Comprehension

Anne Bayetto, Flinders University

What is comprehension and why is it important?
Comprehension is about understanding authors
messages and responding to these messages in a range
of ways. Supported by proficient decoding and fluency,
comprehension affords readers increased knowledge
about the world. In fact, Hirsch (2003), Keene and
Zimmerman (2013) & Walsh (2003) advocate that
continually developing vocabulary and background
knowledge grows comprehension at an exponential rate,
that is, the more that is already known, the more readily
readers are able to acquire new knowledge. Students
need to have a diverse range of understandings,
knowledge, and skills in order to comprehend what is
read and it cannot be assumed that accurately naming
words guarantee they have secure comprehension
(Billman, Hilden, & Halladay, 2009; Miller, 2014; Opitz,
Rubin, & Erekson, 2011; Scull, 2010; Woolley, 2011).
The capacity to understand what is read is very much
influenced by interest, motivation and self-image (Gill,
2008). Key also may be whether texts are prescribed or
self-selected and the text type, for example, fiction or
non-fiction. In addition, students should be reading a
range of texts about different topics as well as reading
multiple texts about the same topic (Gelzheiser,
Hallgren-Flynn, Connors, & Scanlon, 2014). Further,
Stead (2014, p. 491) makes the point that there ought to
be more texts read that offer students the opportunity
to argue, persuade, instruct, and respond. Students
need to engage in reading practices that reflect what
adult readers do, that is, to think about what has been
read, to talk with others, and as a formative learning
process, to record their thinking about texts in
meaningful and literary ways because reading is
inherently a social process (Harvey & Goudvis, 2013;
Miller, 2014). Schmoker (2007) makes the point that
educators should avoid assigning pseudo-reading
comprehension tasks (designing new book covers,
making murals and other art and craft activities) at the
expense of having students engage in meaningful
discussions about what has been read (Gillet, Temple,
Temple, & Crawford, 2012; Hoyt, Davis, Olson, &
Boswell, 2011). To be avoided is immediate questioning
(oral or written) once students have finished reading as
this narrows students responses. In fact, Gill (2008)
asserts that teachers undertake way more testing of
comprehension than teaching of comprehension
strategies. Preferable is the opportunity for students to
provide an unassisted retell of what was read and
understood. However, if an unassisted retell suggests
limited comprehension then teachers would go on to ask

both lower-order and higher-order questions to elicit

understandings. Related to this, Allington (2012, p. 129)
suggests that it is possible teachers have too often
confused remembering with understanding. We have
focused on recitation of texts, not thoughtful
consideration and discussion of texts. However, Kintsch
(1998 in Reutzel & Cooter, 2011, p. 276) points out
readers can remember a text without learning from it
and they can learn from a text without remembering
much about it.
Links with reading
Oral language. Listening to teachers read aloud and
participating in conversations about texts is an
important first step on the way to becoming a reader.
Once students are able to read connected texts they
need to be taught increasingly sophisticated speaking
skills so that they can meaningfully engage in discussions
(Communication Trust, 2013).
Vocabulary. Knowing the meaning of many words
supports comprehension because readers do not need
to stop as often to seek clarification (Beck, McKeown, &
Kucan, 2013). Reading widely and often provides
continued access to new words while words that are not
immediately familiar can be problem-solved by drawing
on known strategies. It is highly likely that students who
do not have an increasing vocabulary will find that
curriculum demands outstrip their capacity to process
what is expected to be read and understood (Newkirk,
2013/2014).
Letter-sound and word knowledge. Secure decoding
and high-frequency sight word knowledge takes away
processing demands at the letter and word level so
readers are free to focus on meaning (Caldwell & Leslie,
2013).
Fluency. The ability to automatically and successfully
name words (accuracy), read using a smooth and flowing
style (rate), and with attention to phrasing, intonation,
stress and punctuation (prosody) is indicative that
students are reading with understanding (Hasbrouck,
2006).
Factors that influence comprehension development
1. Allocating instructional time to teach
comprehension strategies that later become
automatic skills (Conley & Wise, 2011; McLaughlin,
2010; Serravallo, 2010).

