buttons and knobs light up or cause indicator lights to tum on. A lot of thought has been put into the desigr of oscilloscopes to improve usabilit The big knobs and big buttons are more important and heavily used thi the small knobs and buttons. If you having trouble getting the scope to work, a good rule of thumb is to1 ‘Auto sele bation ane ath channels channel ¢ the biggest knobs first, before dannel ume ane a trying the small ones. Similarly, a ine bedi button or knob that lights up is telling Figure 4, Knobs, buttons and input jacks on the you it is more important than the right side of the scope’s front panel. unlit buttons and knobs. 27Vertical Control Section The vertical control section of the panel (see Figure 4) has four illuminated input channel selection buttons labelled 1, 2, 3 and 4. These buttons select the input signals that will be displayed on the screen - to display a channel or any combination of channels just press the corresponding button and it will light up. Around each button is a colored border (yellow for 1, green for 2, blue for 3 and red for 4) corresponding to the color of that signal on the display sereen. Above the channel selection buttons are four large Volt/Div vertical scale knobs. By turing one of these knobs, you set how many volts correspond to a screen division on the vertical axis. The divisions are shown on the display screen as a rectangular grid. You can go from 1 mV/DIV to 5.0 V/DIV and this scale factor is reported for each channel on the top left side of the display screen (see Figure 3). For example if you had a signal with a peak-to-peak voltage of 10 V and you tum the knob to 5 V/DIV, the signal will be displayed as two divisions high. Beneath the 1, 2, 3, and 4 buttons are four smaller vertical position knobs that move the signal for each channel up or down on the screen. When you press one of the channel selection buttons, the scope will also show you some options along the bottom of the display screen, just above the soft-keys. Figure 5 shows this part of the display after the channel 1 button has been pushed. To select one of the options, you just push the corresponding soft-key underneath it, One important option is the input COUPLING. You can choose DC, AC and GROUND. You will typically want to use the DC setting because this passes all signals whether they are DC (steady) or AC (time-varying). DC has been selected in Figure 5. In the "AC" position, de voltages are blocked, and ac voltages (above about 1 Hz) are passed through. This setting is useful if you are trying to measure a small time-varying (ac) signal on top of a large constant (dc) offset. On GROUND setting, the scope sets the input signal of channel 1 to ground (0 V) and displays a flat line corresponding to zero input voltage. You should only use this setting to check that the scope is putting the zero volt level on the y-axis. The other option you might want to check is Probe. We won't be using any specialized input probes and this should just be set to x1. If you find that someone has set it to x10 or some other setting, this will throw off all of your measurements, and you should just reset it to x1. Horizontal Control Section The biggest knob in this section is labelled HORIZONTAL (sce Figure 4). Actually the HORIZONTAL and the Volt/div knobs are the biggest knobs on the scope, and you will use them often. The HORIZONTAL knob allows you to change the scale on the horizontal display, or time axis, when you are measuring V vs. time. You can go from 2.0 ns/DIV to 50 s/DIV. To figure out what this knob is set to, look at the upper right hand section of the display screen (see Figure 5. Bottom of display sereen and the six soft-keys. The display shows the options you can set for channel | after you push the channel 1 selection button, 28Figure 3) to find the seconds per division. Finally, there is a smaller POSITION knob to the right of the Horizontal knob that moves a displayed signal to the left or right on the screen. ‘Trigger Control Section The knobs and buttons in the trigger section (See Figure 4) control how the scope is triggered. The idea of triggering is central to the operation of an oscilloscope and often one of the ‘most difficult things for beginners to understand, The trigger controls determine precisely when the scope starts acquiring and displaying an input signal. For a signal that is repeating in time, such as a sine wave, you need to make sure that the scope starts the display of the data at the same equivalent location on the wave. If you start at different points on the wave, the scope will display a wave that appears to be changing from one scan to the next. With the trigger controls properly set you will see a stable display. ‘You first need to choose the trigger source. To do this, press the Trigger button and notice that the display at the bottom of the screen gives you some new menu options (Trigger type, Source and Slope). Press the sofi-key under Souree and you will see a list of the many possible ways you can trigger the scope. To select one of the options, turn the Main Control Knob which is right below the trigger button (see Figure 4). This knob lets you scroll through the options and settings on the soft-keys. Its function changes when you press different buttons - you can always tell which soft-key it will adjust by the small yellow {XY that will be lit up in the display for the active soft-key. If there is a signal applied to an input channel, you can choose it for the trigger. If you choose a channel that does not have an input signal, the scope display will not trigger properly and the display will not be stable. For several of the labs you will be using the scopes internal source, the Wave Generator (discussed below) and you should select the ‘WaveGen triggering option from the menu, ‘There are a two other controls in the trigger section that you will need. The Level knob sets the voltage level at which the scope is triggered. When the voltage of the trigger signal reaches the level set by this knob, and if the trigger signal has the right slope (positive or negative), the scope starts a sweep, provided it is not already sweeping. The sign of the trigger, the SLOPE, is chosen by pressing the soft-key under Slope. You can always use Rising for these labs. Lastly, for this lab, leave the Trigger Type setting as Edge. There are many other ‘ways to trigger the scope, but we won’t be using most of them in Physics 271. Cursor and Measure Button Section Tn addition to displaying input signals, the scope can perform a wide variety of other measurements on a signal and also combine signals from different channels in a variety of ways, You can find the frequency or amplitude of a wave or measure the difference in phase between signals on different channels. For example, to find the frequency of a wave that is being input to channel 1, start by pushing the Measure button (see Figure 4) and look at the soft-key menu at the bottom of the display screen (see Figure 6). Press the Souree soft-key and use the Main Control Knob to select channel 1. Next press the Type soft-key and use the Main Control Knob to select frequency. Finally press the Add Measurement sofi-key and the scope will start to continuously display this measurement in the Measurements seetion on the lower right side of the display sereen (see Figure 3). You can measure up to 4 things at a time. Some of the options will only be active when there are two or more channels being input. The operation of the Measure button and the other buttons in this section, such as the Cursors, are fairly intuitive and you can figure out how everything works by trying things, 29Figure 6. Options list at the bottom of the display screen after the Measurement button has been pushed. Figure 7. Options list at the bottom of the display screen after the WaveGen button has been pushed, Wave Generator A very nice feature for your oscilloscope is the internal function generator which Agilent the Wave Generator. You can use it to apply ac or de drive voltages to a circuit. You turn it on by pressing the WaveGen button on the front panel and this button glows blue when the «generator is on (see Figure 4). You can tap into the output of the wave generator by connecting a coaxial cable to the BNC jack on the bottom left side of the front panel (see Figure 3). When you press the WaveGen button, the soft-key menu also changes and pressing the soft-keys will allow you to set the Waveform type, frequency, amplitude and offset of the wave (see Figure 7) For example, suppose you want to generate a sine wave with an amplitude of 1 V and a frequency of 10 kHz, First press the Waveform soft-key on the left (see Figure 7) and use the Main control knob to choose Sine. If you have forgotten where the Main Control knob is, take a look at Figure 4 - it is just to the right of the display screen below the lit up KJ. Next press the frequency soft-key and turn the Main Control knob to adjust the frequency to 10.00 kHz. If you press in on the Main Control knob you can switch back and forth between a coarse and fine control - try it, itis very handy. Finally press the Amplitude sofi-key and turn the Main control knob to adjust the amplitude of the wave to 1 V. Again, you can press in on the Main Control knob to switch back and forth between a coarse and fine control for setting the voltage. Finally, if you want to see the wave that is being generated by the Wave Generator, you just need to hook a BNC coaxial cable from the Wave Generator output to one of the input channels. Finally, in some of the labs you will need to use the scope to apply a de voltage. To do this, press the WaveGen button and then the Waveform sofi-key and choose the option for de voltages. Other Buttons and knobs The Default Setup button is one potentially useful button we didn’t cover above. This button is on the upper right side of the front panel next to the Auto Seale button (see Figure 4) If the oscilloscope becomes “confused” you can try pressing Default Setup. This will reset all the knobs and buttons to the settings that the scope had when it left the factory. 30‘Another potentially useful button is the Help button. It is hiding between the Channel 2 and Channel 3 input selection buttons (see Figure 4). There are many other buttons, knobs and features that are not covered in the above description. Many of these options are self-explanatory and the rest are not needed for these labs. Some of the features are well beyond the level of Physics 271. Consult the Help button or the online user's manual if you get stuck or need additional details about the scope. Finally, we highly recommend the video on the oscilloscope that goes along with this lab. posted on the Physics 271 ELMS Canvas site. Extracting data from the oscilloscope and transferring it to EXCEL Data that the scope measures or displays can be extracted and put into an EXCEL file for you to plot or analyze. In the labs that follow, you will be running EXCEL macros that handle this extraction and transfer of data from the scope to EXCEL. ‘Although you probably won’t need it for these labs, you might find it useful to know that the scope also comes with its own software that allows you to extract and save data to a spreadsheet. The program is called Agilent BenchVue and you should be able to find the icon on the desktop of your lab computer. It is simple to use but it will only be useable when the scope is on and plugged into the computer with a USB cord. Figure 8 shows a screen-shot of the Agilent view panel. To run the software, click on the icon and when the display panel comes up, click on the icon for the scope on the bottom left side of the panel. Then click on Sereen image or Trace data on the upper left side of the panel to capture whatever data the scope is displaying. To export the data to an EXCEL file, just click on Export All in the upper right hand comer of the panel (see Figure 8) and choose Microsoft Excel and the program will write a file to the Documents folder. Figure 8. Control panel for the Agilent BenchVue software showing a screen capture of the oscilloscope’s display. The Export All button in the upper right of this display has been clicked on and the Microsoft EXCEL option has been selected to write the scope data to an EXCEL file. 31VIL Experiment Part A: Getting Started (1) Download the EXCEL spreadsheet template for Lab 2 from ELMS Canvas. (2) Fill in your name, your lab partner’s name, and your section number, (3) Point the camera at the apparatus and click “Capture image” in your template. If an error ‘occurs, use the Logitech software and insert the image into your spreadsheet in the designated area. (4) Notice that there are some red and black banana plug wires hanging from racks on the lab walls. Get 2 medium length red wires, 2 medium length black wires, and two BNC coaxial cables. You will use the coaxial cables for Parts B, C and D. Part ‘eries and Parallel Combinations of Resistors ‘The goal of this part is to measure the resistances of resistors connected in series and parallel. (1) Find the resistors on the RC board (see Figure 9), The resistors are the brown cylindrical objects with color bands painted on them. The color bands are a code that gives the value of the resistance, as well as the level of precision in the specified resistance. There is a chart on the wall that explains how to read the bands. Carefully examine the board and its wiring to make sure that you understand how the input jacks connect to the resistors. (2) Check that nothing is plugged into the board and then use the multimeter to measure separately the resistances of: RI - the 100 Q (brown-black-brown) resistor R2 - one of the 300 @ resistors (orange-black-brown) 3 - the other 300 @ resistor (orange-black-brown) R4- the 1 kQ resistor (brown-black-red) ‘To measure R1, plug one end of a red banana plug wire into the red V Q Hz terminal on the multimeter [see Figure 10(a)] and the other end of the banana plug wire into the red jack connected to one end of the resistor. Next plug a black banana plug wire into the black COM terminal of the multimeter and the other end of the banana plug wire into the black jack connected to the other side of the resistor. Switch the meter to the setting. Of course you don’t have to use a red banana plug wire to connect to the red jacks, or black plug wires with + aout nels —> GICRCLOS Figure 9. Resistors and capacitors on the RC board. 32fa) 1A) 3A) NRO Figure 10. The multimeter is being used as an ohm-meter to find the resistance of (a) one resistor, (b) two resistors connected in parallel, (c) three resistors connected in series. black terminals, but it is good practice because it keeps things organized and makes it easier to check that the circuit is wired correctly. Record the resistances in the designated areas in your spreadsheet template. (3) Conneet the two 300 @ (orange-black-brown) resistors in parallel and measure the combined resistance [see Figure 10(b)]. Record this resistance in your spreadsheet template under “Measured parallel resistance of two 300 Q resistors”. (4) Connect the 100 @ resistor (brown-black-brown) in parallel with the two parallel 300 © resistors you used in part 3 and measure the combined resistance. Record in the spreadsheet, (5) Use banana plug wires to connect the 100 @ (R1), 300 @ (R2), and 1 kQ (RA) resistors in series with the multimeter [see Figure 10(c)]. Record the resistance in your spreadsheet. Part C: Measuring a Sine Wave with the Oscilloscope The goal of this partis to get the scope to display a stable trace of a signal. (1) Turn the scope on. Connect the scope channel 1 input to the output of the wave generator using a BNC coaxial cable (see Figure 11). Make sure the Channel 1 selection button is lit up - press it if itis off. (2) Start the Wave Generator and set it to generate a sine wave with an amplitude of 1 V and a frequency of | kHz. (3) Push the trigger button and check that the trigger Source is set to Channel 1 (4) Next check that the trigger level knob is set to 0 V (notice when you tum the trigger level knob, the upper right hand corner of the display shows you the trigger level). The scope should now be displaying a stable trace. Finally adjust the scope’s Horizontal and Vertical controls so that the display shows two or four eycles.