“HISTORY | CIVICS CLASS 6Disclaimer: This teaching material is meant for enlightening students and inculcating the right values in ‘them. It has been published pursuant to an undertaking given by the author/s that the contents do not in any way whatsoever violate any existing copyright or intellectual property right. in the event the authors have been unable to track ary source, and if any copyright has been inadvertently infringed, please notify the publisher for any corrective action. Published by Frank Bros. & Co. (Publishers) Ltd. B-41, Sector-4, Noiva-201301, Gautam Buch Nagar Phones: 0120-4689999 (100 Lines) Regd. Office x 2/10, Ansari Road, Daryaganj, New Deihi-110002 © All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form without the prior written permission of the publishers. New Edtion 2011 ISBN 978-81-8409-930-0 Printed at: Sanat Printers, KundliContents History 1. Why We Study History 2, The Story of Early Humans 3. Ancient River Valley Civilizations: Mesopotamia 4. Ancient River Valley Civilizations: Egypt 5. Ancient River Valley Civilizations: The Indus Valley 6. Ancient River Valley Civilizations: China 7. The Greek Civilization: A Transition from Bronze Age to Iron Age 8. The Roman Civilization 9. The Vedic Period 10. Jainism and Buddhism 11, Development of Empires: The Rise of Magadha 12. The Mauryan Empire 13. ‘The Gupta Empire 14. Harshavardhana 15, South Indian Kingdoms Civics 16, Man—A Social Animal 17. Local Self-Government—Rural and Urban 18. Preservation of Property—Private and Public Guidelines for Project Workaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Fire was a major discovery in early human being’s life Fire: + provided light and kept them warm, + was used to scare away wild animals, + helped them eat roasted and cooked food instead of raw meat. Place of Shelter To protect themselves from wild animals and bad weather conditions, Palaeolithic humans lived in caves. They also lived on treetops. They did not build houses. Clothing Early humans did not wear clothes. They used barks of trees, leaves and animal skin to protect, themselves from heat, cold and rain. Social Life In order to protect themselves from wild animals, etc. early humans formed small groups. They usually wandered from one place toanother place gathering food and hunting animals. Towards the end of the Palaeolithic Age, it is possible some people began to settle down in permanent locations. Cave Painting Palaeolithic humans produced works of art such as animal carvings, cave paintings and rock paintings. They were accomplished artists. Cave paintings belonging to the upper Palaeolithic ‘Age have been found at Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh. Aprehistoric cave painting at Bhimbetka, Madhya Pradesh Mesolithic Age The Mesolithic or the Middle Stone Age was a period of transition in the development of human evolution between the Palaeolithic and Neolithic periods. The Mesolithic period began at around 10,000 BcE and ended with the introduction of agriculture around 8,000 BCE. Features of the Mesolithic Age Advanced Stone Tools The Mesolithic Age is characterized by small composite and more advanced flint tools called microliths and microburins. Human beings of this period started making tools which were smaller, sharper and more effective than earlier tools. Animal bones and horns were also used to make tools. Microliths have been found at Bagor in Rajasthan and Adamgarh in Madhya Pradesh.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.1,200 BCE. Iron was used predominantly by human beings for its utility as mentioned below: + Iron was available in plenty. In this age, cities and states were developed and kingship became the order of the age. There was an unprecedented growth in every field. Increased trade and commerce led to the growth of various occupations. Religious practices were complicated and people believed in a number of gods and spirits. Iron Age thus ushered ina new + Toolsand weapons made ofiron were stronger than copper and bronze. + It encouraged growth and spread of civilization. ‘ . ; era in the evolution and advancement of human + Ploughs, made ofiron, helped in agricultural Sitsatign production. Mesolithic Age Palaeoithic Age (500,000-10,000 ace) (10,000-8,000 sce) ‘ended around this time iron Age 1 ff (200ece) + + py | > 50000 45000 40000 3600030000 2s0co 20000 1500010000] 5000] tox Human beings Neclthie Age 47 + ‘appeared (€,000-4,000 8c) Chaleoihic Age sroind is (4.000-2,000 sce) 02S = Afterlife: A life that some people believe exists after death. = Barter system: The system of exchanging goods and services. = Bronze: An alloy formed by mixing copper with tin. It is harder and stronger than copper. = Chalcolithic Age: The period when both copper and stone tools were used by human beings. Its importance lies in the fact that it was the period of transition from the Stone Age to the Age of Metals.Also known as the Copper or Bronze Age. — Egalitarian: The belief that everyone is equal and should have the same rights and opportunities. = Homo erectu: irst fully upright humans. — Mesolithic Age: Also known as the Middle Stone Age, it was the period of transition in the evolution of human beings between Palaeolithic and Neolithic periods. = Microliths: Small, composite flint tools; characteristic of the Mesolithic Age. — Neolithic Age: Also known as the New StoneAge,it is defined by primitive technological and social development. — Palaeolithic Age: A prehistoric era characterized by the development of the first stone tools; also referred to as the Old Stone Age.