The acknowledged leader in oil analysis since 1960

BASICS OF OIL ANALYSIS

BASICSOFOILANALYSIS

INTRODUCTION

For many years, lubricant inspection and testing has been used to help diagnose the internal condition of oilwetted
components and provide valuable information about lubricant serviceability. The first test methods used for this purpose
includedsuchsimpleproceduresassmellingusedoilforthesourodorofexcessacid,checkingvisuallyforobvioussignsof
contamination,orplacingadropofsampleonabsorbentpapertodetectcontaminantsandmonitoradditiveeffectiveness.
Asbasicresearchandtechnologyexpanded,progress in lubricanttestingkeptpace.Anincreasinglylargenumberoftests
weredevelopedtoassesslubricantphysicalpropertiesanddetectcontaminants.

In1946theDenverandRioGrandeRailroadresearchlaboratorysuccessfullydetecteddieselengineproblemsthroughwear
metalanalysisofusedoils.Akeyfactorintheirsuccesswasthedevelopmentofthespectrograph,asingleinstrumentthat
replaced several wet chemical methodsfor detecting and measuring individual chemicalelements such asiron or copper.
Thispracticewassoonacceptedandusedextensivelythroughouttherailroadindustry.

By 1955 oil analysis had matured to the point that the United States Naval Bureau of Weapons began a major research
programtoadoptwearmetalanalysisforuseinaircraftcomponentfailureprediction.Thesestudiesformedthebasisfora
JointOilAnalysisProgram(JOAP)involvingallbranchesoftheU.S.ArmedForces.TheJOAPresultsprovedconclusivelythat
increases in component wear could be confirmed by detecting corresponding increases in the wear metal content of the
lubricating oil. In 1958 Pacific Intermountain Express (P.l.E.)was the firsttrucking company to setup aninhouseused oil
analysislaboratorytocontrolvehiclemaintenancecosts.Thisextensivehistorymakesoilanalysistheoldestoftheproactive
maintenancetechnologies.

In1960Analysts,Inc.wasfounded,becomingthefirstindependentlaboratorytoprovideacompleteoilanalysisdiagnostic
servicetoallareasofbusinessandindustry.

Ourmoderndayoilanalysisisbuiltonthefirmfoundationoftheseearlyefforts.Theimportanceofusingacombinationof
physicalandspectrochemicalteststomonitorlubricantandcomponentconditionisnowuniversallyaccepted.Oilanalysis
testproceduresareestablishedandreviewedbysuchagenciesastheInternationalOrganizationforStandardization(ISO),
theAmericanSocietyforTestingandMaterials(ASTM)andtheSocietyofAutomotiveEngineers(SAE),andawidevarietyof
laboratoryandpersonnelcertificationshasemerged.

Analysts,Inc.isproudofourmajorcontinuingroleintheoriginalandcurrentdevelopmentofcommercialoilanalysisinto
whatisnowrecognizedasoneofthemosteffectiveproactivemaintenancetoolsavailable.Wefeelconfidentthattheoil
analysisinstrumentsandtechniquesofthefuturewillbackourcontinuingcommitmenttoproactivemaintenancethrough
usedoilanalysis.

MarkSmith
TechnicalAdministrator

BASICS OF OIL ANALYSIS

APPLYINGOILANALYSIS

Oilanalysisisthemostwidelyacceptedandimplementedformofproactivemaintenancetechnology.Itisanintegralpartof
the maintenance plan for power plants, manufacturing plants, trucking companies, construction equipment, aircraft,
refrigeration systems, processing and chemical plants, etc. Any piece of equipment that has a lubricating system is an
excellent candidate for oil analysis. A successful oil analysis program requires an organized and sustained effort. Both the
userandthelaboratorymustworkcloselytogethertoachievethedesiredresults.

OUTLINEFORANEFFECTIVEOILANALYSISPROGRAM

1. Determineyourprimaryobjectives.

Oilanalysiscanbeappliedtoequipmentutilization,maintenanceandmanagement:

Utilization

Increasemarginsofoperationalsafety

Increaseavailabilitybydecreasingdowntime

Increaseoverallcomponentlifespan

Controlstandbyequipmentandreplacementpartrequirements

Decreasefuelandoilconsumption

Maintenance

Identifyandmeasurelubecontaminationandcomponentwear

Eliminateunnecessaryoverhaulsorinspections

Reduceinservicefailuresandfieldrepairs

Establishproperlubricantserviceintervals

Management

Improvecostassessmentandcontrolforequipment,laborandmaterials

Improveequipmentrecordkeepingprocedures

Evaluateequipmentdesigns/applications

Revealfaultyoperatorpractices

Almost any machine that has a lubrication system can be placed on an oil analysis program. Those components whose
performance directly affects the continued operation of a particular unit or overall profitability of business are the most
likelycandidatesforroutineoilanalysis.

Form 4015.2 (BasicsOA.pdf 9/08) 2008 Analysts, Inc.

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BASICS OF OIL ANALYSIS

2. Carefullyconsideryourbestchoiceforoilanalysis

All oil analysis laboratories claim they are 'qualified', Although certifications and requirements that a 'qualified' used oil
analysislaboratorymustmeetarenowmuchmoredefinedthaninthepast,onethinghasnotchanged:
You,theoilanalysisuser,mustchoosewhichlaboratorybestsatisfiesyourneeds.

For example, Analysts' five regional laboratories have been featured in numerous magazine articles, advertisements, and
otherpublishedmaterials.These'secondopinions'areexcellentsourcesofreferenceaboutourservice.Thebestguideto
choosingalaboratory,however,isexperience.Chancesare,someoneinyourfieldisalreadyusingoneormoreofthelabs
youareconsidering.Talkwiththem.They'llconfirmhowwedefine'qualified'.