‘Mate contcal knob avio-setup button coaileable Figure 11. The oscilloscope’s Wave Generator output is being fed into the channel | input. The lights for channel 1 and the Wave Generator are lit, indicating that the scope is generating a wave and the signal on channel 1 is being displayed. (5) If you get to this point and don’t see a nice, clear, stable sine wave, you probably skipped one of the steps above. If all you see is a flat line, check that the Wave generator and Channel 1 lights are lit up and you have a cable going from the wave generator output to the Channel 1 input. Next check that the channel 1 horizontal scale is set to about 500 mV/div, and the vertical scale to about 500 us/div. If you can see a trace but it is not stable, push the trigger button and check that the trigger source is channel 1, and then check that the trigger level knob is set to OV. If that did not reveal the problem and you are still having trouble, try pushing the auto-seale button. If you are still stuck call you TA over to take a look. (6) In your Excel template, click on the Add-Ins tab and click on the “connect to scope” button (the button just to the right of “Agilent 3000"). You should see the scope model listed on the left. Click Identify instrument(s), and then click OK. (7) Once you have a nice display of the wave on the scope, go to your Excel spreadsheet and click on the Extraet Scope Data macro button in the section for Part C. This automatically grabs the channel 1 data from the scope and puts it into your spreadsheet. If you have @ problem, make sure that you there is a USB cord going from the back of the scope to your computer and that you completed step (6). (8) Make an xy-scatter plot of your Channel 1 data showing the voltage versus time, Be sure to 34add labels and units to each axis and give the chart a title. Your plot should look just like the scope’s display of the signal. Of course you should always use xy-scatter plots when plotting with EXCEL because it is the type that plots points at their correct (x,y) Cartesian coordinates. Part D: Ohm’s Law (de) ‘The goal of this part is to verify Ohm’s law for de signals. (1) For this measurement you will use the multimeter to measure the de current flowing through the circuit and the oscilloscope to measure the voltage across the resistor. Start by rotating the large central knob on the multimeter to the A section (this stands for Amps and designates the current setting) and make sure the black button labelled -/~ is not pressed in, so that it is set up to measure de currents. (2) Next, start setting up the circuit shown in Figure 12 by using banana plug wires to connect the 1 kQ (brown-black-red) resistor in series with the multimeter and the de power supply. Your “circuit” needs to form a elosed loop. It should go from the + terminal on the de supply, to the red mA jack on the multimeter, to the red terminal on the resistor, out the black terminal of the resistor and back to the negative terminal of the de supply. (3) Next finish setting up the circuit by connecting the channel 1 input of the scope across the resistor - this will measure the de voltage across the resistor. Make sure that the negative terminal of the resistor is connected to the ground terminal of the BNC-to-banana connector. (Notice that there is a tab on the ground side with “GND” on it to indicate which terminal is grounded). Also, check that the channel 1 input is de coupled. we cy} eNCo-bonana Ac board comector Figure 12. (a) Circuit schematic and (b) physical setup for de Ohm's law measurement. Note that the schematic is abstract and simplified representation of the circuit. 35(4) On the scope, try adjusting the vertical and horizontal controls some. It should be easy to see the voltage level - the oscilloscope trace should just be a flat line across the scope face. Push Auto Scale if you are having difficulty finding the voltage level. (5) Push the scopes Measure button and then the Type soft-key button. Select DC RMS - Full Screen and make sure the Source is set to Channel 1, (6) Turn on the de supply and apply voltages across the resistor ranging from 0 V up to 5 V in | Volt steps. For each voltage, record in your spreadsheet the voltage measured by the scope and the current reading on the multimeter in Amps (mentally divide the mA measurements by 1000). You should see that the voltage across the resistor differs from that reported by the power supply meter because the ammeter has an internal resistance of 1 kQ when on the mA. scale. Part E: Ohm’s Law (ac The goal of this partis to verify Ohm’s law for ac signals. (1) Tum off the de power supply and remove it from the circuit, In its place connect the Wave Generator output across the resistor (see Figure 13). Make sure that the Channel | ground and Wave Generator ground are going to the same end of the resistor (see Figure 13). Leave the Channel 1 input of the oscilloscope on de coupled. Set the multimeter to ac milliamperes by rotating the main knob on the multimeter to the current setting A and make sure the black button labelled -/~ is pressed in, so that itis set up to measure ac current. @ 6 oscilloscope v (AZ 10 toh? () BNC:to-banana connector toch 1 it schematic and (b) physical setup for ac Ohm's law measurement. 36(2) Tum on the Wave Generator and set it to generate a sine wave with a frequency of 1 kHz and an amplitude of 1 V. Set the oscilloscope so that the display shows a few cycles of a stable sine wave. If you get stuck, go back and look at the procedure in Part C. (3) Push the scopes Measure button and then the Type soft-key button. Select AC RMS N Cycles. Also make sure the Souree is set to Channel 1 (4) Now measure the ac current going through the resistor as you change the voltage across the resistor. To do this, use the Wave Generator settings to set the peak to peak ac voltage across the resistor from near 0 V up to about 5 V in 1 V steps. Record in your spreadsheet the scope’s measured AC RMS value for the voltages actoss the resistor and the resulting AC RMS currents reported by the ammeter. Note that the voltage readings and the current readings are both RMS values and RMS values are a factor of 1/J2= 0.707 times smaller than the peak value for a sine wave. VU. Analysis (1) Part B (Series and Parallel Resistors): Compute the expected values for the series and parallel resistors and record them in the designated areas. Type formulas that refer to specific cells - use the template to calculate everything and don’t even think about using a calculator. (2) Part C (Sine Wave): From your plot of the sine wave, estimate the values of A, @, and and insert them into your template. A should be the amplitude of the wave, @ should be the angular frequency (2x/T where T is the period of the oscillation) and p should be the phase shift at t=0. 3) Part C: (Sine wave): In the Vayswy column in your template, use the formula Asin(wttg) to calculate the expected voltage for the sine wave. Add the theory to your V vs t plot, reformat the points to be a line, and adjust the values for A, , and @ until the theory fits the data. (4) Part D: (de Ohm's Law); For your de data, plot your measured values for V versus 1. Be sure to label the plot, label the axes, and add units. (5) Part D: (de Ohm's Law): Click the “Fit line to V vs I” button to run a macro that fits a line to your data and returns the best fit slope and y-intercept. The macro also estimates uncertainties in V and returns 12 for the fit. The slope should be consistent with the resistance you found in part B for the 1 kQ resistor. The intercept should be close to zero. (© Part E: (ac Ohm's Law): For your ac data, plot Vims Versus Ins on the same plot as your de data, 37VIL. Final Questions (1) Suppose you have three 300 © resistors. How can you make a 450 Q resistor? (2) Comparing your data with the calculated Viteoey data to a perfect sine wave? Comment on any sin(wt+p), how close was your sine wave repancies. (3) Did you find that Ohm's law is true for your resistor? Briefly explain how you decided your answer. (4) Examine your plot of the ac and de Olims Law data and the fit to the de data, From this plot, was the resistance measured with de significantly different from the resistance you measured with ac? ig the Lab (1) Cheek over your spreadsheet to make sure that you have not missed any steps, have filled everything in, and have no feedback messages displayed. The automatic feedback system on the template has limited ability to detect problems, so check carefully. IX. Finishing Up Before Lea (2) Save the spreadsheet - the template will generate two files, one with your name in the title and one with your lab partners name in the title. (3) Before leaving the lab, Log onto your area in ELMS Canvas, go to the Physics 271 assignments, and submit your spreadsheet before the deadline. (4) Log off ELMS Canvas and make sure that your lab partner logs onto his/her own area in ELMS Canvas and submit the copy of the spreadsheet with their own name in the file name, Make sure to log off ELMS Canvas when you are done! Submit a copy of your spreadsheet to your area in ELMS and make sure your lab partner submits a copy to his/her area in ELMS ... don’t believe anyone who tells you don’t need to. 38Experiment Il Resistors and Capacitors 1. Purpose The purpose of this lab is to let you observe the behavior of electrical circuits made with resistors and capacitors. IL. Preparing for the Lab You need to prepare before going to the lab and doing this experiment. Start by reading through this lab write-up. If you need more on the basic physics of RC circuits, see Chapter 31 of Knight’s Physics for Scientists and Engineers. Next, go to the Physics 271 site on ELMS Canvas and click on the video link for the experiment. Finally, don't forget to do the Pre-Lab questions and turn them in to ELMS Canvas before your lab starts. IIL. Pre-lab Questions (Submit answers to ELMS Canvas before your lab section meets) The questions on Canvas will typically vary somewhat from those given below - be sure to read the ELMS questions and choices carefully before answering. #1. What is the time constant + for a circuit with resistance R = 1 k@ in series with a capacitance C=1HF, #2. Suppose a 10 kHz signal with an amplitude of 1 V is applied across a 1 k@ resistor and a 0.25 uF capacitor which are connected in series. What is the magnitude of the amplitude of the voltage drop across the resistor? (Hint: see Equation (27]) #3. What is the impedance of a 1 kQ resistor at a frequency of 10 kHz? #4, What is the magnitude of the impedance of a 0.5 F capacitor at a frequency of 10 kHz? 5. Suppose a signal V(t) is applied. Which of these circuits will block de voltages on V(t) from appearing at the V, output but allow ac signals to pass, i.e. which is a high pass filter? o © iy al #6. A sine wave has an amplitude of 1V. What is the peak-to-peak voltage of the wave? #7. A sine wave has an RMS amplitude of 2V. What is the peak-to-peak voltage of the wave? 391V. Equipment: 4-channel oscilloscope with Wave Generator 3-channel Ground Isolation Unit Resistor and capacitor board 100 AF capacitor LabPro interface with voltage probe BNC and banana cables, BNC tee, BNC-to-banana connectors ‘Safety Warning: This experiment involves equipment with exposed wire connections. Obey all standard safety procedures (given in the Introduction and Lab II) when working with the circuits. V. Introduction This section briefly reviews the electrical behavior of capacitors and simple RC circuits. Capacitors A capacitor can be constructed by taking two metal plates and placing them so that they are close together but not touching. If one plate is held at voltage V, and the other at 0 volts, then a charge +Q will flow onto (and stays on) the positive voltage plate and charge -Q will flow onto the other plate. The charge Q and voltage V, are related by Q=cVv. 0) where C is the capacitance of the plates. Notice that the larger C is, the more charge the capacitor holds for the same voltage. Similarly, the larger the voltage applied to the plates, the more charge Qis stored in the capacitor. Capacitance is measured in units of Farads (denoted F), Capacitors you will find in the lab typically have values between 10° F and 10"'' F; that is from 10 MF to 10 pF. You should recognize 1F as "micro-Farads" or 10 Farad. The symbol pF means pico-farads, or 10°? Farad, and is pronounced "peek-oh fair-ads", People who are into circuits also pronounce pF as "puff If we charge a 1 uF capacitor to 1 V, the positive plate of the capacitor will be holding a charge: CV, = (10° Farad ) (1 Volt) = 10 Farad Volt = 10° Coulomb Notice that a Farad times a Volt is just one Coulomb. As you know from lectures, current is just the rate at which charge changes with time: 1=dQidt (21 Here, we can think of I as the current flowing into the positive plate of the capacitor. Using Equation 1 for Q and substituting into Equation [2] we find I= dQidt = d(CV,)/dt = C aV Jat BI Notice that if the voltage is constant in time, then dV,/dt=0 and I =0, so no current will flow through the capacitor. We say that the capacitor blocks de current, Also notice that if the voltage is constant in time then from Equation 1 the charge Q on the capacitor is constant time. This makes sense: if no current is flowing, then the charge won't be changing, Next consider what happens if the voltage varies sinusoidally in time: V.(t) = V..cos(ot) [4] Where Veo is the amplitude of the ac voltage, @=2nf is the angular frequency, and f is the frequency in Hertz. In this case we can use Equations [1] and [3] to show that the current that flows into the capacitor is: 1) = C dV Jat = - oCV.,sin(ot) (6) 40Charging and Discharging a Capacitor Figure 1 shows a schematic of the circuit you will study in Part B of this lab. A capacitor and resistor are connected in parallel with each other and connected in series with a switch and a battery. When the switch is closed, current flows out of the battery and through the circuit. Some of the current flows through the resistor and some flows into the capacitor causing charge to accumulate on the capacitor plates. We say that the capacitor is “charging up". The current flow into the capacitor stops when enough charge has accumulated that the voltage across the capacitor V.=QIC is equal to the battery voltage V, i.e. when Q=CV. Now consider what happens when the switch in Figure 1 is opened. The charge Q on the positive capacitor plate will flow back out of the capacitor and through the resistor R. We say that the capacitor is "discharging". As the capacitor discharges, the voltage across the capacitor decreases and this reduces the flow of current through the resistor. When the switch is open, the discharging of the capacitor can be understood by noting that the voltage across the capacitor (V.-Q/C) equals the voltage across the resistor (IR). Thus V. =Q/C=V,=IR 7 When the switeh is open, the charge Q on the capacitor is related to the current I flowing through the resistor by: I=-dQidt (8] ‘The minus sign means that as positive current flows through the resistor, it decreases the charge Qon the positive plate of the capacitor. From Equations [7] and [8] we can find: dQidt =- QIRC 91 ‘The quantity RC in Equation [9] has the units of time and is called the "time-constant" +, t=RC (10) For example, if R = 100 kQ and C= 1 pF, then t = RC = (10°Q)(10* F) = 0.1 OF = 0.1 seconds. Notice that one OF is equal to one second. With this definition of t, Equation [9] becomes: dQldt=- Qt oy ‘This is a simple differential equation which we can rearrange to yield dQ/Q=- dt't (12) Integrating both sides, starting at time the charge is Q(t), we find: QW)=CV,e"" 13] when the charge is Qo=CV, and ending at time t when site Veovr ground Figure 1. Circuit for charging (switch closed) and discharging (switch open) capacitor C. V is the battery voltage, V; is the voltage across the resistor, and Ve is the voltage across the capacitor. 4=F Figure 2. Scope trace showing voltage V. across the capacitor as it discharges. Notice that when t=0 the charge is Q\=CVo, as expected if the switch is closed for times t<0. The switch is opened at 0 and for t > 0 the charge on the capacitor decays away exponentially with the time constant t. Notice also that the voltage across the capacitor is: V.