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS OF THE WORLD ARABIAN ENINSULA ASIA Arabian Sea Ace Ovizators bs fy 4 Indian Ocean y Amep showing ancient civilizations of the world culture to develop in the area was the Sumerian civilization, which flourished around 3,500 nce. Some other civilizations that flourished in this region were the Babylonian and Assyrian civilizations. Because a number of civilizations flourished in this region, Mesopotamia is also referred to as the Cradle of Civilization. The era also marks the beginning of the Bronze Age. Did You Know? A king in Sumer, Gligamesh, was regarded as two-thirds god and one-third humen. The Epic of Gilgamesh is the oldest written story in the world. The epic tells us about the wars and battles won by him and his desire to achieve immortality. Characteristics of the Mesopotamian Civilization Political Structure The — Mesopotamians | believed in the Divine Right Theory, ic. kings | and queens descended from the gods. But, unlike the ancient Egyptians, they never believed that their kings were real gods. Most kings named themselves sheet King Te onze heed of King Sargon of Akkadaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Hundreds of graves have been excavated in parts of Mesopotamia, which give us infor- mation about Mesopotamian burial habits. The discovery of objects take weapons, omaments and vessels suggests that they believed in life after death. Contributions of the Mesopotamian Civilization Script One of the greatest contributions of the Mesopotamian civilization is the invention of writing. They were the first to write on soft-clay tablets using a wedge-shaped stylus or pen made from reed, bone or metal. Their script is known as the cuneiform script. Cuneiform literally means wedge-shaped, due to the triangular tip of the stylus used for impressing signs on wet clay since pictures were used as words, the scripts Aclay tablet depicting the cuneiform script of ‘Mesopotamia SS is also called a pictogram. The clay tablets that were used for writing were baked in a fire and hardened and each tablet was like the page of a book. ‘The cuneiform script has been deciphered and is the main source of information about the Mesopotamians. Science During the 8th and 7th centuries BCE, the Babylonian astronomers developed a new approach to astronomy. They studied the stars and the sky, and could predict eclipses and solstices. They worked out a 12-month calendar based on the cycles of the moon. They divided the year into two seasons—summer and winter. ‘The Mesopotamians used a numeral system. This is the source of the current 60-minute hour, 24-hour day, as well as the 360 degrees circle. They also divided a week into 7 days. ‘The first wheeled vehicles were invented by the Mesopotamians around 3,500 BcE—a contribution without which the world would not have been the same. Legal System Hammurabi, the King of Babylon, was famous for his set oflaws. The Code of Hammurabi (created in 1780 BCE) is one of the earliest set of laws found and one of the best preserved documents of ancient Mesopotamia. He made over two hundred laws for Mesopotamia. Through these codes, the king could lookafter the weak, thepoor and the needy. The code is carved on an eight- feet high stone column. It lists 282 laws dealing with family, economy, civil and criminal cases.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.| | 4. Answer the following questions briefly: (@) Name the four river valley civilizations and the rivers along which they flourished. (b) State why the first civilizations developed along rivers. (c) What was the theory that the people of Mesopotamia believed in? (d) What was the social hierarchy in Mesopotamia? (e) How did the Mesopotamians plan their towns? (f) Name the various occupations practised by the Mesopotamians. (g) Mention two architectural structures of the Mesopotamians. (h) State two important scientific discoveries made by the Mesopotamians. (i) What were ziggurats? YOU CAN DO SOMETHING INTERESTING + Make a project on the different river valley civilizations through map work and state the importance of the river in each case. + Make a scrapbook on the important art and crafts of Mesopotamia.