Comprehension

Anne Bayetto, Flinders University

2. Teaching all comprehension strategies in the early
years at school. Teachers of younger students would
logically model strategies during shared reading and
later have students apply these strategies during
guided reading sessions when reading texts at their
own reading stage/level. Subsequent teachers would
go on to strengthen these strategies by having
students read increasingly more complex texts
(Harvey & Goudvis, 2013). Also, comprehension
strategies are not necessarily learned in a linear way
so teachers would reasonably not expect full and
deep understanding and application before moving
onto introducing another strategy. What does matter
is revisiting and refining these strategies across time
(Himmele, Himmele, & Potter, 2014). This then
highlights the logic of reporting what was achieved as
information is passed onto subsequent teachers.
3. Systematic and explicit instruction through
demonstration (modelling), guided practice and
multiple opportunities for independent practice with
process feedback. While sometimes variously named,
strategies to be taught include: Connecting with prior
knowledge, Predicting, Getting the main
idea/Determining importance, Visualising,
Summarising, Synthesising, Monitoring and
Clarifying, Inferring and Questioning (Bayetto, 2013;
Wexler, Reed, Mitchell, Doyle, & Clancy, 2014).
4. Intention. Students need to know why they are
reading a text and what they will be asked to do after
they have read it.
5. Word recognition. Effortless word recognition frees
readers to focus on understanding what is read. If
texts are too difficult, even after teacher scaffolding,
they should be replaced with other texts that will
give more satisfactory reading experiences.
6. Text types. Comprehension strategies need to be
taught and applied when reading both fiction and
non-fiction as text types place different demands on
readers (Hammond & Nessel, 2011; Opitz, Rubin, &
Erekson, 2011). Yopp & Yopp (2006, p. 37), along
with numerous other writers, maintain that there
should be MUCH more reading of non-fiction texts as
they provide answers to childrens questions about
their world and build background knowledge crucial
to text comprehension.
7. Text layout. Print and digital texts can place varying
demands on readers and there is no guarantee that
students will move seamlessly across these demands
without explicit instruction as to how to manage
features unique to texts, for example, immediate

access to dictionary meanings when reading e-books

can be an asset if meanings can be understood
(RAND Reading Study Group, 2002).
8. Metacognition. Students who do not self-monitor
may read words without stopping to think whether
they understand. If this continues, the very students
who most need positive reading experiences may be
the ones who give up because they dont get it.
Predictably there are diverse readers in any
classroom ranging from those who realise when they
have stopped understanding and successfully deal
with it through to other readers who dont
understand that they are meant to comprehend what
is being read (Fisher & Frey, 2012; Ford & Opitz,
2011; Kelley & Clausen-Grace, 2007). Afflerbach, Cho,
Kim, Crassas, & Doyle, (2013, p. 440) make the point
that successful readers are metacognitive. They plan
their reading in relation to specific goals, and they
monitor and evaluate their reading as it progresses.
9. Oral and silent reading. Hiebert, Samuels, & Rasinski
(2012) remind teachers that when students orally
read they most often have scaffolded support from a
listener but when reading silently they are on their
own, meaning that they need to have the stamina to
stay with the task AND be able to self-monitor their
comprehension. In fact, when replicating and
endorsing the efficacy of prior research Prior,
Fenwick, Saunders, Ouellette, OQuinn, & Harvey
(2011, p. 189) found that an oral reading advantage
for comprehension was found for students in first
through fifth grades and that while grade six was a
transitional phase it was only in grade seven that
silent reading afforded more assured comprehension.
They go on to recommend that silent reading should
not be the sole practice in middle and upper primary
classrooms.
10.Generalisation. Students capacity to select,
generalise and apply their comprehension skills are
essential as no one strategy will always work for all
reading needs. Harvey and Goudvis (2013, p. 433)
make the point that having a nodding acquaintance
with a few strategies is not enough. Students must
know when, why, and how to use them. When
asked by teachers, students should be able to name
what comprehension strategies they used when
reading and why they were successful (Palinscar &
Schutz, 2011; Shanahan, Callison, Carriere, Duke,
Pearson, Schatschneider, & Torgesen, 2010).
11. Reading texts at students cognitive level. Landrigan
& Mulligan (n. d.) make the point that just because