(D= QUW/C= Vie" [14] This behavior is sketched in Figure 2. For t <0, the voltage across the capacitor is constant, and equal to V,, the battery voltage. Afier the switch is opened at t=0, the voltage across the capacitor decays exponentially with a time constant t. The value of t can be found from this plot by noting that when t = x, then V,(t) = Vee". Thus to find t from this plot, all you need to do is find the time at which the voltage has fallen to 1/e of its value at t = 0. In part B of this lab, you will measure this curve, determine t, and see how well Equations [10] and [14] are obeyed. ‘Complex Notation In Part C of this lab you will see what happens when you apply ac voltages to RC circuits. In your Physics 270 lecture classes you should have been shown how to deal with voltages and currents that vary sinusoidally in time using either real notation (phasors) or complex notation. It much easier to calculate using complex notation than it to use phasors. In fact every professional electrical engineer uses complex notation for this reason and that is why we will also. The only place phasors are still used is in introductory Physics textbooks. ‘The main idea behind using complex numbers to represent voltages that vary sinusoidally in time is that we can write the following mathematical identity: Vat) = Venexp(i0t) = Veo (C08 (at) + i sin (ct)] 05] V1. Notice that taking the real part of this expression yields Equation [4]. This where means that you can always go from the complex representation of an ac voltage to a real representation of an ac voltage by taking the real part of the complex voltage. Next notice that if we plug Equation [15] into Equation [3] you find that the ac current flowing through a capacitor that has an ac voltage across it i@CV., exp(iot) = ©CVeo [i cos(at) - sin (wt)] [16] =I. Taking the real part of this expression yields Equation [6]. 42@ (b) C Figure 3. Series RC circuits which act li : (a) high-pass filter, and (b) low-pass filter. RC Filters: low-pass, high-pass, and ac-coupling circuits In Part C of this lab you will use resistors and capacitors to build a simple "electrical filter". The circuit you will build is used widely in electronics and is a simple version of what is in the bass-treble controls you have probably used many times on radios and stereo equipment. ‘As you will see, the circuit can be built to act as a "low-pass" filter or a "high-pass" filter. A low- pass filter only allows through signals which are lower than a certain frequency, while a high pass filter only allows through signals which are higher than a certain frequency. To see how this works, consider Figure 3(a) which shows a capacitor and resistor ‘connected in series with a sine-wave generator which is generating a voltage V(t). You should think of V(t) as being the signal which is applied to the input of the filter. Similarly, you should think of the voltage V, across the resistor as being the output voltage. To analyze this circuit, suppose that the signal is varying sinusoidally in time. Using complex notation, we can write vo-V.el* 07] In this equation, Vo is the voltage amplitude of the signal and w = 2nf, where fis the frequency of the signal. Now note that the voltage V(t) across the generator must be equal to the sum of the voltages across the resistor (IR) and capacitor (Q/C). Thus: yo=1R+8 18] ‘The charge Q on the capacitor is related to the current I flowing through the resistor by: 1= dQ/dt 19) Notice that this equation does not have a minus sign because, in this circuit, if there is positive current I flowing through the resistor then the charge Q on the upper capacitor plate is increasing. We can thus rewrite Equation [18] as: =R22,2 VO-Ra TE (20) We can also use Equation [17] to substitute for V(t) and get Jo! Rp I2,2 21 Woe = REE en This is a first order inhomogeneous linear differential equation. The solution is Q(t) = Qe"*". Substituting this into Equation [21] gives: 43CV, Oo” TTaRC R22) ‘The current which flows through the circuit is: I= dQ/dt = iaQ, e’” =e" [23] where : ioCV, 1 10Q5 = pe ay ‘The voltage V,(t) across the resistor is just IR: V(t) =IR=LR e*! = V,,e' [25] where: Vo * eRe T+i@RC [26] Ifyou take the magnitude of Equation [26], you can get rid of the complex factors and show that the magnitude of the amplitude of the voltage across the resistor obeys: ~__ORCY, Wel = + (@RCV,) Notice that if @ = 0, then |V, = 0. That is, when the input signal (V,) has a low frequency (w << I/RC), there is very little voltage at the output (V,. is small). On the other hand, if is much larger than 1/RC, then [V,,| *V,. That is, when the input signal (V,) has a high frequency ( << 1/RC), all of the signal voltage appears at the output (V,,~ V,). We say that the circuit acts like a high-pass filter because high-frequency voltage signals go right through. This circuit is also called a de-blocking circuit or an ac-coupling cireuit, because it prevents low-frequency (dc) signals from appearing at the output but allows high-frequency (ae) signals to appear. In fact, you may have already used this ac-coupling circuit several times in the previous Jab without realizing it, On the input of the oscilloscope you can use ae-coupling - this just switches the circuit shown in Figure 3(a) into the signal path. This circuit blocks any de voltages that are being applied to the scope. On the other hand, if you switch to "de-coupling", no filter is used and both ac and de signals will be measured, You may be wondering why anyone would want to use ac coupling - what is it good for? Well, suppose you are trying to see a 0.001 V sinusoidal signal that is varying at 1 kHz, but there is also present a fixed 20 V signal. If you use dc-coupling you will have to turn the scope’s vertical scale knob to the 10 or 20 V scale, but these are very coarse scales and you will never see your ImV ac signal. On the other hand, by switching to ac-coupling you can completely eliminate the 20V de signal. You can then turn the vertical scale knob all the way down to the | mV level and easily see your ac signal. Figure 3(b) shows a very closely related circuit, a low-pass filter, This circuit only passes signals that are varying at low frequencies and will block signals that are varying at high frequencies. The "roll-off frequency" is defined to be f,=1/2nRC = 1/2n. This is the frequency where the voltage amplitude across the capacitor is 1.414 times smaller than the voltage amplitude across the supply. In the circuit, voltages which are varying more rapidly than the roll- off frequency will be suppressed. p7 Impedance ‘The ratio Vil is called the impedance Z. For a resistor, V = IR and the impedance Z = V/T 44= IR= Ris just the resistance R. On the other hand, suppose we drive a capacitor with a voltage source Ve" . The current which flows through the capacitor will be I= dQ/dt = C dVJdt = i@CV,e"" . Thus the impedance of a capacitor is: ye Vel 1 1 iaCVe" ioc Where « = 2nf is the frequency in radians per second and fis the frequency in Hertz. Notice that the larger the capacitance, the smaller the impedance. Similarly, the higher the frequency, the smaller the impedance of the capacitor. The other thing to notice about the impedance of a capacitor is that it is a pure imaginary number. This means that the voltage and current are out of phase - applying a voltage which varies as cos(ot) produces a current which varies as sin(«t) so the voltage across a capacitor is 90° out of phase with the current flowing through the capacitor. ‘Again, if you take the magnitude you can get rid of the imaginary factors. The magnitude of the impedance of a capacitor it is: Z. (28) 29] lia One reason that impedance is so useful is that we can use it to rewrite Equation [28] so that it has the form: Ve=1Z, This is the same form as Ohm's law, except that Z, depends on frequency and is pure imi Thus a capacitor acts just like @ resistor, except that the capacitor has an imaginary resistance which scales as 1 over the frequency. For this equation to make sense, it must be understood that the voltage and current vary sinusoidally in time but are 90° out of phase. In part C you will use Equation [28] to find the impedance of a capacitor and see how well Equation [27] is obeyed. VII. Experiment Part A. Getting started (1) Download the Excel spreadsheet template for Lab 3 from ELMS Canvas. (2) Fill in your name, your lab partners name and your lab section number. (3) Point the camera at the apparatus and click “Capture image” in your template, If'an error ‘occurs, use the Logitech software and insert the image into your spreadsheet in the designated area, Part B: Discharging a Big Capacitor The goal of this part is 10 find the time constant of an RC circuit by measuring the discharge of the capacitor, (1) Make sure the power supply is turned off. 45(2) Find the 300 kO resistor (orange-black-yellow) and the 1 kQ resistor (brown-black-red) and the 100 pF capacitor (on a separate board). Record the values of the 300 k® resistor and the 100 AF capacitor in Part B of your template in SI units under R and C, respectively. No need to measure them, just record the given values. (3) Using Figure 4 as a guide, wire up your circuit. Start at the positive terminal of the de power supply and connect it to the switch, Make sure the switch is open for now. Then connect the other end of the switch to one end of the | kQ resistor. Connect the other end of the 1 kQ resistor to the positive terminal of the 100 uF capacitor. Connect the negative terminal of the 100 HF capacitor to the negative terminal of the power supply. Next connect the positive terminal to one end of the 300 k® resistor and the negative terminal of the capacitor to the other end of the 300 kO2 resistor. Finally connect the LabPro Voltage probe leads across the 100 uF capacitor. Make sure that the black probe lead is connected to the negative terminal of the capacitor. (4) Before turning on the power supply, make sure that the positive terminal of the capacitor is connected (through the 1 kQ resistor and the switch) to the positive terminal of the power supply. Electrolytic capacitors such as the one you are using only work properly with one sign of the voltage - if you reverse it you can destroy the capacitor. (5) Open the LoggerPro template called “Voltage vs time”. The Lab Pro box should be reading a voltage with a sample rate of 1 samples/s and measurement duration of 150 s. {b) —desupply Figure 4. (a) Circuit Schematic and (b) physical circuit layout for charging a capacitor and ‘measuring the discharging of the capacitor through a resistor, 46(6) Turn on the power supply, set the voltage to 9,0 V (do not exceed 10 V, the probe can’t handle it), and make sure the current knob is not turned all the way down, Close the knife switch and wait for the capacitor to fully charge up. It will take a few second for the voltage to completely settle down because the current flows through the 1 kO resistor to get to the capacitor. (7) Open the switch and then immediately click “Collect” in LoggerPro. LoggerPro will take data for a total of 150 s as the voltage Ve across the capacitor slowly falls towards zero. The voltage decreases because charge is slowly leaving the positive capacitor plate, flowing through the 300 kQ resistor to the negative capacitor plate. (8) Copy and paste your time and voltage data into the designated area of your template. (9) Use EXCEL to make a plot of the V; versus t data. Make sure to label the axes appropriately. (10) Turn off the power supply. Part C: Voltage and Impedance in an RC circuit The goal of this partis to drive an RC circuit with a sine wave and measure the voltages across the resistor and capacitor as a function of the frequency. (1) Find the 0.27 WF capacitor and the 1 kQ resistor on the RC board. Record these values in SI units under C and R in the designated area in Part C of your spreadsheet. (2) Following the layout shown in Figure 5, hook up the RC circuit. - Main circuit and voltage source: Start by connecting a BNC coaxial cable to the output of the oscilloscope’s Wave Generator. Connect the other end of the cable to a BNC tee, Connect one output from the BNC tee to channel 3 (which will record the driving voltage from the Wave Generator) and connect the other output to a BNC-to-banana connector. Use banana wires to connect the banana jacks on the BNC-to-banana connector in series with the 0.27 uF capacitor and the 1 kQ resistor (see Figure 5). - Measurement part of circuit: Use banana plug wires to connect the input of channel | of the 3-channel ground isolation unit across the resistor so that you can measure the voltage drop V, across the resistor (see Figure 5). Similarly connect the input of channel 2 of the 3- channel ground isolation unit across the capacitor to measure the voltage Vc across the capacitor. Finally use coaxial cables to connect the outputs of channel 1 and channel 2 from the 3-Channel Ground Isolation Unit to the channel | and 2 inputs of the seope, respectively. (3) Tur on the 3-channel ground isolation unit and the scope. Switch on the Wave Generator and set its output to generate a sine wave with a frequency of 100 Hz. and amplitude of 1 Volt. Press trigger and set the trigger source to channel 3. Adjust the trigger level knob if necessary to get a stable signal. Adjust the horizontal and vertical knobs until you can see three signals clearly, If you get stuck, press auto scale and then go back and reset the trigger source to channel 3, and adjust the horizontal and vertical knobs until the display look good. 47coaxial cable 4-channel oscilloscope Laie cht ch2 ch3 cha Wave Gen out e ‘channel 1 channel 2 | channel] 3-channel 2 sin +in sin +in in + in Ground a e 3 Siz] © © G3] sctation Unit Figure 5. (b) Arrangement for measuring the voltage across a resistor R (Channel 1), a capacitor C (Channel 2), and the applied voltage (Channel 3) in a driven RC circuit. The schematic for this circuit is shown in Figure 3(b). Notice that the 3-channel Ground Isolation Unit must be used when measuring the voltage across C to avoid grounding the point between the Rand C. (4) Push the measure button and set up the scope to report measurements of ~ peak-to-peak voltage across Channel 1. To get peak-to-peak voltage you need to choose the measurement type as AMPL. This will give you the voltage drop across the resistor Vopr. - peak-to-peak voltage across Channel 2 (capacitor voltage drop Vpc), = the peak-to-peak voltage across channel 3 (driving voltage Vp) + frequency of channel 3 (the drive frequency f) ‘You may have to clear some measurements first. (5) In your template, click on the Add-Ins tab and click on the connect to scope button (the button just to the right of “Agilent 3000”). You should see the scope listed on the left. Click Identify instrument(s), and then click OK. (6) Once you are satisfied with the scope readings, press the “100” button in column “O” of your template to record the measurements for 100 Hz. (Do not press the other buttons until you have changed the frequency on the generator of the scope and are satisfied with the readings.) If you get an error message, try reconnecting to the scope and pressing the button again. If it still fails, just read the measurements off of the right side of the scope’s display screen, (7 For frequencies of 200 Hz, 500 Hz, etc, up to 100 kHz, measure and record the frequencies and voltages Vopr, Vopcs atid Vypo in the designated area in your spreadsheet. To do this, set the frequency on the generator of the scope and then click the appropriate button in your template to get the data. Do not adjust the amplitude. You may need to adjust the horizontal and vertical scope knobs to see the signals before recording the measurements. 48VI._Analysis (J) Part B: Compute Tineon=RC in the designated cell. (2) Part B: In the designated cell AV, take your uncertainty to be 0.003 V. This is a conservative estimate of the uncertainty based on the digitization of the voltage measurements. (3) Part B: Take a careful look at your plot of Ve versus t and estimate the time rit takes for V to decrease by a factor of I/e (about 1/3). Enter this into your template under t, Also estimate the initial amplitude Vo, which should be about 9.0 V, and enter this into your template. (4) Part B: Fit the theory Vetheoy= Vo e“* to your data by minimizing 7 with respect to your fitting parameters. To do this, in the designated area in your spreadsheet add EXCEL formulas for the theory. Use the values for V, and t that you found in step (3) as initial guesses for your fitting parameters. Next fill in the z7-term column with (V, =Vojgy)? /AV?- Make sure you use AV from step (2). Then sum the 7’-term column to get 7°. Finally use the Solver to minimize o¢ by varying your Vo and t fitting parameters. To get to the Solver in EXCEL, eliek on the Data tab, then click on Solver on the right hand side of the menu bar. A. pop-up window appears and your template should already be set to minimize 7° by varying your Vz and t cells. You just need to click on Solve at the bottom of the window. (5) Part B: Now that you have a best fit to theory, add a curve showing your best fit curve Vetheary vs t to your plot of measured V¢ vs t. Reformat the theory points to a line without markers. (6) Part C: From the peak-to-peak voltages compute the amplitudes Ve=V, p02. (7) Part C: Make a plot of Ve versus f, Vx versus f, and V, versus f on the same axes. Label the axes and data series, and switch the x-axis to a log-scale (base 10). 