Choose a wellestablished laboratory Analysts, for example, has been in operation since 1960 long enough to have
developedcomplete,timetestedproceduresforanalysis,customercontactandsalesservice.Weofferawideselectionof
sampling materials, including our patented Bellows, QSS sampling valves, and other supplies and make sure that these
materialsareinstockwhenyouneedthem.Weprovidetheadditionaldescriptiveliteratureandtrainingassistanceneeded
tosupportyouroilanalysisprogram.

Choose a wellequipped laboratory Each Analysts' laboratory is deeply computerized, and most of our modern, well
maintainedinstrumentsareautomatedanddirectlyinterfacedwiththelabcomputersystem.Wefollowpublished,proven
testingproceduresanduseonlythehighestqualitychemicals.Weencourageourcustomerstovisitourlabfacilities.

Choosealaboratorywithawelltrained,experiencedstaffAnalystsmarketingandtechnicalstaff'knowtheirbusiness'!
MoreofourstaffmembersareSTLECertifiedLubricationSpecialistsorOilManagementAnalyststhananyothercommercial
oilanalysislab.Werecognizethespecifictechnicalrequirementsforyourapplicationandansweryourquestionsfully.We
haveanorganizedapproachforestablishingyouasacustomerandcangiveyousound,practicalsuggestionsforovercoming
anyproblemsyoumightencounterinestablishingandmaintainingyourAnalysts'oilanalysisprogram.

Choose a laboratory with a recognized quality control program Analysts, Inc. has one of the strongest certified and
registered ISO 17025 quality programs in commercial oil analysis. By attaining the ISO 17025 certification Analysts
demonstratesonadailybasisitscommitmenttoqualitydata,workandprocedures.Additionally,Analysts'qualityprogram
meetstherequirementsof10CFR50,AppendixBthefederalspecificationforqualityprogramsinnuclearpowerplants.
Withourprogramofdocumentation,training,proceduresandfollowup,Analystsisrecognizedastheleaderinqualityand
servicewithintheindustry.

Examine the reports for reliable recommendations and easy to read format Consistently accurate test results and
interpretation are vital to the success of your oil analysis program. Analysts' report forms are the clearest and most
informative in the industry. Our recommendations are specific, complete and easy to understand. The recommendations
reflectarealknowledgeoftheoperatingandwearcharacteristicsforanycomponentsampled.Testresultsindicatingthe
needforamajorinspectionaredoublecheckedpriortoyournotification.Manyofourstaffofdataevaluatorsandchemists
aremembersofprofessionalandtechnicalsocieties,andourestablishedpositioninthecommercialoilanalysisfieldensures
readyaccesstolubricantandcomponentmanufacturers'data.

DemandrapidturnaroundofresultsandrecommendationsAnalystsmeetsandbeatsthefrequentlyadvertised24to48
hour turnaround. We will notify youimmediately if critical conditions are detected. Youcan obtain'rush' handling if you
requireanimmediateresponse,andafterhoursspecialopeningscanbearrangedincaseofemergency.

LookforspecializedsummaryreportsToassistourcustomerstomanageandcontroltheiroilsamplingprogram,wewill
provideanyofaseriesofeightspecially designed programmanagementandsummaryreports.Thesereportsconsolidate
sampling activity to compile the information such as Critical Condition Units, Condition Analysis Statistics, Summarized
SamplingActivityandSummarizedSampleConditions.Thereportsareavailableonamonthlybasis.

LookforafullrangeofinformationmanagementtoolsandoptionsAnalystsmaintainsacomprehensiveInternetsiteat
www.analystsinc.com.Analysisreportscanbereceivedviaemailattachmentdirectlyfromourlaboratories.Thissitealso
offersacompleteWebbasedoilanalysismanagementsystem.ThroughourWindowsbasedoilanalysissoftwareprogram
LOAMS (Lube Oil Analysis Management System), your entire oil analysis program canbe managed offline from a personal
computer.LOAMSwilldownloadandstoreallsampledata,printreportslocally,graphsampledata,printsamplingschedules
bycomponentandallowtheexportingofdatatoothersoftwareprogramsforfurthermanipulation.

Form 4015.2 (BasicsOA.pdf 9/08) 2008 Analysts, Inc.

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BASICS OF OIL ANALYSIS

3. Selectthepropertestsforyourapplication.

Differentcombinationsofphysicalandspectrochemicaltestsareusedtomeasurethepropertiesofthelubricantitselfand
determine levels of contaminants and chemical elements suspended in the lubricant. The application and goals of the oil
analysisprogramhelpdeterminethenumberandtypeofteststhatshouldbeperformed.

Thephysicalanalysisconcentratesonmeasuringcertainphysicalcharacteristicsofthelubricant.Thesetestsalsodetectand
measurecontaminantsandoilbreakdownbyproducts,aswellastheireffectonthelubricantproperties.

The spectrochemical analysis identifies and measures selected metallic elements present in the lubricant as microscopic
particles.Testresultsarereportedinpartspermillion(ppm)byweight.Therelativeconcentrationsoftheseelementsare
usedtomonitorwearrates,detectcontaminantsanddetermineadditivelevels.

Analystshasdevelopedstandardized'packages'orcombinationsofroutinelyperformedtests.Thesepackagesaredesigned
tocoverthegeneraltestingneedsofbroadserviceclassificationssuchasindustrial,construction,overtheroadtruckingor
aviation.Sinceeachpackageconsistsofteststhatthelabisalreadypreparedtoperforminvolume,significantsavingsare
realizedwhenapackageisselectedratherthanarandomgroupoftests.Additionalnonroutinetestscanbeperformedon
request.Analystswillassistyouinselectingthepropercombinationoftestspriortobeginningyoursamplingprogram.