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.The principal food crops—barley and emmer—were used to make beer and bread, the main staples of Egyptian diet. The Egyptian diet was supplemented by fish, fowl, and meat. Clothing and Jewellery Egyptians were particular about cleanliness and personal appearance. Both men and women used cosmetics and wore jewellery and amulets for protection. Flax was woven into fine linen for clothing. Both women and men wore sandals made of papyrus. Jewellery consisted of bracelets, rings, necklaces and earrings. Belt buckles were made of gold and silver inlaid with precious stones. The design of Egyptian jewellery often reflected religious themes. Ancient Egyptian clothing Shelter Egyptian peasants and craftspersons lived in simple mudbrick houses with a few pieces of farniture. There were small windows high in the walls to keep out the heat, butlet light enter. Walls were covered with plaster and painted. Houses of the wealthy were large and luxurious with elaborate decorated furniture. Royal palaces were like small cities, built magnificently with separate residences, a temple and a workers’ village. Transport and Trade The Nile was like a highway that joined the country together. Ships and boats were the chief means of transporting people and goods around the country, The smallest and simplest type of boat used in ancient Egypt was the skiff, made from papyrus reeds that were tied together. Big flat boats called barges also served a ceremonial puzpose. They were used to move images of gods and transport the mummified bodies and nobles across the Nile. Ae | ‘A model of an Egyptian ship Roads were very narrow, people usually walked, rode donkeys or travelled by wagon. The wheel was probably introduced in Egypt by the Hyksos, an Asiatic tribe who invaded and ruled the country from 1,700 BCE-1,600 BCE.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.(©) Vessel with a large triangular sail is called Felucca. (@) The valley of the kings is famous for royal palaces. (©) Hieroglyphics means sacred carvings. 4, Answer the following questions briefly: (a) Why is Egypt called the ‘Gift of the Nile’? (b) What was the social hierarchy prevalent in Egypt? (c) Which articles were traded by the Egyptian traders? (d) State two features of the Egyptian religion. (e) What was mummification? (®) Where did the word ‘paper’ come from? } (g) State two features of the Egyptian calendar. (h) From where did the modern symbol of prescription originate? 5. Write brief notes on the following: (a) Hieroglyphics | (®) Pyramids. | j | } | | | | | i } | | } | YOU CAN DO SOMETHING INTERESTING + Make a project on Egyptian art and architecture with special emphasis on the pyramid at Giza, + On an outline map of the world, shade the region of Egyptian civilization showing the Nile. Write a few lines on why Egypt is referred to as the ‘Gift of the Nile’.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Larkana district of Sind (now in Pakistan). Harappa is situated on the banks of river Ravi in the Montgomery district of western Punjab in Pakistan, More than 250 sites have been discovered so far, thus making the Indus Valley Civilization the largest civilization of the ancient world. Some major sites of the civilization are mentioned below: + Kots Diji: Situated 40 km from Mohenjodaro, itwastheearliest known fortified city having a citadel and a lower town. INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION + Naushera: Flourished 6 km fom Kotdij. [tae ate vaton Blocks of mud houses Noi divided by streets were discovered. Though a smaller settlement, it had all the features of a developmental process towards urbanisation, + Kalibangan: Situated 205 km from Bikaner (Rajasthan). Kalibangan means black bangles—a name derived from the terracotta bangles found here. + Banawali: Situated 4 km northwest of Fatehabad (Haryana). It isa well-constructed fort town. + Lothal: At this dockyard in Gujarat, a huge man-made canal allowed ships to dock. The dockyard at Lothalaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.‘The Citadel Some of the important buildings in the citadel were the Great Bath, the Great Granary and the Assembly Hall. ‘The Great Bath: Excavated in Mohenjodaro, the Great Bath is the most striking feature of this civilization. It isa large rectangular structure resembling a swimming pool, built of baked bricks. It has a central bathing pool, galleries and dressing rooms, Fresh water was filled from 2 well nearby and used water drained out through an outlet. ‘The Great Bath wes probably used during religious ceremonies and for regular social amusement purposes. The Great Bath at Mohenjodaro Great Granary: At Harappa, there were two rows of six granaries known as the Great Granary. These were used to store surplus food grains to be used during floods or famines. All the granaries were built close to the river bank so that grains could be easily transported with the help of boats. A similar granary was found at Mohenjodaro. Near the Great Granary there were several round platforms where grain was threshed. At furnaces nearby, metal workers a variety of objects. The Great Granary at Harappa ‘The Assembly Hall: This was another impressive building found in Mohenjodaro. It was a hall with thick walls supported by pillars, This hall might have been used for prayers or as an assembly hall for public meetings. Dwelling Houses Residential houses were built in large blocks along both sides of the streets and varied in size. ‘They were built on raised platforms or plinths that rose above street level. Stairs led to the house. ‘The houses were double-storeyed with flat roofs. Some were very large while others had two small rooms. Every house had a courtyard surrounded by living rooms, a bathroom anda kitchen. These houses were built with bricks that have lasted 5,000 years. Drainage System ‘The Harappan people had an excellent and well- planned