1=Vepn/2 and (8) Part C: In the designated area in Part C of your template, find the current "I" flowing through the resistor by calculating V,/R at each frequency. This is the same current which flows through the capacitor. (9) Part C: Find the magnitude of the impedance of the capacitor |Z.| as a function of frequency by calculating Z| = V/I for each frequency. (10) Part C: Find the capacitance from the impedance by calculating C=1/(2a{Z,(f) at each frequency. 49VUTL Final Questions (1) Based on your plot, how well did your data for V,(0) for Part B agree with the theoretical curve? (2) Was the decay time from your fit consistent with the theoretical value? Comment on the physical sources of any significant discrepancies. (3) In part C, did you find that the capacitance was independent of frequency? How close was your data to the expected value of 0.27 F? If you saw a discrepancy, what do you think caused it? X.Fil ishing Up Before Leaving the Lab (1) Check over your spreadsheet to make sure that you have not missed any steps, have filled everything in, and have no feedback messages displayed. The automatic feedback system on the template has limited ability to detect problems, so check carefully, (2) Save the spreadsheet - the template will generate two files, one with your name in the title and one with your lab partners name in the title. (3) Before leaving the lab, Log onto your area in ELMS Canvas, go to the Physics 271 assignments, and submit your spreadsheet before the deadline. (4) Log off ELMS Canvas and make sure that your lab partner logs onto their own area in ELMS. Canvas and submits the copy of the spreadsheet with their own name in the file name. Make sure to log off ELMS Canvas when you are done! Each student needs to submit a copy of their spreadsheet to their own area in ELMS Canvas before leaving the lab ... don’t believe anyone who tells you otherwise. 50Experiment IV Inductors and Faraday’s Law Purpose “The purpose of this lab is to observe the behavior of inductors and the voltages generated by time-varying magnetic fields. UL. Preparing for the Lab "You need to prepare before going to the lab and doing this experiment. Read through this lab write-up and see Chapter 33 of Knight’s Physics for Scientists and Engineers, Next, go to the Physics 271 site on ELMS Canvas and click on the video link for the experiment. Finally, don’t forget to do the Pre-Lab questions and turn them in to ELMS Canvas before your lab starts. IIL. Pre-lab Questions (Submit answers to ELMS Canvas before your lab section meets) The questions on Canvas will typically vary somewhat from those given below - be sure 10 read the ELMS questions and choices carefully before answering. #1. Consider the sketches below. If the magnet is moving away from the loop, will the current in the loop flow in the direction shown in (a) or the direction shown in (b)? #2, A coil rotates at 60 revolutions per second in a field of 2x10? Tesla. Ifthe coil has a cross- sectional area of 20 em? and has 1000 tums, what is the amplitude of the EMF in the coil? #3, A 50 mH inductor is placed in parallel with a 100 © resistor. What is the time constant of this RL circuit? #4, How much voltage is there across a 100 mH inductor if the current is changing at 10 mA/s? #3, Right after you open the switch in Figure 2(a), the voltage across the solenoid will: (a) remain ‘unchanged at a positive value, (b) remain positive but decrease to zero, (c) change from positive to negative and then decrease to zero, (d) remain at zero. IV. Equipment: Large and small solenoid coils multimeter 4-channel Digital Oscilloscope Extech de power supply 10-turn coil mounted on variable speed motor motor controller Resistors and capacitors board large C-magnet 15 cm ruler EXCEL template LoggerPro interface ‘Vernier voltage probes 51V. Introduction This section briefly reviews the key concepts you need for this lab, including Faraday's, Law, Lenz’s Law, EMF, inductors and transformers. Faraday's Law and Lenz’s Law In Lab I you measured the magnetic field produced by a current flowing in a solenoid. A kind of inverse of this effect, the production of a current by a time-varying magnetic field, was discovered by Michael Faraday. Faraday's law can be written as: EMF = [E-dt ws at it where the EMF is the electromotive force, E is the electric field generated by a time varying ‘magnetic field, the integration is a line integral along the closed path the current follows, df is an infinitesimal vector displacement on the path that points in the direction of current flow, and is the magnetic flux produced by the magnetic field which is passing through the loop formed by the closed path. The EMF is just the voltage difference that is produced by the changing magnetic field. Paraday’s Law says that an electric field is generated around a loop if the magnetic flux in the loop is changing with time. If the loop is composed of a conducting material, then the electric field will cause a current to flow. The direction in which the current flows is given by Lenz's Law: The induced current will flow so that it creates a magnetic field that opposes the change in Jield which produced it. For example, consider Figure | which shows a magnet moving towards a closed loop. The magnetic flux in the loop will increase as the magnet approaches. Faraday's law tells us that this change in flux will generate an EMF (voltage) which induces a current in the loop. The induced current generates a magnetic field. Lenz's law says that the magnetic field generated by the induced current will try to prevent the total field from changing. Thus, if the flux through the loop is increasing due to the magnet, the field from the induced current will tend t0 oppose this to try to keep the flux constant (see Figure 1(a)). If the applied flux in the loop is decreasing, the magnetic field generated by the induced current will tend to increase the flux. (a) Figure 1. (a) The direction of the current flow I induced in the loop is determined by Lenz's Law. (b) A motor spins a 10-turn coil in the magnetic field from a permanent magnet. Two carbon brushes touch a pair of rings that rotate with the coil. One ring is connected to one end of the coil (red) and the other ring to the other end (black), providing electrical contact to the rotating coil. 52In the final part of this experiment, you will apply Faraday’s Law to generate ac voltage by rotating a coil in a strong magnetic field (see Figure 1(b)). This demonstrates the basic principle of electrieal power generation, except that here we are using an electrical motor to turn the coil rather than using @ water, steam, wind or gas powered turbine to tum the coil. The coil consists of ten turns of fine wire wrapped around a plastic form. The ends of the coil are connected by wire to a pair of brass rings that are concentric with the motor shaft. A pair of carbon brushes is mounted to the motor base and touches the rings, providing electrical contact to the rotating coil (see Figure 1(b)). When the coil is put between the poles of a magnet that is producing an average field B in the coil, there will be a magnetic flux through the coil ©, = [B-fidA = NBA cos(9), 2 where N is the number of tums in the coil, A is the area of one tum of the coil, and 0 is the angle between the normal to the coil area and the B field. If the coil is rotating at an angular frequency © = 2nf, then 0 = ot and from Faraday’s Law the voltage generated across the coil is do, (NBA cos(wt)) at at v =@NBAsin(ot). Bl Inductors Tn Parts B and C of this lab, you will be working with a solenoid coil formed by winding N turns of wire around a tube. This forms a simple induetor with inductance L. When current I flows through the coil, it produces a magnetic field B in the interior of the tube (you measured this in Lab 1) and a corresponding magnetic flux @) = Ll. If the current changes in time, then according to Faraday’s Law (Equation [1 there will be an EMF generated across the coil: at a. 4) The significance of the minus sign and the word EMF are two potentially confusing aspects of the way Equation [4] is written, When working with circuits, it is more common to work with the voltage drop across an electrical element such as a resistor, capacitor or inductor, rather than the EMF. The voltage drop across a circuit element is the voltage at the point where positive current I enters the element minus the voltage at the point where the current leaves the element. For a resistor, the voltage drop is IR and we say that when current flows through a resistor the voltage decreases by IR when going from one end of the resistor to the other. For an inductor, we can rewrite Equation [4] in a more convenient form as: ar Wale. (51 Equation [5] means that the voltage drop Vi. across an inductor depends on the rate at which the current is changing. Inductance is measured in units of Henry’s (denoted H). Inductors you will find in the lab typically have values between about 1 pH to 0.1 H. If the current through a 0.1 H inductor is increasing at a rate of 1A/s, Equation [5] says the voltage drop across the inductor will be 0.1 V. EMF “Eners ind “Dischay an Inductor Figures 2(a) and 2(b) show schematics of the circuit you will study in Part B of the lab. An inductor L and resistor R are connected in parallel with each other and connected in series 53@) loses sien as ‘switch closed —— switch open —> () Figure 2. (a) Circuit for charging (switch closed) and discharging (switch open) an inductor L. V is the battery voltage, V, is the voltage across the resistor, and Vy, is the voltage actoss the inductor. (b) Plot of V_ versus t. The switch is closed for t<0 and opened for 0, with a switch and a battery that generates voltage Vo. We have also included a resistor Ry that accounts for the fact that the inductor was wound from a long wire that has resistance. Figure 2(a) shows that when the switch is closed, current flows out of the battery and through the inductor and resistors. Some of the current flows through the inductor L, and this generates a magnetic field. It takes a short time for the current to build up to full strength through the inductor, after which we can say that the inductor has been “energized” or "charged up", borrowing language used to describe the charging of a capacitor. The current flow into the inductor stops increasing when it reaches a value of l1s=Vo/Rx, at which point the voltage drop across Ry reaches the battery voltage Vo. Once the current stops increasing, there is no voltage drop across L and all of the voltage Vs is across Rx. This is also the same as the voltage drop Vk across R, since R is connected across the battery. Thus when the switch is closed and a steady current Ii= Vo/Rs is flowing through the inductor L and resistor Ry, we have: VitVax=Vex=Vr= Vo. [6] Figure 2(b) shows what happens when the switch is opened. When the switch is opened, the current flow from the battery will be interrupted, and the current Ir through the inductor will start to decrease, causing the flux in the inductor to change, which causes an EMF across the inductor according to Faraday's Law. From Lenz’s Law, this EMF tries to prevent the flux and current in the coil from changing. You can think of the inductor as having a stored current Iv) = ‘Vo/Ry that starts to decrease when the switch is opened and we say the inductor is "discharging". Notice that before the switch is opened, the voltage drop across the solenoid (Land Ry) is the battery voltage Vo, but immediately after the switch is opened the EMF in the inductor will drive the stored current through the resistors R and Ry. From Figure 2(b) you can see that the current through resistor R is flowing in the opposite direction to what it was when the switch was closed. This means that the voltage across the resistor R will change sign after the switch is open, going 34from Vo to -I1R =-VeR/R,. In general after the switch is open, the voltage drop across L and Rx , 0 where Lis the current through the inductor, Ry and R. This can be rearranged to give: Mast 8) dt or where we have defined the time constant: T=LRR). 19] For example, if RR, = 200 and L= 100 mH, then t = L/(R+R,) = (0.1H)/(2000) = 0.5 ms. Equation [8] is a simple differential equation and the solution is: I@)= Le" il [10] Here we have assumed the switch is opened at t = 0, Plugging into Equation [7], the voltage across the solenoid (L and R,) is then: V, +¥ y Vy =I R= v, Rew ou Figure 3(b) shows a plot of the voltage versus time across the solenoid before and after the switch is opened. For t < 0, the voltage Va (across the resistor R), the voltage Vi+Vrs (across the series combination of the resistor Ry and inductor L) and the battery voltage Vo are all equal ‘At I0, the voltage jumps negative. This large change in voltage is called a “back-EME” and it can lead to dangerous arcing across a switch that is used to interrupt the flow of current to a large inductor. For t > 0, the voltage falls exponentially to zero as the solenoid discharges on a time scale t. Transformers ‘A transformer is produced by coupling two inductors together so that the magnetic flux produced by each coil is coupled into the other. Figure 3(a) shows a voltage source connected to the primary (coil L)) of a transformer. The secondary of the transformer (coil La) is the output of the transformer. AC current flowing in the primary will cause a changing flux to be produced actoss the secondary, which creates an EMF across the secondary. Only a fraction of the flux produced by L; will be linked into Lp. This is set by the coupling coefficient x which is a pure number between 0 and 1 that is determined by the details of how the two coils are built and coupled together. If a voltage V, is applied to the primary coil of an ideal transformer, then a voltage V2 will be generated across the secondary coil given by: (4) Here Np is the number of turns on the secondary coil and Nj is the number of tums on the primary coil. Thus by placing many more turns on the secondary than the primary, a transformer can be used to increase or step up an ac voltage. In this lab you will hook up the scope’s Wave Generator to the primary of a transformer and apply an ac voltage with amplitude Vo at frequency f (see Figure 3(a)). The secondary will be 55fa) (b) 10 transformer vo on oor 100 1000 1000 00000 40 Figure 3. (a) Schematic of ac source connected to primary coil of a transformer, (b) Solid curves show Equations [5] and [6] for transformer voltages V, and V2 versus frequency for source amplitude of Vo=1V, = 0.8, L1= 70 pH, La = 67 mH, R, = 50.Q, Rui = 0.75 Q, Re = 80 Q, and Ri = 10 kQ. Points show measured voltages. connected to a load resistance Ry. You will use the oscilloscope to measure V2 (the voltage across the load) and V; (the voltage across the transformer primary coil). Analysis of real transformer circuits, such as that shown in Figure 3(a), tend to be much more complex than one might guess from the ideal result given by Equation [4]. What has been left out of Equation [4] are the effects of the source and load impedances, In the circuit in Figure 3(a), the Wave Generator has internal resistance R, =50 © and the primary has internal resistance Ru, 80 some of the source voltage will be dropped across Rs, some will be across Ry), and what left will be across the primary coil. Only the part across the primary coil will be stepped up, Similarly, some of the EMF from the secondary coil will be dropped across the load resistor Ri, some will be across Ryz, and the rest will be across Lo. Analysis of the circuit gives vw Or IE, [5] UR, +R, +02 1X, vi efx Rll, [a V, ARC NTR, +o} +22, for the magnitude of the voltage amplitudes across the primary and secondary at frequency f. ‘These expressions are messy to use, so we provide a macro in the EXCEL template - you just need to input the parameters. Figure 3(b) shows what to expect for Vi and V2 for typical Circuit parameters. Notice that V2 is larger than Vj, and for frequencies above about 40 kHz, V2 exceeds the IV source, so this transformer steps up the voltage. Notice also how V increases linearly with frequency between about 1 kHz and 100 kHz. Similarly V2 increases linearly below about 20 kHz. Finally, if you take the limit R, 0 and then f 00, one finds V,=V,and ¥, =x EE V,. If the two coils are identical except that the primary has N; turns and the secondary No, this reduces to V, =(« N,/N,)V,, which is just Equation [4]. 