4. Determinethepropersamplingpointandmethod.

Obtainingarepresentativesampleisoneofthemostimportantpartsofascheduledoilanalysisprogram.Ifasampledoes
not represent the true condition of the lubricant and component at the time of sampling, the reliability of both the test
resultsandtheirinterpretationisaffected.

Areaswherelubricantflowisrestrictedorwherecontaminantsandwearproductstendtosettleorcollectshouldbeavoided
assamplingpoints.Inspecialcases,samplesmaybetakenfromlubefilters.Thelabshouldbeadvisedifthisoccurs.

We recommend that you sample a component while it is runningor within 30 minutesaftershutdown. This ensuresthat
wearproductsandlubricantcontaminantsarethoroughlymixedwiththelubricantandthattheheavierwearparticleshave
notsettledout.

Werecommendthefollowingsamplingpoints:

ApetcockorothersamplingvalveinstalledPRIORtotheoilfilter(usingAnalysts'QSSvalve)

Anoildipsticktubeorotherserviceopening(usingtheBellows oravacuumpump)
Thesumporreservoirdrain

Onceapropersamplingpointandmethodischosenforaparticularcomponent,oilsamplesfromthatcomponentshould
alwaysbetakenfromthesamepointwiththesamemethod.

5. Determinethepropersamplinginterval

When beginning a routine oil analysis program, the usual practice is to sample the entire group of units/components to
establish initial baseline data and quickly spotany components with serious problems.Once this process is complete, the
customer and laboratory then agree on an initial routine sampling interval. This interval is based on the results of the
preliminarysampling,componentmanufacturerguidelines,customermaintenanceproceduresandpersonnelschedulingand
Analysts'experiencewithsimilarcomponentsandapplications.Oncetheprogramisfullyestablished,theroutinesampling
intervalmaybeadjusted.

Oncedetermined,routinesamplingintervalsshouldremainasconstantaspossible.

6. Establishconsistentoilanalysisbaselineinformation.

Inabusyoperationsandmaintenanceschedule,noone wantsextrapaperworkand recordkeeping.But,ifanoilanalysis

programistofurnishanythingmorethantestdata,theusermustprovideinformationontheequipment,componentsand
lubricantsinservice.Onecommonfalseassumptionisthatanoilanalysislabcandrawvalidconclusionsfromthetestresults
withoutanysupportingdatafromthecustomer.

Form 4015.2 (BasicsOA.pdf 9/08) 2008 Analysts, Inc.

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BASICS OF OIL ANALYSIS

Initialequipmentregistrationcanbeeasilyaccomplishedbyfurnishingthelaboratorywithaconsolidatedequipmentlist,or
bycompletinganindividualregistrationformforeachsampledcompartment.Currentoperatingdataisthenforwardedwith
eachsample.

Incompletingoilanalysisformsandsamplecontainerlabels,thefollowingbriefdefinitionsarehelpful:

UNIT l.D. NUMBER A unique reference number for an entire functional unit. Examples include an aircraft
registrationnumber,companyassetorinventoryidentificationoravehicleserialnumber.

COMPONENTTheoveralltypeofoilwettedsystem,suchasengine,hydraulic,orgearbox,fromwhichthesample
istaken.Otherdesignationssuchasleft,number3,rearoranactualdescriptionofthecomponent'suse,suchasfan
drive,winchorswingarealsoneededforclearidentification.

TIMESINCENEWORSINCELASTOVERHAULTheoperatinghoursormilessincethesampledcompartmentwas
firstputintoservice,orsincethelastoverhaulorrebuildwasperformed.Sincenormalwearrateschangeoverthe
lifetime of a component and breakin may resemble abnormal wear, this information is needed as an ongoing
referenceforinterpretation.Thisdatamaybeobtaineddirectlyfromanequipmentorcomponentservicemeter,or
fromgeneraloperatingrecords.

TIME SINCE OIL CHANGE The number of hours or miles of component use between the time the oil was last
changedandthetimethesamplewastaken.Thisinformationisessentialtotimebasedtrending.

OILTYPEThemanufacturer,productname,andSAEorISOviscositygradefortheoilthatwassampled.Sincea
manufacturermaysellmorethanoneblendofthesameviscosityproduct,thecompletenameisveryimportantin
determiningwhichtestingreferenceoilshouldbeused.

OIL CONSUMPTION or MAKEUP OIL The amount of oil added to maintain a correct oil fill level in the sampled
component.Completeoilchangesshouldnotbereportedasmakeupoiloridentifiedas'newoil'.

A sample usually cannot be processed immediately if the customer name, unit and component identification, and sample
date are not provided. If you have sampled a particular machine before and do not ensure that the unit and component
identifications match what you originally provided, testing may be delayed or the results may not be filed correctly with
other samples from that machine. In addition to this "must provide" data for each sample, you should report any recent
maintenance,changesinperformanceorunusualoperatingconditions.

Specificindividualsshouldbeassignedlongtermresponsibilityforthisportionoftheprogram.Ifthisisnotpossible,thena
particular department should be designated for involvement. Once this responsibility is established, a system of record
keepingandcorrectsampleidentificationshouldbeinitiatedassoonaspossible.

7. Usethelabinterpretationofthetestdataproperly.

Ourlabinterpretationseparatestheoverallcomponentandlubricantconditionandtherelativeseverityofcontamination
andwearintofourmainclassifications:

NormalPhysicalpropertiesofthelubricantarewithinacceptablelimits,andnosignsofexcessivecontamination
orweararepresent.

MonitorSpecifictestresultsareoutsideacceptableranges,butarenotyetseriousenoughtoconfirmabnormal
conditions. Caution is advised. The initial stages of an abnormality often show the same pattern of results as
temporaryconditionssuchasextendedusageoroverloading.