Comprehension

Anne Bayetto, Flinders University

students can name most of the words in some texts
does not mean that they should be reading them.
They go on to say These books, although engaging,
may be difficultto fully grasp because of
sophisticated themes; characters who are at different
stages of life; and unfamiliar settings or time periods
(unpaginated).
Instructional approaches (general)
1. Pre-reading. Model what independent and successful
readers do as they get ready to read, for example,
they read the blurb, glance through the text, and
anticipate what they will be reading.
2. During reading. Teach students HOW to monitor
their understanding as they are reading (Afflerbach,
Cho, Kim, Crassas, & Doyle, 2013).
3. After reading. Have students talk with others about
what has been read or write responses to interesting
questions about their texts.
4. At every year level, read aloud a balance of fiction
and non-fiction to students. Not all texts might be
read in full (There is nothing like tantalising
expectation!) and the same text may be re-read on
another occasion with a different intention in mind,
for example, with a focus on a particular character or
point of view. Also, consider reading texts by the
same author so that students desire to read a text
that was read aloud may be re-directed while they
wait for access.
Connecting to prior knowledge
Please note. When reading non-fiction it may be
more efficient to supply background knowledge so
students have correct information rather than spend
time responding to confusions (Wexler, Reed,
Mitchell, Doyle, & Clancy, 2014).
1. Model the language used when thinking about what
is already known about a topic/theme. This title
reminds me of. Let me tell you about a book I read
about this topic. When I read those words/this
section it reminded me of. What do I know about
the author/topic /text type that will help me
understand what I am about to read? The author
writes about the same topics so this text will probably
be about
2. Fiction. Read texts where connections can be made
with what is already known. This text is about heroes.
What heroes do you know about?
3. Non-fiction. Read thematically linked texts that build
on a topic that is already familiar. This process

broadens vocabulary and develops deeper content

knowledge and comprehension (Gelzheiser, HallgrenFlynn, Connors, & Scanlon, 2014).
4. Have students notate/place a paper strip in a text
where it reminds them of something they already
know. When finished reading have them talk with a
partner about what was identified.
5. Before reading pose a question and ask students to
write for two minutes about their views. Have them
share their thinking. Now read the text and later
compare what they wrote with what the author
stated.
Predicting
1. Model how to look at the text and visuals on the
front and back cover and throughout the text. What
is it likely to be about?
2. Read the text title. Have the students predict five-ten
words (no prepositions or conjunctions) they believe
will be in the text. Lets see if youre correct!
3. Use lead statements to help focus students thinking.
I think it is about because
4. Stop partway through reading and ask for predictions
about what may be coming up. Write predictions on
the page/board and later highlight those that were
correct.
5. Fiction. Stop at a crucial stage and ask students how
they would solve the problem. What do you think X
will do now?
Getting the main idea/determining importance
1. Project text onto a board and model how to identify
key words that suggest the main idea. Explain why
they are the important words.
2. Write three sentences about a text on the board and,
after reading, ask students to nominate the sentence
that best describes the main idea.
3. Have students stop partway through reading. What
main idea does the author want you to know?
4. Main idea sorts. Distribute sentences from the text
and have students classify the sentences as being
either the main or supporting ideas.
5. Have students make a statement. The important
main idea is.The headings and sub-headings are
showing what the author thinks is important.
Visualising
1. Model how to visualise. These words make me think
it looks like.This word tells me it smelled. The
sounds would bebecause it says here that