56VUL Experiment. Part A. Getting started (1) Safety Warning: This experiment involves equipment with exposed wire connections - Obey all standard electrical safety procedures. The permanent magnet used in this lab is very strong. Keep the magnet away from the computer, the oscilloscope, watches, credit cards and metal tools. ‘The motor used in this lab has a rotating component that can cause injury by entangling you or your clothing. Keep away from the rotating coil to avoid becoming entangled. Do not wear gloves, scarves or loose fitting garments that could become entangled in the rotating parts. If you have long hair, tie it back and keep it away from the apparatus. If you are wearing long sleeves, roll them up. Before turning on the power, turn down the motor speed, make sure that there is nothing in the way, and be ready to switch off the power problem develops, Tum off the power when you are done. (2) Download the Excel spreadsheet template for Lab 4 from ELMS Canvas. (3) Fill in your name, your lab partner's name and your lab section number. (4) Point the camera at the apparatus and click “Capture image” in your template. If an error occurs, use the Logitech software and insert the image into your spreadsheet in the designated area, Part B: Energizing a Big Inductor The main goals of this part are to observe the back-EMF generated when the current to an inductor is interrupted and find the L/R time constant of the circuit. (1) Make sure the power supply is turned off. (2) Use the multimeter to measure the inductance L of the large solenoid (plug into the 1500 and 0 sockets). Also measure the resistance R of the 100 © resistor (brown-black-black) or 110 Q resistor (brown-brown-black). Record the values in Part B of your spreadsheet in SI units. (3) Using Figure 5 as a guide, wire up the circuit. Start at the positive terminal of the de power supply and connect it to the switeh, Make sure the switch is open and connect the other end of the switeh to one end of the 100 @ resistor. Connect the other end of the 100 © resistor to the negative terminal of the power supply. Next connect the positive terminal of the 100 Qrresistor to the positive terminal of the inductor, and the negative terminal of the 100 Q resistor to the negative terminal of the inductor. Finally, plug the voltage probe leads into the Ch 1 input in the LabPro interface box and plug the red lead into the positive terminal of the inductor and the black lead into the negative terminal of the inductor (See Figure 5). (4) Before turning on the Extech de power supply, turn the voltage and current control knobs all the way down to zero (counter-clockwise). (5) Switch on the Extech de power supply, turn the current knob up a little bit and then turn the 37(b) — desupaly Figure 5. (a) Idealized circuit schematic and (b) physical layout for energizing an inductor with current and measuring the discharge of the current through a resistor. (c) Cireuit schem: showing internal resistance Ry ~ 80 Q in addition to inductance L in the solenoid. voltage knob until the display shows 1 V. If you cannot get a voltage reading, make sure the current knob is not tumed all the way down and double check that your circuit is wired up correctly. Close the knife switch and current will begin to flow through the inductor and the resistor, which are in parallel. (6) Open the LoggerPro template called “Voltage RL relaxation”, The collect button should be showing green indicating that LoggerPro is ready to collect the voltage V;, across the inductor versus time t. You should not need to change any of the settings to get it to work properly. (7) Click “Collect”, wait a few seconds and then open the switch. This LoggerPro template is set to start collecting the voltage Vi, across the inductor as soon as it sees the voltage drop below 0.9 V, which will occur a fraction of a millisecond after you open the switch. It actually collects data for about 5 milliseconds before you open the switch and continues to take data until 5 ms after you open the switch. The sampling rate is set to 50,000 samples per second, so you should end up with 500 points covering the interval from -10 ms to +10 ms. (8) Copy and paste your V,, versus t data from LoggerPro into the designated area in Part B of your spreadsheet (9) Use EXCEL to make a plot of the Vi, versus t data, Plot the data as points and be sure to label the chart and axes appropriately. Verify that your plot looks like Figure 2(c). (10) Turn the power supply off. 58Part C: A Transformer The main goal of this partis to observe a transformer stepping up ac voltages. (1) Follow Figure 6 to construct the transformer circuit and connect it to the scope. Again, plug into the “1500” and “0” sockets of the inductor. (2) Tum on the scope and Wave Generator and set it to generate a sine wave with a frequency of 100 Hz and an amplitude of Vo= 1 V. Keep the amplitude at 1 V through all of Part C. (3) After you have the circuit wired up, assemble the transformer itself by sliding the smaller coil inside the larger coil. Verify that the scope is showing small ac voltages V; and V2 on channels 1 and 2, At the low frequency of 100 Hz, these voltages will be much smaller than the 1 V ac source voltage (see Figure 3(b) for example). Adjust the vertical and horizontal knobs until you can see both signals. (4) Push the Measure button and set the scope to measure the peak-to-peak voltage V pp across channel 1 and the peak-to-peak voltage Vapp across channel 2 (use measurement type AMPL). (5) Measure the peak-to-peak voltages V;,,and Vip, at frequencies f of 100 Hz to 100 kHz, as listed in your spreadsheet template. To do this, adjust the frequency on the Wave generator and then read off the values of Vipp» Vapp from the scope. Note, for f <2 kHz, the Channel | ‘You won't get a reliable reading using the measure fa) (b) transformer Figure 6. (a) Cireuit schematic for an ac voltage source V, with internal resistance Ry = 50 Q connected to the primary coil Lt of a transformer. The secondary is connected to load resistance R,=10 kQ. (b) Physical layout for measuring, the input voltage V; (channel 1) and the output voltage V2 (channel 2) across the secondary of the transformer. Push the small primary coil inside the secondary coil to assemble the transformer. 59button, instead examine the waveform on the screen, ignore the noise and estimate the peak- to-peak voltage from the trace, You may find the vertical cursors useful, but be mindful of what source you are measuring. Above about 2 KHz, you can use the measure button and get accurate results. Record your measurements in Volts in your spreadsheet. (6) Make a plot showing your measurements of Vand Vag versus f. Set the x and y axes so that EXCEL is plotting them on logarithmic scales. Verify that your plot is similar to Figure 3 (b). Part D: A Generator The main goal of this partis to observe the EMF generated by rapidly rotating a coil in the presence of a steady magnetic field. 1, Measure the cross sectional area A of the flip coil and record in your spreadsheet, Note: the dimensions of the coil are smaller than the plastic rectangle on which it is wound. 2. Make sure nothing is plugged into the scope and then connect the flip-coil output terminals to the scope’s Channel 1 input. 3. Set the scope to trigger on Channel 1 4, Make sure the flip coil is securely clamped to the table and then position the magnet so that the flip-coil sits between the poles. Don’t let the rotating coil strike the magnet and keep the permanent magnet well away from the scope. Start with the motor controller turned down to a slow speed so you can watch the coil and verify nothing is hitting. Let your TA know if your unit tends to vibrate when operated at a required frequency. 5. Use the scope to measure the peak-to-peak voltage V, across the flip coil for motor rotation frequencies f of: 500, 1000, 1500, 2000, 2500, 3000, 3500 and 4000 rpm. At each rotation frequency you should see a sine wave with the same frequency that the motor is turning at. Of course 500 rpm is only (500 rpm)/(60 rpnvHz) = 8.3 Hz so the sine wave is pretty slow when you start and you will need to adjust the Horizontal control on the scope accordingly to get a nice display. Also, the amplitude will be quite small at low rotation frequencies, and there is substantial noise from the brush contacts. You will need to adjust the Vertical control and use some judgment (the cursor might be useful) in measuring the peak-to- Peak voltage of the sine wave in the trace, especially at low frequencies where the signal is small and there is a lot of noise. For each frequency f, record your peak to peak Voltage Vz in the designated area in your spreadsheet. 6. Use the designated column in your spreadsheet to convert all the rotation frequencies from rpm. to Hz.- you just need to divide by 60 rpmvFiz to convert from rpm to Hz. 7, Make a plot of V, vs f, where fis in Hz. Label your axes and give your plot a title. 60VIIL Analysis (1) Part B = Big Inductor. Under the cell labelled V;"9(V), fill in a starting value of 1.0 in volts for the de supply voltage. Under the cell labelled #"°”(V), fill in a starting value of 2.0 in volts for the de supply voltage. Also fill in a starting value for the internal resistance of the large coil Ry = 80.Q. (2) Part B = Big Inductor. Using your measured values of R and L along with the starting value for the internal resistance Ry, compute the time constant t = L/(R+R,). (3) Part B - Big Inductor. Locate the minimum voltage value and record the time associated with this value under to, For times t >to the data should resemble a decaying exponential. (4) Part B - Big Inductor. Go to the column labelled ¥;""” in Part B of your spreadsheet. For <0, the theory says the voltage should just be the supply voltage V.. Fill this simple theory into the column for times t<0. Make sure you use a formula (just point to the cell holding vie” rather than typing in the number 1,0. Next, for t=0, the trigger was set to start the trace at 0.9 V, so you can plug this in as the expected value. Ignore the times between t=0 and to, Finally, for t> ta, fill in the rest of the column with an EXCEL formula for the theory: R Vane? exp (t= toy). m1 (5) Part B = Big Inductor, Add a curve for V/"*"’versus time t to your plot of your data. Use points without a line for the data and use a solid curve without points for the theory. Adjust Ry Vi", and V8 until you get a good looking agreement between theory and the data, theory ny (6 Part C= Transformer. In part C of your spreadsheet, fill in starting values for the source voltage Vo = | V, primary inductance L1= 3.4x10° H, secondary inductance L3 = 0.034 H, the coupling coefficient x= 0.8, the primary internal resistance Ryi= 80Q, the secondary internal resistance Ria= 80Q, the source impedance R, = 50 ©2, and the load impedance R_= 10000 Q. (7) Part C-- Transformer, After you have filled in the circuit parameters, push the macro button labelled “Transformer V1 and V2” to automatically calculate Equations [5] and [6] for V;""” and V;"*°'versus frequency, the expected voltages across the primary and secondary. (8) Part C - Transformer, Add curves for V," and V;"*°? versus frequency to your plot of your Vipp and Vopp versus f data. Use points without a line for the data and use a solid curve ‘without points for the theory. Try adjusting Rx, Li, Lzand x to get good looking agreement between theory and the data. (9) Part_D - Generator. In Part D you plotted measurements of the peak-to-peak voltage V, vs. f for the Mip-coil. Equation [3] says that EMF generated by the flip-coil should be: V() = 20 f NBA-sin(Q2z ft). (81 This means the peak-to-peak voltage you measured should be related to the frequency f by: 61V, =(42NBA)f. 9) ‘Thus the plot should be a straight line with an intercept b =0 and a slope m=4zxNBA [10] Use EXCEL to add a straight line fit of your data to the plot. To do this, just right-click on one of your data points on the plot and select Add Trendline. Make sure you also select, “display equation” so EXCEL shows you the formula for the fit. Enter the displayed slope into the cell labeled m. (10) Part D - Generator. Rearrange Equation [10] and then use N = 10 turns, the measured coil area A, and the value for the slope m of the trendline, to find the magnetic field B from the magnet, IX. Final Questions (1) In part B, when you opened the switch, did the voltage across the inductor change sign? (2) In your plot for part B, was the theory and data in reasonable agreement? (3) In your plot for Part C- Transformer, was the theory and data in reasonable agreement? (4) The magnetic field strength produced by the Earth is about 50 wT. How much larger is the field produced by the permanent magnet used in part D (give multiplicative factor)? X. Fi ishing Up Before Leaving the Lab (1) Check over your spreadsheet to make sure that you have not missed any steps, have filled everything in, and have no feedback messages displayed. The automatic feedback system on the template has limited ability to detect problems, so check carefully. (2) Save the spreadsheet - the template will generate two files, one with your name in the title and one with your lab partners name in the title. (3) Before leaving the lab, Log onto your area in ELMS Canvas, go to the Physics 271 assignments, and submit your spreadsheet before the deadline, (4) Log off ELMS Canvas and make sure that your lab partner logs onto their own area in ELMS Canvas and submits the copy of the spreadsheet with their own name in the file name. Make sure to log off ELMS Canvas when you are done! Each student needs to submit a copy of their spreadsheet to their own area in ELMS Canvas before leaving the lab ... don’t believe anyone who tells you otherwise. 62Experiment Vv Resonance in an LRC Circuit 1. Purpose The purpose of this lab is to observe the behavior of an electrical resonator formed by connecting an inductor L in series with a capacitor C and a resistor R. Il. Preparing for the Lab "You need to prepare belore going to the Tab and doing this experiment. Start by reading through the lab write-up. If you need to review the basic physics of LRC circuits, read Chapter 35.5 in Knight’s Physics for Scientists and Engineers. It is far from a complete treatment but the introduction to this lab covers what Knight missed. Next, go to the Physics 271 site on ELMS Canvas and click on the video link for the experiment. Finally, don't forget to do the Pre-Lab questions and turn them in to ELMS Canvas before your lab starts. IIL Pre-lab Questions (Submit answers to ELMS Canvas before your lab section meets) The questions and answers on ELMS will typically vary somewhat from those given below - be sure to read the ELMS questions and choices carefully before answering. #1. A series LRC circuit is driven on resonance with a driving voltage amplitude of Vo~ 1 V. If the quality factor Q = 20, what is the amplitude Vk of the voltage across the resistor? #2. Find the resonance frequency fy of a circuit with L = 0.03 H, C= 1 x10 F and R= 1000.9. #3. Find the quality factor Q ofa circuit with L = 0.03 H, C= 1 x10°F and R= 1000 Q. #4, When the LRC circuit in this experiment is driven at its resonance frequency, the voltage across the resistor will be: (a) at zero voltage, (b) at a minimum and equal to the driving voltage, (c) at a maximum and equal to the driving voltage, (4) at a maximum and Q times the driving voltage. #5, When a series LRC circuit is driven at its resonance frequency, the phase difference between the drive voltage and the voltage across the resistor will be (a) 180° out of phase, (b) 90° out of phase, (c) 0° or in-phase. #6. In Part C of this experiment, an iron rod is placed in the core of the inductor. Should the resonance frequency of the LRC circuit (a) increase, (b) decrease, (c) not change, or (4) there is no way to determine the answer from the information given, #7. In Part C of this experiment, an aluminum rod is placed in the core of the inductor. Should the resonance frequency of the LRC circuit (a) increase, (b) decrease, (c) not change, or (4) there is no way to determine the answer from the information given. IV. Equipment: 4-channel oscilloscope with internal wave generator 3-channel Ground Isolation Unit resistor and capacitor board Large inductor aluminum and iron rods BNC and banana cables BNC tee, BNC-to-banana connectors 63(b) (a) R V=V,sin(ot) L Figure 1. (a) Series LRC circuit connected to a voltage source V. (b) Photo of simplified LRC setup with 2-channel scope, RC board, open core inductor, steel wrench and Al rod. Your inductor and oscilloscope will be different and you will need to use a ground isolation unit. V. Introduction In this lab you will study the behavior of a simple resonant