AbnormalLubricantphysicalproperties,contamination,and/orcomponentwearisclearlyunsatisfactory,butnot
critical. A confirming resample should be submitted. Additional diagnostic procedures may be needed to confirm
eachcondition.Correctiveactionsarenecessarytopreventreductionofservicelifeoroveralllossofperformance.

CriticalLubricantphysicalproperties,contaminationand/orcomponentwearisclearlyseriousenoughtorequire
immediatediagnosticandcorrectiveactiontopreventmajorlongtermlossofperformanceorcomponentfailurein
service. Increases in operating hazard are likely. Shortterm loss of performance may already be present. Large
scalerepairsmayberequired.Itmaybenecessarytoremovetheunit/componentfromserviceuntilaconfirming
resampleistestedanddiagnosticsconfirmthatrepairsarerequired.

Theseassessmentsarerelativeandareassignedusingbothtrendanalysisandcondemninglimits.
Form 4015.2 (BasicsOA.pdf 9/08) 2008 Analysts, Inc.

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BASICS OF OIL ANALYSIS

When trend analysis is used (as in the case of wear metals and certain contaminants), threshold values are developed to
identifytheboundaryareabetweennormalandabnormalresults.Forwearmetals,thesethresholdvaluesvaryfordifferent
typesofcomponent,butarespecificandstableforeachindividualmodelofagivenapplication.Thevaluesdonotprovide
sharp lines of 'normal/abnormal' interpretations; instead, they indicate ranges of increased likelihood that a problem has
developedtoaparticularpoint.Generally,thelubricantandcomponentconditioncanbeconsidered'normal'aslongasthe
wearmetal, contamination and lubricantdeteriorationlevelsremain withintheestablished normal'ranges.Regardlessof
thethresholdvalues,however,anysharpincreaseinwearmetalsormajorshiftinphysicalpropertiescansignalbeginning
problems. Therefore, the threshold values cannot be used as 'go/nogo' criteria. A great deal of caution, judgment,
experienceandcustomerinputmustbeusedinapplyingthresholdvaluesproperly.

Customers are contacted immediately by telephone on all samples where our interpretation detects a critical condition.
Further,computergeneratedfaxand/oremailcopiesofallcriticalorabnormalsamplesaredispatcheduponcompletionof
our evaluation. On these reports the lab will recommend specific maintenance actions designed to correct not only the
indicatedproblemsbutalsothecausesoftheseproblems.

Whenmanycomponentsareinvolvedinyouranalysisprogram,aspreadsheetledgersystemishelpfulinsummarizingeach
component'soilanalysisstatus.Thecolumnsshouldrecorddateofsamplingforeachcompartment,andseparateincoming
reports by the overall sample status. If you sample at the same time that you perform other routine maintenance and
servicing activities, you should record this information and submit it with the sample. Many oil analysis management
applications,suchasAnalystsOnlineandLOAMSsystems,automaticallyformatoilanalysisdatainthislayout.

Eachreportshouldbereadassoonaspossible.Copiesoftheanalysisshouldbeattachedtoanyworkordersorinstructions.

8. Provideproperfeedback.

Theinterpretationguidelines'accuracyisverifiedbycomparingthelabtestresultbasedpredictionswithactualconditions
confirmed by inspection. In this way, the test interpretations are continually refined by practical experience. "Feedback"
fromthecustomerincludes:

Abnormallubricantorcomponentconditionsthatyoususpectarepresent

Thefindingsofanyinspectionperformedasaresultofoilanalysisprogramrecommendations

Abnormallubricantorcomponentconditionsdiscoveredthatwerenotpreviouslyindicatedbyoilanalysis

Notificationofservicingandmaintenanceperformed

Informationconcerningoperatingenvironmentorequipmentapplicationchanges

Theseitemsmaybenotedonthesampleinformationform,recordedonacopyofthepreviousanalysisreport,ordetailed
onaseparatereportsheet.

Form 4015.2 (BasicsOA.pdf 9/08) 2008 Analysts, Inc.

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BASICS OF OIL ANALYSIS

9. Measurecosteffectiveness.

The economic goals of reducing operating expenses and increasing profit margins have not changed since Analysts was
founded. Routine oil analysis will help you achieve substantial savings in maintenance and repair costs. The program
operatesmuchlikeamedicalcheckup;ifproblemsaredetected,theycanbecorrectedbeforetheydevelopintoseriousand
hazardousconditionsthatarecostlytorepair.Whensamplesarereportednormal,thentheimmediatevalueofoilanalysisis
apersonal'peaceofmind'ratherthananeconomicreturn.Asthenumberofsampledpiecesofequipmentincreases,the
financial benefit of oil analysis also increases. Greater equipment availability and reliability means more production, less
downtimeandincreasedprofits.

The importance of tracking the savings generated by your oil analysis program cannot be overemphasized. Manpower,
partsandtoolexpenseswillallbeaffected. However, becauseawellrunoilanalysisprogramis deeplyintegratedintoa
customers overall maintenance program, management must establish a strong platform of results measurement and
documentationtoseeoilanalysissuniquecontribution.

Althoughsomebenefitsofoilanalysismaynotshowclearlyonthe'bottomline'becausetheyrepresentabnormalitiesthat
wereprevented,mostoftheeconomicsavingsfromoilanalysiscanbecalculatedbycomparing

Partsandlaborexpensesforcomponentrepair,overhaul,orreplacement

Lossofrevenueduringdowntime

...beforeoilanalysiswiththesamecostfactors(plustheanalysisexpenses)aftertheprogramhasbeenestablishedandby
estimatingthe

Extensionoftheaveragecomponentoperatinglifespanbeforeoverhaulorreplacement

Reductioninconsumableitemssuchaslubricantsoffuels

Increaseinproductivity

...fortheoverallgroupofunits/componentsthatyouhaveplacedonaroutineoilanalysisprogram.