drainage system. The bathrooms had sloping floors and house drains were connected to the main drain. The main drains ran along the sides of the streets. They were covered with bricks. There were manholes at regular intervals which were cleaned regularly. The drainageaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.tablets, bronze implements and small objects made of terracotta and stone. Seals More than 2,000 seals have been excavated at different sites. Seals are small and flat and rectangular or square in shape. They are made of clay, soapstone and copper. They are artistically carved with figures of humans, and animals like the unicorn, humped bull, goat, tiger and elephant. These seals were used in trade and for official and administrative purpose. Significance of Seals Seals are important because they tell us about: + the artistic skills of the people. + the dress and ornaments of the people. + the religious beliefs of the people. + trade and commerce and the resultant eco- nomic prosperity. + a well-developed language with written script. The unicorn seal, Mohenjodaro Trade ‘The people of Harappa traded both within and outside India. They traded with countries like Mesopotamia, Persia and Afghanistan. Mesopotamian seals were found in some Harappan cities and seals and pottery from the Indus Valley civilization were found at the sites of the ancient Sumerian cities. This suggests that there was trade between the two ancient civilizations, both by land and by sea routes. Boats and ships were used for transport. The trade was probably carried on by barter system. Avariety of weights and measures were also used for trade and these have been discovered at sites in Mesopotamia. Religion Unlike Mesopotamia and Egypt, no such buildings dedicated to gods have been discovered. Numerous clay figures of the female deity have been found. This was probably the Mother Goddess. A three-faced figure, seated in 1 yogic posture, surrounded by various animals, The Mother Goddessis engraved on some seals, Some scholars believe it to be an earlier form of Pashupati (Lord Shiva). The Pashupati seal The pipal tree was regarded as sacred and perhaps worshipped. Alarge number of amulets have been found. ‘This suggests that people believed in ghosts and evil spirits and wore amulets or charms to ward them off. ‘The people of Harappa believed in life after death. This is evident from the fact that excavated gravescontain pottery, jewellery and otherarticles that they thought would be needed in afterlife. Decline By 1,700 ace, the Harappan civilization was on the verge of decline. The causes of its decline are not certain. Some historians believe that one or a combination of the following factors led to the decline of this civilization: + Ecological changes led to the decline of agriculture. Shifts in the monsoon pattern and changes in temperature made the area more arid. This forced the people to move to other areas, + Natural calamities like floods or earthquakes may have destroyed the cities. + Increase in population, deforestation, or decline in agriculture may have created economic problems leading to the gradual decay of the Harappan civilization. + Changes in the course of the river Indus may have left the land dry and infertile and not fit for agriculture. + The arrival and subsequent occupation of the land by the Aryans may also have led to the decline of the Harappan civilization. ‘Thus ended one of the world’s first great urban civilizations, The discovery of the Herappan civilization pushed back our antiquity by some five thousand years, when India had a highly developed civilization with a flourishing culture—well-planned cities, great artistic and cultural advancement, writing skill and prosperous trade. Indus Vatoy Civilization Present ete fbtt aay 4000 3500 3000 2500 2000 100 1000 £00 1ce © 800-1000 1500 2000 BCEaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.— Various occupations were practised—pottery, metal-working, spinning and weaving | = The script is probably pictographic but not deciphered. i = The seals discovered are a valuable source of information about trade, religion, culture and script. i = Religion—Worship of Mother Goddess, Pashupati and pipal tree. Belief in life after death. = Decline—Natural calamities, ecological changes, change in the course of river Indus and the Aryan occupation of the land. Me scatet am 1. Fill in the blanks: (@) The Indus Valley civilization is also known as the civilization. (©) Mohenjodaro is located in the (c) The Harappan cities were divided into (4) Common people lived in . © and were important occupations. (f) The Harappan script was probably . (g) The Harappan people traded with and (h) The Harappan people worshipped the ree. (i) The three-faced figure that the people worshipped is called ; 0 and were the animals that were domesticated. 2. State whether the following statements are ‘true’ or ‘false’: (a) The Harappan civilization was a rural civilization. (b) Lothal was an important dockyard. (©) The citadel consisted of the dwelling houses. (4) Surplus food grains were stored in the Great Granary. (©) The script of the Harappan civilization was written from left to right. 