Comprehension

Anne Bayetto, Flinders University

2. Read part of a text to students and have them draw
what they saw.
3. Give students a piece of paper divided into four.
Read one quarter of a text to students, stop and ask
them to draw in the first box their image so far. Read
the next quarter of the text and ask them to draw the
image they saw in that section and so on. Did your
images change as I read? (Bayetto, 2013, p. 117).
4. Read a single sentence from a text. Id like you to
imagine the sentence and draw it. What can you see
in your mind? After you have drawn the sentence I
will show you the picture the author used (Bayetto,
2013, p. 117).
5. Poems often have strong descriptions. Read poems
aloud and ask students to discuss what the words led
them to see.
Summarising
1. Model how to pinpoint the main idea, give a few
other key points, and then finish by giving a brief
description of the authors conclusion.
2. Sand-timer Summary. Ask students to give their
summary before the sand runs out (Please note:
Sand-timers come in different timed varieties).
3. Have students use a favourite song to sing their
summary.
4. Give students 4-6 counters and ask them to place
the counters only on phrases/sentences of a text that
summarise it (Bayetto, 2013, p. 118).
5. Give Me Five. Have students use just five sentences
to summarise a text (Bayetto, 2013, p. 118).
Synthesising
1. Model how to synthesise. What do I take from
reading this text? What did this text mean? What do I
think now?
2. Relate synthesising to content areas (Miller, 2013).
We are synthesising our learning about how
growth and survival of living things are affected by
the physical conditions of their environment (ACARA,
2012, unpaginated).
3. Read a non-fiction text where students already have
some prior knowledge about the topic. What do you
now know that built on what you already knew?
(Bayetto, 2013, p. 119).
4. After reading, have students suggest alternative text
titles that would align with the authors intention.
5. Read non-fiction texts about the same topic/issue.
What do you now think about?

6. Timer. When the timer sounds ask students to turn

and tell their partner the gist (essence) of what they
have just read.
Monitoring and clarifying
1. Relate each strategy to a traffic sign (e.g., stop signstop reading and try to restate in your own words
what is happening in the text; U-turn-reread parts of
the text that do not make sense (Shanahan, Callison,
Carriere, Duke, Pearson, Schatschneider, & Torgesen,
2010, p. 12).
2. Have students place three sticky notes/slips of paper
in the early, middle, and later part of their text. When
you come to the sticky notes/slips of paper, stop
reading and ask yourself whether you understand
what you have just read. What could you do if you do
not understand?
3. Model how to monitor and clarify understanding. I
get it. I better read that part again because I didnt
get it. Im not sure what is going on. The author is
saying that. This text is hard to read: I need to
change it. Ill turn the headings into questions and
look for information to answer them.
Inferring
1. Use a document camera to project a wordless picture
book onto the board and talk through what can be
inferred from the visuals. I am looking at the
characters face/body language and inferring that
s/he feels. Discuss with students that how visuals
are inferred and interpreted is dependent on an
individuals background knowledge (Lysaker, &
Miller, 2012; Serafini, 2014; Stahl, 2014).
2. Listen while I read what the character said. How do
you think s/he feels? (Bayetto, 2013, p. 121).
3. Read a text aloud to students where some words will
be unfamiliar. How might we infer their meaning?
4. Give students a page divided into two columns. In
the left-hand column write Facts and in the righthand column write Inferences. Read the first page of
the text and record one fact written by the author in
the left-hand column and in the right-hand column
record what you infer (Bayetto, 2013, p. 121).
5. Before reading, nominate a character and ask
students to be ready to infer and provide evidence
about how the character feels.
Questioning
1. Model the types of questions a reader might ask
when reading (about the author, words, content).

Comprehension

Anne Bayetto, Flinders University

2. Prior to reading a non-fiction text invite students to
ask questions they have about the topic.
3. What three questions do you have about what you
just read? Why do these questions interest you?
4. Use 5W prompt cards (who, where, when, why,
what) to nudge thinking and reflection.
5. Give students small slips of paper with I wonder
written at the top. As they reach a part in the text
where they have a question they should write their
question on the slip of paper. When you have finished
reading please sort your slips of paper into two pilesQuestions answered and Questions unanswered
(Bayetto, 2013, p. 122).
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as one of the Closing the Gap Initiatives.
This initiative was managed by the Australian Primary Principals Association.