FIVEKEYSTOSUCCESSFULOILANALYSIS

Aswithanydiagnosticmethod,theusermustshareintheresponsibilityforsuccesswhenusingthiswellestablishedand
widelyacceptedproactivemaintenancetool.Toachieveoverallsuccessforyouroilanalysisprogram,usetheseprovenkeys:

1.
Clearlydefinedcustomergoalsandprogramrequirementsensurethatthetestsperformedfittheapplicationand
thattheserviceisbeingfullyutilizedonanongoingbasis.

2.
Representativesamplesensurethatthetrueconditionofthelubricantandcomponentcanbedeterminedby
reliable,accuratetesting.

3.
Frequentlabcustomercontactpromotesaccurateinterpretationandleadstoincreasedcustomerconfidenceand
interestinmaintaininganactiveoilanalysisprogram.

4.
CompletesampleinformationspeedsprocessingandincreasestheDataAnalysts'abilitytofullyinterpretthetest
results.

5.
Rapidreportreviewensuresthatabnormalorcriticalconditionsarerecognizedandactedonintimetoprevent
damageorlossofperformance.

Form 4015.2 (BasicsOA.pdf 9/08) 2008 Analysts, Inc.

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BASICS OF OIL ANALYSIS

Withoutaworkingknowledgeofoilanalysistestsandtheirsignificance,theusermaybeuncertainaboutthevalueofthe
service and how each test interrelates with the others to provide a useful, accurate picture of internal component and
lubricantconditions.Thefollowinginformationisprovidedasageneralorientation towhatAnalystsconsidersarethe
mostimportantoilanalysistests.

SPECTROCHEMICALANALYSIS

Selected metallic elements present as microscopic particles suspended in the fluid to be analyzed are identified and
measuredinpartspermillionbyweight.Theanalyzedelementsaregroupedintothreemaincategories:

1.Wearmetals

Relativemotionbetweenlubricatedpartsisalwaysaccompaniedbyfrictionbetweentheopposingpartsurfaces.Despitethe
factthatthesesurfacesareusuallycoatedwithanoilfilm,frictionwearsthemaway.Someoftheparticlesproducedasthe
partsweararesmallenoughtoremainsuspendedinthecirculatingoil.Sincethesewearproductsarecomposedofthesame
materialsasthesurfacesfromwhichtheyoriginated,thelevelofeachwearmetalremainingintheusedoilindicatesthe
relativewearconditionofthelubricatedparts.Scientistsworkinginthefieldoftribology,thestudyofwear,stilldisagreeon
howmanyseparatekindsofwearexist.Asfewasfourandasmanyastwentyfiveclassesofwearhavebeenproposed.Five
ofthemostcommonlyacceptedtypesofwearare:

AdhesivewearThistypeofwearoccurswhentheoilfilmbecomessothinthattheroughestpointsoftheopposingmovingpartsurfaces
begintotoucheachother.Adhesivewearoccursnormallyduringbothbreakinandroutingserviceasthepartswearslightlytomaintain
alignment.Ifsevereadhesionoccursduetoload,speedortemperatureconditions,scuffingandscoringwillresult.Metalmaybetornoff
thepartsurfacesortransferredfromoneparttoanotherandeventualseizureoftheaffectedpartsislikely.Innormalservice,adhesive
weariscontrolledwithantiwearadditives,whichcoatthelubricatedsurfacesandreducedirectparttopartcontact.

Abrasive wear Abrasive wear is a cutting or scratching action caused when either hard particles or hard projections wear away softer
surfaces. Sources of abrasive particles identified by oil analysis include contaminants such as dirt entering a component oil system and
metalparticlesformedduringwear.

Fatigue wear Fatigue wear occurs when cyclic or repeated load stresses cause cracking, spalling, and pitting of the component part
surfaces.Thistypeofwearismorecommonlyassociatedwithrollingelementbearingsandgearswherethepartsurfacesrollpasteach
other.

Corrosive(chemical)wearCorrosiveorchemicalwearresultswhenchemicalreactionscausecorrosionoroxidationofpartsurfacesand
partmovementorfluidpressuredislodgesmaterialfromthissurfacelayer.Thistypeofwearisassociatedwithrustpromotingconditions,
corrosivecontaminantsandexcessivelyhighlevelsofchemicallyactiveadditives.

Cavitation wear Cavitation wear occurs when metal is removed from parts by the impact of collapsing cavitation bubbles on the part
surfaces. Cavitation itself is associated with partial vacuums formed in a liquid by sudden changes in pressure and may be caused by
vibration,reducedorunevenliquidflowandotherfactorsinvolvingparticularcomponentpartshapesandmovements.

2.Contaminants

Depending upon the circumstances, many different substances may be classified as contaminants. Silicon, in the form of
silicon dioxide (sand), is one of the most common contaminants monitored with spectrochemical analysis. Similarly, the
presenceofgreasecontaminatinganoilsystemmaybeindicatedbyincreasesinaluminumorbariumifthegreasecontains
metallicsoaps.Althoughcontaminationiscommonlyassociatedwithsubstancesenteringacomponent'soilsystemfroman
outsidesource,wearmetalsthemselvesarealsoaformofcontaminant.

3.Additives

Additivesarechemicalcompoundsaddedtooils,fuels,andcoolantstoimpartspecificbeneficialpropertiestothefinished
products. Additives create new fluid properties, enhance properties already present and reduce the rate at which
undesirablechangestakeplaceinafluidduringservice.

Form 4015.2 (BasicsOA.pdf 9/08) 2008 Analysts, Inc.