electrical circuit formed by connecting an ac voltage source V in series with an inductor L, a capacitor C, and a resistor R (see Figure 1). In the circuit, the scope’s Wave Generator applies a voltage: V=Vosin(ot) i] Here Vo is the voltage amplitude, @ = 2nf, and fis the drive frequeney in Hz. Since the L, R and C are in series, the same current must be flowing through each element. We can write this current as: I= I, sin(ot - 6) (2), where I, is the “amplitude of the current and is the “phase of the current” with respect to the drive voltage. You might not have been expecting to see a 6 appear in Equation [2]. What this means is that the source ac voltage and ac current do not have the same phase in an ac circuit. The current amplitude I, and phase 4 of the current will depend on L, R, C values and the drive frequency f. As discussed in Labs 3 and 4, it is mathematically clumsy to deal with sinusoidal waves using phasors. For calculating electrical quantities in ac circuits it is much simpler to use complex notation. All professional electrical engineers use complex numbers. Therefore almost all introductory physics textbooks use phasors. Yes, that’s right, the textbooks do it the hard way that nobody uses. Feel free to pull out your textbook if you want to struggle along with phasors. Here we will follow the easy and professional way with complex numbers. Using complex notation, we can write the voltage applied by the Wave Generator as: ‘ot V=We! GB] and the current that flows as: I-,ee) 14) 64If'we take the imaginary part of these expressions, we just recover Equations [1] and [2]. To understand what is going on in the LRC circuit we now look at the voltage across each element in tur, The Resistor The easiest element to understand in the LRC circuit is the resistor. From Ohm's Law (Lab 2), the voltage drop Vp across a resistor is Va=IR (5) Substituting Equation [4] for the current flowing through the LRC circuit, we find Viz bR eM), {6} Notice that the maximum voltage across the resistor is [oR and this occurs when the current is a ‘maximum. Notice that the current (Equation [4]) and the voltage across the resistor (Equation [6]) have the same phase 6, and in this case we say that the current and voltage across a resistor are “in-phase”. ‘We can define the impedance Zp of the resistor from: Vv, _ LR? Bun pT gar a ‘The impedance of the resistor is just the resistance R. The Impedance of the Inductor 'AS you saw in Lab 4, the voltage drop across an inductor is dl Wako [8] where L is the inductance and dV/dt is the rate at which the current is changing. Thus the voltage across the inductor is a maximum when the current is changing the most rapidly. Plugging in Equation [4] for the current in the LRC circuit and taking the derivative, we find JHor-#) ad _, de) 1 at at Notice that the current and voltage are out of phase by 1/2 radians or 90°, If we take the real part of this expression, we would find that the maximum voltage occurs when the current is zero. We can define the impedance Z of the inductor as Lioe'™ = Loe: (« V,_ Lio __ a ale rc a [10) ‘Thus at high frequencies the impedance of an inductor becomes large and it will take more voltage to drive a current through the inductor. The reason this happens is because Faraday’s Law tells us that the faster you try to change the current in an inductor the more voltage there will be generated which opposes the change. Notice also that since the voltage across the inductor is 90° out of phase with respect to the current through the inductor, the impedance is an imaginary quantity. ‘The Impedance of the Capacitor The definition of capacitance C is just C= Q/Ve, where Q is the charge on the positive plate of the capacitor and V¢ is the voltage drop across the capacitor. We can rearrange this to get 65the voltage across the capacitor: Ve=QIC. a) Since the current I which flows through the LRC circuit flows into the capacitor and causes the charge Q to accumulate, we can write I = dQ/dt. Integrating this expression gives: O=ffidt=[ rea ate, 113) Substituting this into Equation [11] gives 1, ( i@aC aC Notice, that the current flowing into the capacitor and voltage across the capacitor are out of phase by -2/2 radians or -90°. If you take the real part of Equation [13], you can show that the voltage across the capacitor is a maximum when the current is 0. We can define the magnitude of the impedance Z, of the capacitor from La gilw-0) V,_ iC 1 1 1eO Toe" C4] io 013] This tells us that the magnitude of the impedance of the capacitor is small at high frequencies, and so it takes less voltage to drive a current through the capacitor at high frequencies. Because the voltage across the inductor is -90° out of phase with respect to the current through the inductor, the impedance is a pure imaginary quantity. The Total Impedance Z of the LRC circuit To find the total impedance Z of a resistor, capacitor and inductor that are connected in series, we just need to add the complex impedances: 1 =R 1L-— 15 (6 +) 5} Z=Z,+Z,+Z.=R+iol+— i@aC If you know a little bit about complex numbers, it is easy to show that magnitude of the total impedance is: A [16] Resonance In Equation [16] it is easy to see that [Z| is a minimum when oL equals 1/oC. This condition occurs when the frequency of the source is at ona =a. 7 We call «, the “resonant frequency”. At this frequency, the largest current will be produced for 2 given source voltage. Since o is an angular frequency, you need to divide by 2n to get the resonance frequency in cycles per second or Hertz. Thus, _ 1 Foon tele (18) ln is the resonance frequeney in Hertz, 66‘At resonance the voltage across the capacitor cancels the voltage across the inductor leaving just the voltage across the resistor. Actually in a real circuit, the inductor has some resistance and the capacitor also has some loss so that you won"t measure an exact cancellation. At resonance, the voltages across the inductor or the capacitor are not separately zero, but are just 180° out of phase with each other so they cancel when they are added together. From the discussion above, we can now find Ip, the amplitude of the current flowing This is just the amplitude of the source voltage Vy divided by the magnitude = , 19] To 91 hao} £- (i-4 where the resonant frequency fis given by Equation [18] and the quality factor Q is: ol 1 1 = ; 20 OT GRC De ARE (20) Finally, the phase of the current with respect to the drive voltage is: oL 1 fof = arctan 2 1 _) - arctan] o£ -o£ 21 owen apc) w(of oF mB With additional circuit analysis you can find expressions for the amplitude of the voltage across each component in the LRC circuit and the phase difference between that voltage and the drive voltage: fof =wan(o£-oF) x 45 2 2 Figure 2 shows a plot of the voltage Ve across the capacitor C as a function of frequency £ If the quality factor Q is much larger than 1, there will be a sharp peak in the voltage at the resonance frequency; the maximum voltage occurs at resonance and is Q times larger than the drive voltage Vo. Also the full-width of the resonance Afew (measured at 0.707 times the maximum voltage), divided by the resonance frequency f, is equal to VQ, that is Afrw/f, = 1/Q. Notice that the voltage across the inductor and the resistor also have a peak at the resonance, although the peak voltage across the resistor is just the drive voltage Vo, while the peak voltage across the capacitor or inductor is QVs. Notice also that at low frequencies, almost all the drive voltage is actoss the capacitor (where it has the largest impedance), while at high frequencies almost all the drive voltage is across the inductor (where it has the largest impedance). 67‘i V (volts) 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 $0,000 60,000 (2) Figure 2. Plot of voltages actoss C, L and R in a series LRC circuit vs drive frequency f, Here the resonance frequency {5-30 kHz, quality factor Q=10 and drive voltage V.=1V. Resonant peaks in the voltages occur when f= fs, The full-width frw of the peak equals fy/Q. VIL. Experiment Part A. Getting started (1) Safety Warning: This experiment involves applying ae power to circuits that have some exposed metal wires or connections. Follow safe practice when working with these circuits (see Lab 2 and page 6 of this manual). In particular, avoid touching the exposed wires or conducting surfaces. Only low voltages are used and the instruments have proper third wire safety grounds, but damage to wiring or instruments can lead to high voltages being present. (2) Download the Excel spreadsheet template for Lab 5 from ELMS Canvas. (2) Fill in your name, your lab partner's name and your lab section number. (3) The setup used for this lab is somewhat complicated (see Figure 3). Before you jump in and start randomly wiring stuff together, think a bit about the final layout. Some connections are for driving current through the LRC circuit elements (see Figure 3(b)), and the rest of the connections are there because you need to measure the voltages across the different circuit elements. We recommend first connecting the L, R and C to the Wave Generator as in Figure 3(b), and after that is done, go on to finish the setup by making the connections for ‘measuring the voltages across the L, the R, the C and the drive source (4) Connect the circuit as shown in Figure 3(a). Start by connecting the 1 kQ resistor, the 1 nF capacitor, and the open-core 34 mH inductor (connected to the 0 and 1500 sockets) in series with the Wave Generator, Next use coaxial cables to connect the channel 1, 2 and channel 3 inputs on the scope to the channel 1, 2 and 3 outputs on the 3-channel Ground Isolation Unit. 684-channel oscilloscope Figure 3. (a) Complete experimental setup for measuring voltages across the inductor L (channel 1), resistor R (channel 2), capacitor C (channel 3), and the driving voltage V. from the Wave Generator (channel 4). (b) Start putting together the setup by connecting the Wave Generator in series with the L, Rand C components. Then move on to wire up everything as in (a). Continue building up the circuit until you have made all the connections shown in Figure 3(a). Note that the 3-channel Ground Isolation Unit must be used. It prevents the voltage across the resistor or capacitor in this circuit from being grounded out by the connections to the scope inputs. (5) Tur on the scope and the 3-Channel Ground Isolation unit. Turn on the Wave Generator and set it (generate a sine wave output with an amplitude of 1 V and a frequency of 100 Hz. Do not change the voltage setting on the generator for the duration of the experiment. (6) Push the Trigger button and set the Trigger Source so that it is triggering on the Wave- Generator. This way the traces you will see displayed on the scope will show phase shifts relative to the phase of the drive voltage. (7) Make sure all four Channel Selection Buttons are lit up. Adjust the Horizontal Control knob and the Vertical control knobs (scale and offset) for channel 4 so that you can see two to four cycles of the output from the Wave Generator. Next adjust the Vertical control knobs (scale and offset) for the other channels until you can see traces from each of the four channels. To helps keep thing straight, use the Vertical Offset knob for each channel to arrange the traces on the screen from Channel 1 to 4, with 1 highest up and lined up with one of the grid lines and Channel 4 at the bottom lined up with another grid line. 69(8) Verify that you have the drive frequency set to 100 Hz. At this relatively low frequency (much lower than the resonance frequency) you should find that voltage actoss the capacitor is about 2 V peak-to-peak (channel 3), the same as the peak-to-peak voltage across the Wave Generator (channel 4) - you should have set it to a 1V amplitude on the Wave Generator and this gives it a peak-to-peak voltage of 2V. In contrast, you should see that the voltages across the R (channel 2) and L (channel 1) are much smaller. Verify that this is the case. If it is not, you need to check your wiring because something is hooked up wrong. Do not go past. this point until your circuit passes this check, (9) Point the camera at the completely connected apparatus and click “Capture image” in your template. [fan error occurs, use the Logitech software and insert the image into your spreadsheet in the designated area. Part B: Measure the voltage drops across L, R and C The goal of this part is to measure the voltage across each of the elements in the series LRC circuit as a function of the driving frequency. (1) Push the Wave Generator button and adjust/sweep the frequency from 1 kHz to 100 kHz while watching the scope traces. You should be able to see that the voltages across the L, R and C all get large at a frequency near 30 kHz. You will need to adjust the Vertical scales on the different channels as you sweep the frequency. Verify that you see a resonance. If you see a resonance frequency f, above 35 kHz or below 15 kHz, check that there is nothing inserted into the open core of the inductor and make sure you are connected to the 1 nF capacitor. If you still can’t find the resonance, recheck your wiring. If things look OK, record your best estimate for the resonance frequency in your Spreadsheet template under fre. (2) Push the Measure button and set up the scope to measure the following 4 quantities: ‘+ Vppts the peak-to-peak voltage across L (channel 1) (use the measure type AMPL to get peak-to-peak voltage) * Vopr, the peak-to-peak voltage across R (channel 2) * Vpgc, the peak-to-peak voltage across C (channel 3) * 6 the difference in phase between the voltage across the resistor and the driving voltage from the Wave Generator. This requires some playing with the soft-keys in the Measure button’s menu - you need to take the difference in phase between Channel 2 and Channel 4. You can change the second source by selecting the Settings soft-key. (3) In your template, click on the Add-Ins tab and click on the conneet to scope button (the button just to the right of “Agilent 3000”). You should see the scope listed on the left. Click Identify instrument(s), and then click OK. (4) After recording foes, the template will give you a list of frequencies to set. At each frequency use your template macro to measure and extract Vogts Vpok Vopcs Vo andy. For these ‘measurements, set the frequency f of the Wave Generator and then push the appropriate ‘macro button located in column “J” in your spreadsheet, The macro automatically extracts f (if necessary), Vppt, Voor, Vppc and V. from the scope and pastes them into EXCEL. Unfortunately it doesn’t record the phase automatically. So at each frequency, you will need 70to read the phase measurement off the display screen and enter it manually into the designated area in your spreadsheet. (5) Make a scatter plot of your data showing VppL, Vip » Vppcs and V9 versus frequency f. The curves should be on the same plot, Add axes labels and units, a chart title, and a legend. Your plot should look similar to Figure 2, except use points instead of dotted or solid lines. (6) Make a separate plot showing your measurements of 6,, the difference in phase between the voltage across the resistor and the driving voltage from the Wave Generator, versus frequency f. Add axes labels and units, a chart title, and a legend. Part C: A Simple Metal Detector see how a simple metal detector works, (1) With your LRC circuit from Part B all hooked up, tune the Wave Generator to the resonant frequency and adjust the scope so that you have a clear display of the ac voltage traces across L, R, C and the Wave Generator. Make sure the Wave Generator is still set to a sine wave with an amplitude of 1 V. (2) Take a look at the inductor and note that itis a cylinder with an open core. When ac current flows through the inductor, it generates an ac magnetic field in the core. If you place a conducting object into the core, the ac magnetic field will induce ac currents in the object. From Lenz's Law (lab 4) the induced ac currents flow in such a way that they generate a ‘magnetic field that opposes the change in magnetic field. The net effect of placing a conductor in the core is that there will be a lower magnetic field in the core and the inductance of the coil will be smaller than it was when there was nothing in the core. Since the resonant frequency depends on L, we expect that the resonant frequency will shift if we place a piece of metal in the core. This is the basic idea behind a metal detector. (3) Your setup comes with a small aluminum rod. Place the rod into the open core of the inductor and watch the scope as you do so. You should see that the traces change markedly. (4) Find the resonant frequency of the LRC circuit when the aluminum rod is resting in the open core of the inductor. To do this, adjust the Wave Generator frequency until you find the frequency when there is a maximum voltage across the L, Rand C. Once you have found the new resonant frequency, push the Part C macro button to automatically record this frequency as well as the voltages across L, R, C and the source voltage. (5) Ifyou place a soft-magnetic material into the core, the magnetic field will tend to magnetize the material leading to an increase in magnetic field in the core. The net effect is that the inductance of the coil becomes larger and again the resonant frequency changes. (6) Remove the aluminum rod from the core, replace it with the iron rod, and find the new resonant frequency of the LRC circuit, Once you have found the new resonant frequency, push the corresponding Part C macro button to automatically record this frequency as well as, the voltages across L, R, C and the source voltage. 