3. Give one word for the following: (@) Mound of the dea ; tant public building where meetings were held: the Harappans worshipped:a (d) These were used to ward off evil spirits: (©) This site got its name from ‘black bangles’ made of terracotta: ; 4. Answer the following questions briefly: (@) Why was the Indus Valley civilization often called the Harappan civilization? (b) Name three important sites where this civilization flourished. (©) State four salient features of town planning. (d) How do we know that the Harappans were very particular about sanitation? (e) What were the purposes of the Great Bath? (f) State the importance of seals. (@) What were the ornaments used by the Harappan people? (h) State two features of the religion of the Harappan people. (i) What do you know about the Harappan script? ()) State three causes for the decline of the Harappan i lization. YOU CAN DO SOMETHING INTERESTING + Onan outline map of India, mark and shade the extent of the Harappan civilization. * Imagine that you were living during the time of the Harappan civilization. Paint a picture of the street and the drainage system of that period.The Chinese civilization was one of the earliest civilizations of the world, which flourished about 4,500 years ago between approximately 2,500 and 2,000 ECE. China is a vast country with the Pacific Ocean in the east, wide deserts and mountains to the west and the Himalayas in the south. Through the land flow the two main rivers of China—the Hwang Ho and the Yangzte Kiang, It was along the banks of these two rivers that the ancient Chinese civilization developed and grew. This civilization wes perhaps the most advanced and literate culture of that time. The contributions of a ( a os wail q* © sourn ca The extent of the Chinese civilization ‘NorTH PACIFIC OCEAN Ancient River Valley Civilizations: China this civilization are many—the development of paper and silk, the art of printing, the compass and the invention of gunpower. The Shang dynasty (1,600 BCE-1,050 BCE), was the earliest archaeologically recorded dynasty in Chinese history. The Shang rule was ended by the Zhou, who came from farther up the Hwang Ho or the Yellow River. The Zhou dynasty exercised a certain degree of imperial power over most of central China. The power of the Zhou rulers declined and the country was divided into a number ofindependent states with very little allegiance to the emperor. ‘The era of the Shang and the Zhou dynasties is generally known as the Bronze Age of China. Later iron was also introduced. Thus the Chinese Civilization made a transition from Bronze Age to the Iron Age. This civilization was based on agri- culture, hunting and animal husbandry. Two important events of the period were the development of awriting system and the use of bronze. Abronze vessel in the shape of an owl, and a tripod ritual vessel, Shang dynastyFeatures of the Chinese Ci ization Social Life ‘The emperor was considered the secular and the religious head of society. Below him were the nobles and merchants, the craftspeople and farmers and finally the slaves. The army was important and soldiers held a special position. "They were feared and respected. The family was a close-knit unit and elders and ancestors were greatly respected. Several families lived in groups orclans. Religion During the early years of the Chinese civilization, people worshipped the high God Di, who they believed was responsible for rain, wind and @l_Did You Know? —|\@ In 1974, under a maize field, archaeologists discovered over 8,000 lifesize terracotta warriors, popularly called the Terracotta Army. The uniform of each soldier is very detailed, No two soldiers have the same facial expression. Most of the soldiers are empty- handed. It is believed that these soldiers guarded the tomb of the first emperor of China, Shi Huangdi. ‘The terracotta army pit thunder. They also practised ancestor worship. ‘The king or emperor was regarded as the son of Shangti, the god of heaven. He also took on the role of the high priest and head of ceremonies. Astrologers and oracles were alsoheld in high regard. Oracles or Holy priests, were believed to be in touch with the gods. Evidence from royal tombs indicates that members of the royal family were buried with objects of value perhaps for use inan afterlife. During the 6th century BCE, two Chinese philosophers, Confucius and Laozi, became popular. People were greatly impressed by their sayings and began to follow Confucianism, ‘Taoism and later Buddism. Confucius, the Chinese philosopher Sayings by Confucius are pooular all over the world today. Confucius taught his followers to practise the virtues of hard work, loyalty, modesty, to be sober and serious and thoughtful towards others. The principles he taught were the basis for a code of moral conduct. Following this code became a way of life. So great was his popularity that later Confucianism became the state religion of China.Occupation Agriculture Agriculture was very intensive and in many cases controlled by the government. All farming lands were owned by the nobles, who then gave their lands to the serfs, a situation similar to European. feudalism. Industries, too, were dominated by the nobility who directed production. A bronze image of a cart with ox and farmer China's first project