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BASICS OF OIL ANALYSIS

WEARMETALSANDCONTAMINANTS

SILICON
Siliconistypicallyassociatedwithdirtcontamination.Thiscontaminationcanresultfromanyconditionthatallowsdirtto
enteracomponentoilsystem.Othersourcesofsiliconincludeseals,oilandcoolantadditivesandgreases.

IRONandalloys

Reciprocatingengine:Gearsandshafts;block;cylinderliners;valvetrain;connectingrods,ringsandoilpump;some
bearings;somepistons;someaccessorysystems.

Turbineengine:Gearsandshafts;bearings;pumps;housings.

Transmission: Gearsandshafts;bearings;brakesanddisks;pumpsandshiftspools;PTO;housing.

Torqueconverter:Shafts;bearings;somehousings.

Differential: Shaftsandgears;bearings;housing.

Transaxle/finaldrive/reductiongearbox:Gearsandshafts;bearings;housing.

Hydraulic: Rotors,vanes,pistons,androds;housingandbores;gearsandshafts;valves.

Reciprocating and rotary compressors: Gears and shafts; case; valves; cylinder liners; crossheads; rings and screws or
turbines;bearings;someoilcoolertubing.

COPPERandalloys

Reciprocatingengine:Bearings;wristpinandvalvetrainbushings;otherbushingsandthrustwashers;oilcoolertubing.Also
maybepresentasanoiladditiveoracrossovercontaminantfromaleakingtransmissionseal.

Turbineengine:Somemainandaccessorybearingretainers;bushingsandnuts;someoilcontrolvalves.

Transmission: Discs;bearings;bushingsandthrustwashers;oilcoolertubing.

Torqueconverter:Retainersandseparators.

Differential:Bearings;bushings,retainers,andthrustwashers.

Finaldrive/reductiongearbox:Bearings;bushings,retainers,andthrustwashers;oilcoolertubing.

Hydraulic: Bearingsandbushings;swashplatecups;valves;somepistons;somepumpcylinders;oilcoolertubing.

Reciprocatingandrotarycompressors:Bearings;bushings,thrustwashersandretainers;oilcoolertubing.

ALUMINUMandalloys
Allcomponents:Aluminumoxidespresentintheenvironment,typicallyassociatedwithsilicon(dirt)contamination.

Reciprocatingengine:Pistons;bearings;bushings;blocks,mainandaccessorycasesandhousings;someoilcoolertubing.

Turbineengine:Mainandaccessorycase,housings;someretainers;seals;baffles.

Transmission: Somecases;bushingsandretainers.

Form 4015.2 (BasicsOA.pdf 9/08) 2008 Analysts, Inc.

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BASICS OF OIL ANALYSIS

ALUMINUMandalloys(contd)
Torqueconverter:Impellers.

Differential:Bushingsandthrustwashers.

Finaldrive/reductiongearbox:Bushingsandthrustwashers.

Hydraulic: Somepumphousings.

Reciprocatingandrotarycompressors:Case;impellers,somepistonsandcrossheads;retainers.

CHROMIUMalloyandplating
Reciprocatingengines:Linersandrings;shafts;valvetrain.

Turbineengine:Bearings;shaftsandgears;seals.

Gearedcomponents(general):Bearings;shafts;seals.

Hydraulic:Rods;valves.

Reciprocatingandrotarycompressors:Linersandrings;shafts;valvetrain.

LEADandTINoverlayorflashing
Reciprocatingengine:Bearings;somepistons;bushingsandthrustwashers.

Finaldrive/reductiongearbox:Bearings;bushings.

Hydraulic:Pumpthrustplate;bushings.

Reciprocatingandrotarycompressors:Bearings;bushings.

Theuseofleadasanextremepressure(EP)oiladditivehasbeenbanned.

Tinmaybepresentasanoiladditive,usuallyinconjunctionwithlubricantscontainingmolybdenumcompounds.

NICKELalloy(withiron);plating
Reciprocatingengine:Gearsandshafts;valvetrain;bearings.

Turbineengine:Gearsandshafts;bearings.

Gearedcomponents(general):Gearsandshafts;bearings.

Hydraulic: Gearsandshafts,bearings.

SILVERplating;tracer

General: Somebearingsandbushings;oilcoolersolder;seals.

Silverisalsooccasionallyusedasaphysical'tracer'toindicatethatwearhasprogressedtoacertainpoint.Inthisapplication,
silveriseitherplateddirectlyontoapartsurfaceorincorporatedintoalayerunderthesurface.Thewearconditionofthe
partcanthenberelatedtotheamountofthetracerdepositedintheoil.Thisusageismostoftenfoundinaerospace
applications.

Form 4015.2 (BasicsOA.pdf 9/08) 2008 Analysts, Inc.

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BASICS OF OIL ANALYSIS

MOLYBDENUMalloy(withiron);plating

General: Somebearings;somepistonrings.

MAGNESIUMalloy

General: Casesandhousings.

TITANIUMalloy(withiron)

General: Some shafts, bearings, and gears. Typically found only in certain aerospace and heavy commercial or industrial
applications.

ANTIMONYalloy(withleadand/ortin)

General:Certaintypesofjournalbearingoverlays.

ZINCalloy

General:Brassfittings(withcopper);galvanizedsurfaces.

ADDITIVES

Most modern lubricants and coolants contain organometallic oil additives. Some of these additives are formed from
compoundsofoneormoreofthesamechemicalelementsusedincomponentparts.

MOLYBDENUM

Extremepressureadditiveinspecialtyoilsandgreases;corrosioninhibitorinsomecoolantsupplementaladditives.

MAGNESIUM

Detergent,dispersant,alkalinityincreaser.

SODIUM

Corrosioninhibitorinoilsandcoolants.

BORON

Detergent,dispersant;antioxidantinoilsandcoolants.