1VUI. Analysis (1) Part B: Estimate the resonant frequeney f, of the LRC circuit from the graph you made in Part B. Record in the designated area in your spreadsheet. (2) Part B: Calculate the theoretically predicted resonant frequency f," using: 1 B= TTe [18] ‘You should find that your value for f;” is somewhat larger than your measured value fy. This happened because in real circuits such as the one you measured, there are additional “parasitic” capacitances in that add to the capacitance C you put into the circuit, This increases the overall capacitance of the system and results in a lower measured resonance frequency. Effects due to small parasitic capacitance are particularly noticeable at higher frequencies and cannot be ignored. (3) Part B: As Figure 2 illustrates, at resonance the voltage across the inductor is Q times larger than the source voltage. Examine the plot you made in Part B and use this to make your first estimate of Q, labeled Q,. Record in the designated area in your spreadsheet. (4) Part B: Figure 2 also illustrates that the full width Af of the peak (at 1/2 of the maximum voltage) should be equal to {y/Q. From your plot, estimate Af. Record this in your spreadsheet and use this to find a second estimate for Q, labeled Qo. (5) Part B: Calculate the theoretically predicted value for Q" using: yo 1 g Qa fiRC (6) Part B: In the designated columns in part B of your template, calculate the theoret expected values for Va, Vo, and Vi. as a function of a set of finely spaced frequenci have labelled as fy in your spreadsheet. To do this, use the following formulas: %=0, 2-4, (#-4) ‘The template provides you with some starting values for the fitting parameters Vor, Qn, and ££ Once you get Vx programmed into EXCEL, you just need to multiply it by Qfy/fy to get V, and by Qfw/fy to get V,. Make sure to refer to fiy and not fin your theoretical formulas so that you can get a nice, finely meshed set of points in your theoretical curves. Vi= + Op, (7) Part B: Add to your plot the theoretical curves for the voltage across the resistor, capacitor and inductor. Make the theoretical curves solid lines while the data are plotted as points without lines, (8) Part C: When you placed the aluminum rod into the inductor, by what percentage did the Rresonant frequency change? Did the resonant frequency increase or decrease? (9) Part C: When you placed the iron rod into the inductor, by what percentage did the resonant frequency change? Did the resonant frequency increase or decrease? 1X. Final Questions (1) In part B, how well did your theoretically calculated values for f, and Q agree with the values you measured? If you saw discrepancies, what do you think caused them? (2) In part B, how well did your theoretically calculated curves for Vr, Veand Vi agree with your data? (3) Some metal detectors emit a low-pitched “brooop” when they detect a buried object that is iron, which is not very valuable, and a high-pitched “beeeeep” when they find a buried object made of silver ot gold. How can the detector tell the difference between these different types of metals and know which type of beep to emit? X. Finishing Up Before Leaving the Lab (1) Check over your spreadsheet to make sure that you have not missed any steps, have filled everything in, and have no feedback messages displayed. The automatic feedback system on the template has limited ability to detect problems, so check carefully. (2) Save the spreadsheet - the template will generate two files, one with your name in the title and one with your lab partners name in the title. (3) Before leaving the lab, Log onto your area in ELMS Canvas, go to the Physics 271 assignments, and submit your spreadsheet before the deadline. (4) Log off ELMS Canvas and make sure that your lab partner logs onto their own area in ELMS Canvas and submits the copy of the spreadsheet with their own name in the file name. Make sure to log off ELMS Canvas when you are done! Each student needs to submit a copy of their spreadsheet to their own area in ELMS Canvas before leaving the lab ... don’t believe anyone who tells you otherwise. 2BHOOOHCHOCHOHHONOSCOHO SOC HOOOHOLOH0OG2O890000000Experiment VI Review for the First Culminating Lab I. Purpose The purpose of this lab is to allow you to prepare for the practical exam by reviewing the main apparatus, data t the first five Experiments. This is a required and graded lab - itis not optional, I. Preparing for the Lab ‘You need to prepare before going to the lab and doing this Review Lab. Start by reading through this lab write-up. If you find that you are unfamiliar with any of the parts of this lab, go back over the corresponding sections of the Lab Manual that those parts came from. Next, g0 10 the Physics 271 site on ELMS Canvas and click on the video link for the experiment. Finally, make sure you work through all of the Pre-Lab questions and submit your answers to ELMS Canvas before your lab. There are a lot of them this week because you need to start preparing for the practical exam. III. Pre-lab Questions (Submit answers to ELMS Canvas before your lab section meets) The questions on Canvas will typically vary somewhat from those given below - be sure 10 read the ELMS questions and choices carefully before answering. #1, Experiment = and B fields: A very long wire has tinea charge density = 2 uC. What is the potential difference between points at radial distances r, = Tem and r2 = 2em. #2. Experiment | - E and B fields; What is the magnitude of the magnetic field in the center of a very long solenoid with n= 10,000 turns per meter with I= 1 mA? #3. Experiment II - Multimeter and Oscilloscope: If | V is applied across a 1 kQ resistor, how much current flows through the resistor? #4. Experiment IL - Multimeter and Oscilloscope: If 10 mA of current flows through a 100 2 Feststor what isthe vollage drop across the resistor? #5, Experiment IIl_- Resistors and Capacitors: A 1 kQ resistor is connected across a | nF capacitor, Calculate the time constant for discharging the capacitor. #6, Experiment Ill - Resistors and Capacitors: A sine wave has an RMS amplitude of 2V. What is the peak-to-peak voltage of the wave? #7. Experiment IV - Faraday"s Law and Inductors: A 1 mH inductor is connected in series with a 100 Q resistor. What is the time constant for “discharging” the inductor? #8, Experiment IV - Faraday"s Law and Inductors: A coil rotates at 50 revolutions per second in afield of 2x10 Tesla. Ifthe coil has a cross-sectional area of 20 cm? and has 1000 tums, what is the amplitude of the EMF in the coil? #9, Experiment V - Resonance in an LRC circuit: What is the impedance of a 30 mH inductor at a frequency of 30 kHz? #10. Experiment V - Resonance in an LRC circuit: A series LRC cireuit is driven at a frequency which is much greater than the resonant frequency with a sine wave voltage source with an amplitude of 1 V, What is the approximate voltage amplitude across the inductor? 141V. Equipment The room has been arranged with at least three setups each of Experiments I- V, just like ft will be for the practical exam. Some stations may have setups for more than one experiment. V. Experiment Part A. Getting started (1) Grab a seat at one of the lab benches, log onto ELMS Canvas and download the spreadsheet template for Lab VI - The First Review. (2) Fill in your name, your lab partner’s name, and your section number. (3) While you are waiting for your lab partner to show up, take a look at the setup on your lab bench and figure out which experiment the setup is for. Find the part covering that experiment in the write-up below. After your lab partner arrives, work through all of the measurements, questions and analysis for that setup. When you are done with that part, turn off the equipment and let your TA know you are done and need to switch to another setup. Go to the next available set up and work on its corresponding part in the write-up. Continue this process until you have worked through all the parts. Part B - Experiment I (E and B fields) (1) Open the “Lab templates” folder on the Desktop and open the Logger Pro template called “Magnetic Fields”. Straighten the tip if it is bent. Search for a probe orientation that maximizes the magnetic field. Make sure you don’t move the probe near anything that could bbe magnetized. When you have found the orientation, use a protractor to record the approximate inclination (angle made with the horizontal) and record the magnitude of the Earth's magnetic field in milli-Tesla given by Logger Pro in your template. (2) Find the current board and attach a new piece of paper to the top of the board, tape it at the edges, and use the metal drawing template to trace the dipole. Remove the metal drawing template. Mark the center of each circle with a point, then use a ruler to draw a straight line from the center of one circle to the center of the other. Starting from the right edge of the left circle, make a mark on the line every 0.01 m until the edge of the right circle is reached. Don’t mark inside the right circle. You should have 6 marks in total. Set up the apparatus as. shown in Figure | below. Set the multimeter to measure voltage. The voltmeter (multimeter) is connected between one electrode and the probe. To prevent a short circuit and possible electrode damage, do not allow the metal templates or other metal objects to get under the current boards. Tum on the power supply and set it to 5 V. Use the voltage probe to measure the potential V at the location of each mark x and record these values in your template. When you are all done, turn off the power supply and disconnect all wires to the circuits when you are done. (3) Make a plot showing your measurements of V versus x from the previous step. Be sure to Jabel the axes, add units, and include an appropriate title for the chart. 15(1) Use the multimeter to measure the resistance of a 300 Q (orange black brown) and a 1 kQ (brown black red) resistor which are connected in series. (2) Next, set the multimeter to ac and rotate the big central knob to the A setting to use it as an ac ammeter. Connect the scope’s wave generator in series with the ammeter (use the mA and com plugs) and a I k@ resistor (brown black red). Set the Wave Generator to output a sine ‘wave with a 1V amplitude and a frequency of 200 Hz. What is the ac current reported by the ammeter? (3) Take the circuit apart and connect the scope’s Wave Generator directly to the channel 1 input. Set the Wave Generator to output a sine wave with a 0.1 V amplitude and a frequency ‘of 2000 kHz. Adjust the horizontal and vertical controls so that you can see three or four complete cycles of the input signal. Set the trigger so that you are triggering on channel 1 and set and adjust the trigger level to get a clear display. In your template, click on the Add-Ins tab and click on the connect to scope button, click Identify instrument(s), and then click OK. Go to Part C in your Excel template and click on the Extract Scope Data macro button in the section for Part B. This automatically grabs the channel 1 data from the scope and puts it into your spreadsheet. If you have a problem, make sure that there is a USB cord going from the back of the scope to your computer. (4) What is the shortest time you can measure with the oscilloscope? Be sure to include units with your answer. (5) What is the highest frequency you can generate with the Wave Generator? Be sure to include units with your answer. (6) Disconnect all wires to the circuits when you are done. Part ent ILI (Resistors and Capacitors) (1) Conneet the scope’s Wave Generator in series with the 1 nF capacitor and the 10 kQ resistor. Set the generator so that it is generating a square wave with 1 V amplitude at a frequency of 1620 kHz. Use the oscilloscope to measure the voltage across the capacitor. (2) Suppose a 10 kHz signal with an amplitude of 1 V is applied across a 1 kQ resistor and a 0.25 nF capacitor which are connected in series. What is the amplitude of the voltage drop across the capacitor? (3) Use Figure 2 as a guide to wire up your next circuit. Make sure the power supply is tumed off. Find the 300 k@ resistor (orange-black-yellow) and the 1 k®2 resistor (brown-black-red) and the 100 HF capacitance (on a separate board) and record their values in your spreadsheet. Make sure the switch is open for now. Before turning on the power supply, trace the circuit from the positive terminal of the power supply and confirm that it goes to the switch, then to the 1 k@2 resistor and then to the positive terminal of the capacitor, as shown in Figure 2. Open the LoggerPro template called “Voltage vs time”. The LabPro box should be reading a voltage with a sample rate of 1 samples/s and a measurement duration of 200 s. Make sure the current knob is not turned all the way down (just give it a little bit), then turn on the power supply, and set the voltage to 10 V. Close the knife switch and wait for the capacitor to fully charge up. Click “Collect”, wait 1-2 seconds for LoggerPro to collect a section that shows the constant starting voltage, and then open the switch. LoggerPro will continue to take data for a total of 200 s as the voltage V- across the capacitor slowly falls towards zero. Copy and paste your time and voltage data into the designated area of your template. Use EXCEL to make a plot of the V¢ versus t data, Make sure to label the axes appropriately. (4) Disconnect all wires to the circuits when you are done. (bd) desupeiy Figure 2. (a) Circuit schematic and (b) physical circuit layout for charging a capacitor and measuring the discharging of the capacitor through a resistor. 