of hydraulic engineering was founded during the Zhou dynasty. This helped to develop a vast irrigation system so that there was a surplus of food grains. The Chinese grew rice, wheat, millet, barley and soya bean. ‘Tea was first cultivated by the Chinese and was used for medicinal purposes. Later, it became a popular drink. Domestication of Animals ‘The Chinese used horses and horse-drawn carts for transport. They also domesticated cattle, sheep, pigs, dogs and poultry. Literature Chinese literature has a long and continuous history. Manuscripts of the classics and religious texts were manually written with a fine ink brush on bamboo or wooden pages. Script ‘The Chinese script uses symbols to represent an idea. This script has no alphabet and each word had a separate symbol, called an ideogram. ‘This script was difficult to learn and hence education was restricted to a privileged group. In museums ofancient history, one often sees bamboo or wooden strips with some characters written with a brush. These strips are called jian, the earliest form ofbooksin China. Plain silk was, also used for writing. Abamboo nook ‘The earliest examples of Chinese writing were the Oracle bone inscriptions. Another type of early Chinese script is represented by the inscriptions carved on ancient bronze objects of the Shang and Zhou dynasties.Oracle bone inscription with ancient Chinese script Music The Chinese created numerous musical instruments, such as the zheng, xiao and erhu, that spread throughout east and south-east Asia. Pottery The Chinese potters developed a highly refined form of pottery-making called porcelain. The Chinese were the first to make vases, jars, cups bowls and saucers. They used a special type of clay to make these. Many of these had fine glossy surfaces and were beautifully decorated with colourful designs. A Chinese porcelain jar Woodwork ‘Wood wasused extensively to constructbuildings. Walls of places were made of polished wood. The Chinese also made beautiful cabinets inlaid with ivory. Architecture Chinese architecture has been a hallmark of their culture. A famous example of this was the pagodas or temples. These stupa-style structures were important for their symmetry, which gave them grandeur and beauty. In fact, thissymmetry was applied to all buildings whether palaces or farmhouses. A Chinese pagoda ‘The Great Wall of China was built between 220BC and 200 BcEby the first emperor of China, Oin Shi Huangdi. It is the world’ longest human-The Great Wall of China @L_Did You Know? | The Great Wall was first built as a set of individual walls for the protection of different | | states. These independent sections were | | iO later connected. Different dynasties rebuilt, maintained and extended the wall, after adding to its design. Itis the only human- made structure visible from the moon! made structure stretching over approximately 2,400 km with 10,000 watch towers at regular intervals. These were used to store weapons, house troops and send smoke signals. It was built to protect the country from invaders from the north, and formed the northern boundary. Itis one ofthe Seven Wonders of the medieval world and was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1987. Sericulture Sericulture forms an important part of Chinese tradition. Perhaps the Chinese were the first to rear silkworms on mulberry trees. For a long time, the art of spinning silk remained a closely guarded secret. It was the main item of export during the ancient and medieval ages. Trade ‘The Chinese exported silk, tea, porcelain pottery and paper to Japan, India, Egypt, Mesopotamia and even parts of Europe. They used land and sea routes, that extended to over 8,000 km. Trade on the Silk Route was a significant factor in the development ofthe great civilizations of China, Egypt, Mesopotamia, Persia, Indian subcontinent and Rome, and helped lay the foundations of the modern world.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.The Greek Civilization: A Transition from Bronze Age to Iron Age There are no fixed or universally agreed upon dates for the beginning or the end of the ancient Greek civilization. This civilization witnessed both Bronze Age and Iron Age cultures and included the Minoan civilization of Crete and the Mycenaean civilization in the mainland Greece. The Minoans ‘The origins of Greek civilization can be traced to the Minoan civilization which flourished from 3,000 BCE to 1,400 BCE, This civilization developed on the island of Crete whichis situated in the Mediterranean Sea, south of Greece, It was discovered by Arthur Evans in 1,900, when he unearthed the remains of palaces at Knossos, Katro Sakro and Mallia. ‘The Minoans had a strong navy. Their fleet of ships protected the island from invaders, and the people led a peaceful and secure life, which helped in the development of its culture. They built large cities with huge palaces and public buildings. The Minoan palace at Knossos Knossos was the main city of the Minoans. ‘The palace at Knossos was a multi-storeyed building, spread over acres of land and housed not only the king of the Minoan state, but also his advisors, tradesmen and several craftspeople. ‘The palace had a courtyard, numerous rooms and corridors, a throne