Form 4015.2 (BasicsOA.pdf 9/08) 2008 Analysts, Inc.

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BASICS OF OIL ANALYSIS

BARIUM

Corrosionandrustinhibitors;detergent;antismokeadditiveinfuels.

PHOSPHORUS

Antiwear;combustionchamberdepositreducer;corrosioninhibitorincoolants.

POTASSIUMCompounds

Corrosioninhibitor;traceelementinfuels;alsofoundasamineralsaltinseawater.

CALCIUM

Detergent,dispersant,alkalinityincreaser.

ZINC

Antiwear,antioxidant,corrosioninhibitor.

ANTIMONY

Antiwear,antioxidant.

PHYSICALANALYSIS
VISCOSITY

Viscosityisalubricant'sinternalresistancetoflowatagiventemperatureinrelationtotime,andisconsideredtobethe
single most important physical property of a lubricant. Changes in viscosity indicate improper servicing, dilution,
contaminationorlubricantbreakdowninservice.Viscosityisusuallydeterminedwithakinematicmethodandtheresultsare
reportedincentistokes(cSt)*.Inadditiontotheviscosityresult,thecrankcaseoilviscosityclassofanenginelubricantmay
alsobeexpressedasanSAEGrade.

*1Centistoke(cSt)=1squaremillimeterpersecond

WATER

The presence of water in a nonwaterbase fluid indicates contamination from an outside source or from condensation.
Excessivelevelsofwaterpromotelubricantbreakdownandcomponentpartcorrosion.Resultsarereportedinpercent(%)
volume.

Incertaincomponentsandapplicationswherewatercontaminationmustbekeptextremelylow,theKarlFischertitration
methodisusedtomeasureandreportwatercontentinpartspermillion(ppm).

FUELSOOTbyLEM

LEM is the acronym for Light Extinction Measurement, an Analysts, Inc. patented process to determine fuel soot. LEM
measuresthefuelsootdispersedintheoilofdieselengines.Thisisanindicationofthecombustionefficiencyoftheengine.
Form 4015.2 (BasicsOA.pdf 9/08) 2008 Analysts, Inc.

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BASICS OF OIL ANALYSIS

An excessive concentration of soot allows the oil to gel, forming sludge in the engine, leading to poor oil circulation. It is
affected by fuel injector efficiency, injector timing, integrity of the ringpiston seal, oil consumption and the load on the
engine.Resultsarereportedinweightpercent(%).LEMisthemostefficientandaccuratemethodtomeasurefuelsoot.

FUELDILUTION

Fueldilutionindicatestherelativeamountofunburneddieselfuelorgasolinepresentinanenginelubricant.Thisdilutionis
associatedwithimproperlyadjustedormalfunctioningfuelsystemassemblies.Excessivefueldilutionlowerslubricantload
carryingcapacities,promoteslubricantbreakdownandincreasestheriskoffireorexplosion.Fueldilutionisdeterminedby
gaschromatographyandisreportedinpercent(%)volume.

GLYCOL

Positivetestresultsindicatethepresence ofethyleneglycol,most commonlyassociatedwith coolingsystemleaks.Glycol

contaminationpromoteswear,corrosion,sludging,andlubricantbreakdown.Iftheanalysisindicatesthatcoolantadditives
or water contamination is present in the oil sample, additional chemical tests are used to confirm ethylene glycol
contamination.

INFRAREDANALYSIS

Whenanorganiccompound,suchaslubricatingoil,isexposedtoinfraredlight,thesubstancespresentinthecompoundwill
absorbthelightatspecificwavelengths.Theamountofabsorbanceataparticularwavelengthisrelatedtoboththetypeand
quantity of absorbing material. When the infrared absorbance spectrum of an unused oil provided by the customer is
comparedtothespectrumofthesametypeofusedlubricant,certaincontaminantsandphysicalchangesinthelubricant
can be directly measured. Although infrared analysis can detect and measure an extremely wide range of organic
compounds,itismostfrequentlyusedinoilanalysistomonitor:

FuelSoot

The amount of fuel soot carbon suspended in the engine lubricant. Higher values indicate reduced combustion
efficiencyduetosuchconditionsasairintakeorexhaustrestrictions,injectormalfunctionsorexcessiveidling.Test
resultsarereportedonanabsorbancescale.

Oxidation

Thechemicalincorporationofoxygenintoandsubsequentlossoflubricantperformanceduetoaging,adverseor
abnormaloperatingconditionsorinternaloverheating.Testresultsarereportedonanabsorbancescale.

Nitration

Theorganicnitratesformedwhencombustionbyproductsentertheengineoilduringnormalserviceorasaresult
ofabnormal'blowby'pastthecompressionrings.Testresultsarereportedonanabsorbancescale.

Water

Watercontaminationproducesacharacteristic peakinmostoils,whichcanbeeasily measured.Testresultsare

reportedin%volume.

Glycol(coolant)contamination,sulfates,andcertainadditivesmayalsobemonitoredusinginfraredanalysis.

NOTE:Thedeterminationofoxidationrequiresasampleofnewoilforaninstrumentandinterpretationreference.

NEUTRALIZATIONNUMBER

Boththeacidcontentandthealkalinecontentofalubricantmaybemeasuredandexpressedasaneutralizationnumber:

TotalAcidNumber(TAN)

Measuresthetotalamountofacidicmaterialpresentinthelubricant.Generally,anincreaseinTANabovethatof
thenewproductindicatesoiloxidationorcontaminationwithanacidicproduct.Theresultsareexpressedasa
Form 4015.2 (BasicsOA.pdf 9/08) 2008 Analysts, Inc.

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BASICS OF OIL ANALYSIS

numericvaluecorrespondingtotheamountofthealkalinechemicalpotassiumhydroxiderequiredtoneutralizethe
acidinonegramofsample.