7(1) Place the small solenoid inside the large solenoid. Connect the output of the Wave Generator to the small coil, Set output of the generator to make a sine wave with 1 V amplitude at a frequency of 20 kHz. Connect the large coil to the channel I scope input. Adjust the scope to get a stable display, measure the peak-to-peak voltage across the large coil, and record in your spreadsheet. (2) Disconnect everything from the scope and then connect the flip-coil output terminals to the seope’s Channel 1 input. Set the scope to trigger on Channel 1. Make sure the flip coil is securely clamped to the table and then position the magnet so that the flip-coil sits between the poles. Don’t let the rotating coil strike the magnet and keep the permanent magnet well away from the scope. Start with the motor controller turned down to a slow speed so you can watch the coil and verify nothing is hitting. Then increase the motor’s rotation rate to a frequency f of 3000 rpm. Adjust the Horizontal and Vertical controls on the scope to get & nice display. Use the scope to measure the peak-to-peak voltage V. across the flip coil and record Vz in your spreadsheet. (3) Use the designated column in your spreadsheet to convert the rotation frequency from rpm to Hz. 4) Given the rotation frequency f and voltage Vo you measured, and assuming the flip-coil has 10 turns and an area of 2 cm’, what is the magnetic field produced by the magnet (5) Disconnect all wires to the circuits when you are done, Part E: Experiment V (Resonance in an LRC circuit) (1) An inductor, capacitor and resistor are connected in series with a voltage generator. Explain why there is a voltage across a real inductor at low frequencies (even at de). (2) Connect the inductor, a 1 nF capacitor and a | kQ resistor in series with the Wave generator. Set output of the generator to makea sine wave with | V amplitude. Use the scope to find the resonant frequency and measure the voltage across the inductor at the resonant frequency. Record both the resonant frequency and the voltage across the inductor in your template. (3) Using the same circuit, measure the voltage across the inductor at frequencies of 10 kHz, 20 kHz, 30 KHz, and 40 kHz. (4) Plot your voltages vs frequency and label your axes. Find the approximate full width of the resonance. From the full width and your resonance frequency, find Q. (5) Disconnect all wires to the circuit when you are done, 8VL Fini ig Up Before Leaving the Lab (1) Check over your spreadsheet to make sure that you have not missed any steps, have filled everything in, and have no feedback messages displayed. The automatic feedback system on the template has limited ability to detect problems, so check carefiully. (2) Save the spreadsheet - the template will generate two files, one with your name in the title and one with your lab partners name in the title, (3) Before leaving the lab, Log onto your area in ELMS Canvas, go to the Physics 271 assignments, and submit your spreadsheet before the deadline (4) Log off ELMS Canvas and make sure that your lab partner logs onto their own area in ELMS Canvas and submits the copy of the spreadsheet with their own name in the file name. Make sure to log off ELMS Canvas when you are done! Each student needs to submit a copy of their spreadsheet to their own area in ELMS. Canvas before leaving the lab ... don’t believe anyone who fells you otherwise, v dditional Practice and Study Questions The questions below are provided to help you prepare for the practical Exam. They are not To be submitted to ELMS but versions of these questions may appear on the practical Exam. (1) Experiment 1- E and B fields: Explain how you can measure the magnitude and direction of the Earth’s field using the apparatus in Experiment 1 (2) Experiment I- E and B fields: True or False: Electric field lines point along equipotential surfaces. (3) Experiment 1 - E and B fields; Which of the following equipotential mappit Fae as by | eo) i) | | ° (4) Experiment Il - Multimeter and Oscilloscope: State Ohms law. (5) Experiment II_- Multimeter and Oscilloscope: Draw a circuit diagram showing how to connect a voltmeter to measure the voltage across a resistor that is connected to a battery. (© Experiment I= Multimeter_and Oscilloscope: Draw a circuit diagram showing how to connect an ammeter to measure current flow through a resistor that is connected to a battery. 79(7) Experiment II_- Multimeter and Oscilloscope: A current of 1 mA flows through a resistor when it has a 2 volt drop across it. What is the resistance of the resistor? (8) Experiment Il - Multimeter and Oscilloscope: Explain what the horizontal controls do on an oscilloscope. (9) Experiment IL = Multimeter and Oscilloscope: Explain what the trigger controls do on an oscilloscope. (10) Experiment II - Multimeter and Oscilloscope: Explain what the vertical controls do on an oscilloscope. (11) Experiment LIL - Resistors and Capacitors: A student measures the voltage across a capacitor ‘45 a function of time as the capacitor discharges, finding voltages of V = 5 V, 4 V, 3.2 V, 2.6 V, 2 V, and 1.6 V at times t= 0 us, 10 ps, 20 is, 30 1s, 40 ps, and 50 ps respectively. Use your spreadsheet to make a semi-log plot of the voltage versus the time. Use the spreadsheet to find the slope of the resulting straight line and the time constant for discharging the capacitor. (12) Experiment III - Resistors and Capacitors: Draw a schematic of a low-pass filter. Be sure to show where the input voltage is applied and where the output voltage is measured. (13) Experiment III - Resistors and Capacitors: In a few sentences, explain what a high-pass filter is. (14) Experiment III - Resistors and Capacitors: In a few sentences, describe the circuit layout for a low-pass filter and explain how it works. (15) Experiment [ll - Resistors and Capacitors: Suppose a signal V(t) is applied. Which of these circuits will block de voltages on V(t) from appearing at the V, but allow ac signals to pass through, ie. which one is a high pass filter? © o i AN c (16) Experiment III - Resistors and Capacitors: A sine wave has an amplitude of 1V, What is the peak-to-peak voltage of the wave? (17) Experiment IV - Faraday’s Law: A constant current flows through a coil. Why doesn’t this produce a voltage in a fixed coil of wire which is placed nearby? (18) Experiment IV - Faraday’s Law: Using a coil of wire and an oscilloscope, explain how you Can jeiet the presence ofthe Earth's magnetic field. (19) Experiment IV - Faraday’s Law: Using a coil of wire and an oscilloscope, explain how you ‘could show that a magnet is producing a magnetic field, 80(20) Experiment IV - Faraday’s Law: How much voltage is there across a 100 mH inductor if the current is changing at 10 mA/s? (21) Experiment V -Resonance in an LRC circuit: Can the voltage across the capacitor in a series LRC circuit be larger than the voltage across the voltage source? Briefly explain. (22) Experiment V -Resonance in an LRC circuit: How can we make the Q of an LRC circuit larger? (23) Experiment V -Resonance in an LRC circuit: How can we increase the resonant frequency of an LRC circuit? (24) Experiment V -Resonance in an LRC circuit: A 30 mH inductor, a I nF capacitor and alk resistor are connected in series with a voltage generator. What is the expected resonant frequency and Q of the circuit? (25) Experiment V -Resonance in an LRC circuit: Explain how to measure the resonant frequency and Q of a resonant circuit. ina series (26) Experiment V -Resonance in an LRC circuit: Can the voltage across the inductor LRC circuit be larger than the voltage across the voltage source? Briefly explain. (27) Experiment V -Resonance in an LRC circuit: A series LRC circuit is driven at a frequency which is much Tess than the resonant frequency with a sine wave voltage source Vosin(at). Whaat is the approximate voltage across the capacitor? Briefly explain. (28) Experiment V -Resonance inan LRC circuit: A series LRC circuit is driven at resonance with a sine wave voltage source. What is the sum of the voltages across the inductor and the capacitor in an ideal circuit? Briefly explain, (29) Experiment V -Resonance in an LRC circuit: Explain the difference between impedance and resistance. (30) Briefly describe the purpose of each of the five experiments you did so far in Physics 271. 81Experiment VII First Culminating Lab 1. Purpose “This examination tests your understanding of the first five labs. IL. Preparing for the Lab ‘There are no Pre-Lab Questions, You should have prepared for this exam by doing last week’s Review and working on the Additional Practice and Study Questions at the end of the Review. ULL, Equipment ‘The room has been arranged with at least three setups each of Experiments I, II, III, TV and V. Your TA will give you a copy of the exam and a memory stick. IV. General Instructions for the Culminating Lab Write your name on this paper copy of the exam NOW. ~ You must complete this exam by yourself without anyone else’s assistance and without assisting anyone. There is no talking or discussing during the exam and no sharing of answers, data or any other information with your lab partner or any other students. - This is a closed book and closed notes exam. Calculators, laptop computers, and cell phones are not allowed. You cannot use notes, scrap paper, the lab manual, or your old spreadsheets. = If you have a question about the exam, raise your hand to let your TA know. ~ There are 10 questions in the exam, drawn from the review questions. Look at the setup in front of you, find the corresponding part of the exam and start working on it. Write your answers on this paper copy of the exam, If you run out of space, use the back side, Write clearly. ~ You may need to use Excel to answer some questions. Other than the Excel Exam Template and the labs Logger Pro templates, you are not allowed to use any files which you or anyone else created prior to this exam. You are only allowed to save your exam spreadsheet on the memory stick provided by your TA. You must carry this with you as you work. Do not share this with other students, When you get to a question that requires Excel, if'a computer is available at your set up, open the Exam Excel template, find your Experiment and question and answer it. Save ‘your spreadsheet on the memory stick that your instructor gave you. - When you are finished with the part you are working on, save your spreadsheet, exit Excel (and LoggerPro if you used it), tur off all of the equipment and raise your hand to let your instructor know you are ready to move to another set-up. = When you are all done, make sure you have your name on the exam, and then hand the paper copy of your exam and your memory stick to your TA. 8200080006 000000000 00000090009000990090080008Experiment VIL Photovoltaic cell 1. Purpose The purpose of this lab is to observe the behavior of a photovoltaic cell when it is exposed to light of different intensities. I. Preparing for the Lab ‘You need to prepare before going to the lab and doing this experiment, Start by reading through this lab write-up. Pay particular attention to the introductory material on photocells as it is not found in Knight's Physics for Scientists and Engineers. Next, go to the Physics 271 site on ELMS Canvas and click on the video link for the experiment. Finally, don’t forget to tum in your ‘answers to the pre-lab questions to ELMS Canvas before your lab starts. IIT. Pre-lab Questions (Submit answers to ELMS Canvas before vour lab section meets) The questions on Canvas will typically vary somewhat from those given below - be sure to read the ELMS questions and choices carefully before answering. #1. A photovoltaic cell is a pn-diode that has been optimized for generating electricity from light. True or False? #2. As Ohm's Law says, the current through a photovoltaic cell is proportional to the voltage across the photocell, True or False? #3. The maximum voltage generated across a silicon solar cell that has 4 sub-cells connected in series is approximately: (a) 0.1 V, (b) 0.4 V, (¢) 0.55 V, (d) 1 V, (e) 2.2 V, or (f) 4V ? #4. When there is zero voltage across an ideal photocell, the amount of current that flows from the photocell is (a) zero, (b) proportional to the intensity of light on the photocell, (c) impossible to say without measuring the result. #5, The intensity of light from a point source that is a distance r away (a) does not depend on r, (b) varies as Log(t), (c) varies as 1/r, (d) varies as 1/r, or (¢) cannot be determined from the information given. IV. Equipment: oscilloscope Tim stick 4-cell silicon photocell support stand and clamp for photocell multimeter adjustable incandescent light dimmable red, green, blue, white LED light box BNC-banana connectors, banana plug wires and coaxial BNC cables 83V. Introduction In this lab you will be examining an inexpensive solar cell and using it to measure light. Solar cells are a type of photovoltaic device (a light-voltage device) that includes closely related Photocells, photo-detectors or photo-diodes, with different names being used for different applications. Solar cells are widely used to generate electrical power in small consumer devices and the ones you will be using have been taken from solar-powered landscape lights. Most of the basic physics of how a photocell works is beyond the scope of Physics 270/271, Nevertheless, since you will be using photo-detectors in the labs, it is useful to get some practical understanding of how they work and you have all of the tools necessary to do so. Figure I(a) shows the electrical symbol for a photovoltaic cell - this is just the symbol for a diode with an indication that light is applied. In fact, a photocell is just a pn-diode that has been optimized to convert light into electrical power. A pn-diode is a semiconductor device that has an n-doped region grown on a p-doped region (see Figure 1(b)), The n region is silicon that has been doped with atoms (such as phosphorus) that add extra electrons. The p region is silicon that has been doped with atoms (such as boron) that remove electrons and leave holes (positive charge) to conduct electricity. In the n-doped region, current is carried by electrons. In the p- doped region, current is carried by holes. If you connect the photocell across a resistor and shine light on the photocell, positive current 1 will flow out of p-doped side of the photocell, through the resistor and into the n-doped side of the photocell. Figure 1(c) shows a diagram of the energy of electrons in the p and n regions of the photocell. Between the p and n regions is a depletion region with an internal electric field that acts to keep electrons on the n-side and holes on the p side, The upper curve shows the energy of electrons in the conduction band. Notice it is lower on the left, in the n-doped region, indicating that the energy of electrons is lower in the n-doped region, which is why the figure shows electrons in the n-doped region. The lower solid blue region shows the energy of electrons in the valence band. It is solid blue to show that all of the states in the valence band are full, except the p-region where there are some holes, or missing electrons. You can think of the holes as bubbles that are floating on a sea of electrons - the higher up they are, the lower their energy is - that is why the holes are shown confined to the p region in Figure 1(c) ‘When light is absorbed in a photocell, it happens one photon at a time, Each absorbed @ pet Figure 1. (a) Electrical symbol for a photovoltaic cell indicating direction of current generated when light is absorbed. (b) pn-diode showing n-doped region with electrons and p-doped region with holes (positive cartiers), (c) Energy band diagram showing internal electric field that separates the electrons and holes generated when light is absorbed and drives current. 84photon can cause one electron to be transferred from the valence band (the lower energy band) to the conduction band (the upper energy band). This also leaves a hole in the valence band. The internal electric field pushes the electron to the n region and the hole to the p region (see Figure 1(c)), causing additional positive charge to appear in the p-doped region and additional negative charge to appear in the n-doped region and this can be used to drive current through a circuit, just like a battery. The higher the intensity of the light, the more photons are absorbed each second and the higher the generated current will be. In part B of this lab, you will measure how the current through a photovoltaic cell depends on intensity of the light and the voltage across the cell. The effect of the light is simple in principle - the more optical power that is incident on the photocell, the more current will be generated, as discussed above. On the other hand, there is not a linear relationship between the current I from the photocell and the voltage V across the photocell. A pn-diode is a classic non- linear device with an IV characteristic that ideally obeys: 1, +1,(exp(eV /k,T)-1) o) where Ip is the current generated by the absorption of light (it is proportional to the total optical power Poy absorbed in the photocell), I, is a constant that depends on details of the photocells construction, T is the temperature in Kelvin, ky=1.38x10 J/K is Boltzmann’s constant, and the charge of an electron is - where ¢ = 1.609x10"" C. Equation [1] shows that the current 1 from the photo cell is not proportional to the voltage V, but instead depends exponentially on voltage. Figure 2(a) shows a simplified circuit for measuring the current I generated by a photocell as a function of the voltage V across the photocell. Figure 2(b) shows the theoretical I versus V for an ideal photocell for different light intensities from Equation [1]. Note that the higher intensity gives more current. However, positive current is only supplied up to about 0.5V. When positive current is delivered at positive voltage, power is being generated, so the entire first quadrant of the plot corresponds to electrical power generation from light. Solar cells will typically have several individual photovoltaic cells in series to increase the output voltage (see Fig. 2(c)). For N silicon photocells in series, the maximum voltage will be about N*0.55 V. The solar cells you will use in this lab have N=4 cells so they generate enough voltage to charge an AA battery. Real solar cells also have a contact resistance Ry. in series with the cells and some shunting resistance Ra across the cells (see Figure 2(c)) Resistance produces electrical loss and lowers the efficiency of the power generation. Typically Ry<

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