room, large baths, enormous storerooms and a well-developed plumbing system. Outside the palace, there was a.smaller palace, many houses and some craft workshops. Skilled crafispeople created beautiful artefacts. The palace at Knossos was decorated with frescos showing everyday life, court ritual and entertainment like bull-leaping and boxing. ‘The Minoans also made fine pottery deco- rated with geometric patterns. They were skilledA fresco in throne palace at Knossos goldsmiths and created beautiful jewellery. ‘They also excelled at metal work and sculptures. ‘They carried on trade with diverse areas such as Turkey, Egypt, Afghanistan and Scandinavia. Copper, ivory, amethyst, gold and amber were traded, ‘The palace of Knossos was destroyed twice in its history—once from fire and the second time from a major earthquake. The final collapse of the Minoan state came around 1,450 BCE. ‘Two factors may have contributed to the end of the Minoans—possible eruption of the volcano ‘Thera and invasion by the Mycenaeans from Greece. The Mycenaeans ‘The Mycenaeans occupied the city of Mycenaea near Athens, which eventually became a major trading centrein the region. Trade and commerce with the Minoans was initially peaceful. But in 1,450 BCE, the Mycenaeans invaded Crete and took many ofits palaces including Knossos. With the fall of Minoan Crete, the Mycenaeans were allowed avenues of trade not available to them before. The Mycenaean trade expanded to Cyprus, Egypt and Asia Minor. Traded goods included perfumed oils, olive oil, wine, art, ivory, plaques, pottery, gold, copper, tin, spices and dye. In addition to trade, the Mycenaeans expanded to form cities in Athens, Thebes, and Pylos. In many of the cities, fine citadels were created along with heavily fortified city walls. ‘The fall of the Mycenaean civilization took place within 1,300 and 1,000 BCE. Probably, a war with the people of Asia Minor, historically known as the Trojan War, led to the fall of the Mycenaeans. Eventually, with the fall of the ‘Mycenaeans, ancient Greece went through what is commonly known as the ‘Dark Age’ in Greek history.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.QUICK RECAP Birth place of Greece Civilization—the island of Crete. = The Mycenaeans—first Greek-speaking people on mainland Greece. = Classical Age—formation of city states (pols). = Rule of Pericles—Golden age of Greece. = Characteristics of Classical Civilization: (a) Government and law—structure of government. (b) Social Structure—citizens and slaves. (©) Philosophy—Focus on reason and inquiry by Socrates, Plato and Aristotle. (d) Literature—tiad and Odyssey by Homer; dramatists, Aeschylus and Aristophanes. (e) Art and architecture—realistic sculptures, beautiful buildings, pottery. (f) Greek games—the Olympic Games: Spirit of competition in any kind of game. (@ Religion—belief in myths: Gods of Mount Olympus. (h) Science and technology—mathematics, astronomy and medicine. 1. Fill in the blanks: (a) The Mincan civilization developed on the isle of (b) Arthur Evans discovered the remains of three great pauiees at and (©) The were the first Greekespeaking people living on mainland Greece. (d) Ancient Greece consisted of many more or less independent aalled (e) Athens was ruled by and his rule is known as the of Greece. (f) Athenians founded the world’s first 5 @ was one the greatest philosophers the world has ever known. (h) The Greeks began athletic competitions known as the famous @ is referred to as the Father of Modern Medicine.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Ancient Rome was a civilization that grew out of a small agricultural community. It was built on seven hills ‘on the banks of river Tiber as early as 10th century BcE. Located along the Mediterranean Sea, it became one of the largest empires in the ancient world. Roman Civilization is often grouped into the classical period with ancient Greece, a civilization that inspired much of the culture of ancient Rome. Ancient Rome contributed greatly to the development of law, art, literature, architecture, technology and language in the Western world, anditshistory continuesto have a major influence on the world today. Features of the Roman Civilization Society ‘The Roman society was divided into two classes—the Patricians (the aristocratic and upper class) and the Plebians (common people—farmers and artisans). The heads of the Did You Know? ‘According to legend, Rome was founded in 753 BCE on seven hills, situated on the banks of river Tiber, by two brothers, Romulus and Remus. Romulus was the first king of Rome. | An artist's impression of the Roman Senate Patrician families were members of an assembly called the Senate. The Senate advised the king, When the king died, the Senate elected a new King. ‘Most Romans belonged to the Plebian class. ‘These were the common people of Rome—the farmers and craftspeople. They could not take part in government affairs. The two classes did not intermingle socially. Plebians led humble lives and lost all their rights if they were unable to pay their taxes, Political System Around $09 BCE, the Senate, with the help of the Plebians, overthrew the king. This ended the monarchy—a government that is run by a king ‘or a queen. The new form of government was the republic. There was no king and the Senate elected two officials called the Consuls to govern the country for a year. This kind of system whereaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.