TotalBaseNumber(TBN)

Measuresthetotalalkalinecontentpresentinthelubricant.Manyoftheadditivesnowusedinengineoilscontain
alkaline (basic) materials intended to neutralize the acidic products of combustion. A relatively high TBN is
associated with increased protection against ring and cylinder liner corrosion. Abnormal decreases in TBN may
indicatereducedacidneutralizingcapacityoradepletedadditivepackage.Thetestfirstdeterminestheamountof
acidrequiredtoneutralizethealkalinecontentofthesample.Thefinalresultisthenexpressedasanequivalent
amountofpotassiumhydroxideinonegramofsample.

SOLIDS,WEIGHTbymembranefiltration

Solidscontentinanoilsamplemayalsobemeasuredbyweight.Thetestdeterminestheamountoffilterablesolidmaterial
in the sample with particle sizes greater than the filter pore size specified for the test. The test is performed by vacuum
filtration and the result is reportedas a numeric value. The result may be expressed either as aweight percentagewhich
comparestheweightoftheliquidsampletotheweightofthesolidmaterialinit,orastheactualweightofthesolidmaterial
inaspecifiedvolumeofsample.

AUTOMATEDPARTICLECOUNT

Thisinstrumentusesaspecialdetectorwhichcountsandsizesparticlespresentinthefluid.Resultsarereportedasnumbers
ofparticlesinaspecificsizerangeperagivenvolumeofsample.

Thesizerangesandreportingmethodsareinworldwidetransitionduetocalibrationandprocedurechanges,andawell
known aerospace standard (NAS 1638) is being retired in favor of a related and more modern SAE standard. The new
standards and ranges have been carefully researched and selected for maximum accuracy and minimum impact on
previouslyestablishedparticlecountguidelines.

Three size ranges represent the ISO 4406 standard: >4 microns (changed from >2 microns), >6 microns (changed from >5
microns)and>14microns(changedfrom>15microns).SixsizerangesrepresenttheSAEAS4059standard:thethreeISO
ranges previously noted, plus three additional ranges >21 microns, >38 microns, and >70 microns (changed from >25
microns,>50microns,and>100microns).

ResultsfromtheparticlecountarethenusedtodeterminefluidcleanlinessviaISOorSAEclassificationcodes.TheISOClass
code is expressed as three separate numbers (for example, 20/15/12). The first number represents the relative
contaminationlevelfromthefirstsizerange,andthesecondandthirdrangesaresimilarlycalculated.TheSAEClasscode
hasseparatesizerangelimitsforeachofthesixparticlesizes,butthecodeisgenerallyexpressedasthesinglehighestlimit
reachedwithinanyofthesixclasses(forexample,SAEClass5).

Abnormal particle contamination levels are associated with increased wear, operational problems, with close tolerance
components,fluidcontaminationordegradationandlossoffilterefficiency.

DIELECTRICSTRENGTH

This test measures an oil's ability to withstand an electric current without failing. Oil is placed in the gap between two
electrodesandanincreasinglyhighervoltageisappliedtotheoiluntilanarcformsacrossthegap.Inlargetransformers,the
circulatingoilisformulatedtoactasaninsulator.Therelativeinsulatingcapacityofthetransformeroilisindicatedbythe
dielectricstrength.Generally,smallamountsofwater,dirt,ormetalwillaffectthetestresult.Forthisreason,thedielectric
principle forms the working basis for many different models of fieldtest type oil analyzers. Results are reported in kV
(kilovolts).

FERROGRAPHY

Ferrography is an analytical techniquein which wear metals and contaminant particles are magneticallyseparated from a
lubricant and arranged according to size and composition for further examination. It is widely used in oil analysis to
determinecomponentconditionthroughdirectexaminationofwearmetalparticles.
Form 4015.2 (BasicsOA.pdf 9/08) 2008 Analysts, Inc.

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BASICS OF OIL ANALYSIS

Therearethreestagesinacompleteferrographicanalysis:(1)directreading(DR)ferrography,(2)analyticalferrographyand
(3)theferrograminterpretationandreport.

DR(directreading)ferrographyprecipitatesthewearparticlesfromasampleandelectronicallydeterminesthequantityof
'large' (over 5 microns) and 'small' (1 to 2 microns) particles present in the sample. Wear calculations from these results
indicatetherate,intensityandseverityofwearoccurringinthesampledmachine.IncaseswheretheDRferrographywear
trendsindicateanabnormalorcriticalwearcondition,analyticalferrographycanrevealthespecificweartypeandprobable
sourceofthewearcondition.

Analytical ferrography uses the Ferrograph Fluid Analyzer to concentrate on direct microscopic evaluation of the wear
particles.Aferrogramslideispreparedbydrawingtheoilsampleacrossatransparentglassorplasticplateinthepresenceof
astrongmagneticfield.Wearparticlesarepulledtoandsortedontheplateinamannersimilartothatusedinthedirect
readingferrograph.Afterdeposition,theoiliswashedaway,leavingtheparticlesclean,alignedwiththemagneticfield,and
fixedtotheplate.Anexperiencedevaluatorthenexaminestheferrogramtodeterminethecompositionandsourcesofthe
particlesandthetypeofwearpresent.

TheDRferrographyreportincludesspectrochemicalanalysis,largeandsmallparticlequantityindexes,andtheresultsfrom
wear rate, intensity and severity calculations. An analytical ferrography report includes specific type and quantity
classifications of the metallic and nonmetallic debris present on the slide, a color photomicrograph of the ferrogram, an
assessmentofthesampledmachine'soverallwearstatusandadetailedinterpretationoftheferrographyresults.

Form 4015.2 (BasicsOA.pdf 9/08) 2008 Analysts, Inc.

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