= Roadsand city planning—Concrete roads, highways and bridges were constructed. Rectangular | pattern of streets enclosed with a defence wall. | = Construction of numerous aqueducts to supply water to the cities, assist industry and agriculture. Major advancements in sanitation. = Important Roman gods — Jupiter, Neptune, Apollo and Mars. 1. Fill in the blanks: (@) The Roman civilization grew along river . (b) After the defeat of Rome became the most powerful country in the Mediterranean region. (c) The first dictator for life was . (d) The Roman society was divided into two classes, and (e) The Roman republic was an unusual mixture of and (f) Roman law can be traced back to the laws of . (Bi. ci were the main articles of export. (h) was the main language used in Rome. (@ a popular site in Rome, was primarily used for horse and chariot racing. () The Romans constructed numerous to supply water to the cities. 2.Match the following items given in Column | with those in Column II: Column I Column I (@) Bridges and aqueducts Representatives of the Plebians (b) Tribunes Public bath (6) Plebians Musical instruments (d) Thermae Arches (e) Tuba,cornu and buccina. Common peopleaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Position of Women ‘Women enjoyed a respectable position in early Vedic society. Monogamy was practised. They had opportunities for education. There were women scholars like Visvavara and Apala. Dress and Ornaments ‘Men and women wore a garment like the dhoti. ‘The upper garment was like a shawl. They wore turbans. Women wore vasas—a kind of inner garment. Garments were made of cotton and wool. Both men and women wore different kinds of ornaments. Earrings, necklaces, bangles and shoes made of leather and wood were used. ‘The Caste System Society was divided on the basis of the skill or work of the people. This led to the development of the four classes or varnas of society: + Brahmanas were the educated priests who specialized in preserving sacred texts and carrying out various types of religious rituals. ‘They also imparted education. + Kehatriyas were in charge of administration and protection of the land. They maintained the structure of society and enforced law and order. + Vaishyas were traders, craftsmen and farmers. + Shudras were the labourers forming the lowest rung in Aryan society and were meant to serve the upper three classes. In the Early Vedic Period, all the three upper varnas—Brahmanas, Kshatriyas and Vaishyas— were considered relatively equal. The division of society on the basis of occupation in the Rig Vedic Period was flexible. However, this system became rigid in the Later Vedic Period and the caste of a person was determined by birth. Food The people ate barley, wheat, maize, milk, ghee, fruits, vegetables and meat. Intoxicating drinks soma (juice of a creeper plant of the family of milkweeds) and sura (prepared from barley) were consumed and also offered to the gods. Recreation Chariot racing, horse racing and hunting were favourite pastimes. Both men and women enjoyed games of dice. They also enjoyed music and dance and played instruments like the veena. Religion ‘The Aryans believed in one supreme being who they believed was the creator of the universe, ‘They worshipped the forces of nature as gods and goddesses, and believed that all ofthem were different forms of the supreme creator. Indra, the god of thunder and rain, was most important. Agni-the god of fire, Surya-the sun god, Varuna- the god of water, Vayu-the god of wind, Soma- the god of plants, Prithvi- the earth god, Yama-the god of death and Usha-the goddess of dawn, were all important gods. ‘Yajnas or sacrifices were common rituals. Since gods had no definite shape, there were no statues and temples. The mode of worship was performance of sacrifices which included chanting of Rig Vedichymnsand making offerings of grain, ghee and milk. The priests conducted rituals. People prayed for good health, cattle and for the birth of sons.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.followers of Jainism. The followers of Mahavira spread Jainism throughout the country. Later on, Mahavira’s followers were divided into two sects—Digambaras (those who wore no clothes) and Svetambaras (those who wore white clothes). Contributions of Jainism ‘The Jains contributed much to the growth of literature in Pali, Prakrit and Tamil. The teachings of Mahavira have been preservedin the 12 Angas and Purvas which are an important part of Jain religious literature. ‘The contribution of Jainism to art and architectureis noteworthy. The Jain temple, called Dilwara Temple, at Mount Abu in Rajasthan is famous for its art and architecture. The Jain temples at Chittor, Khajuraho and Ranakpur are also famous for their architecture, Ranakpur is one of the important holy places of the Jains. The huge Gomateswara statue at Shravanabelagola near Mysore is another Jain monument. Gomateswara statue at Shravanabelgola aie Causes for the Decline of Jainism + Jainism preached ahimsa to the extreme, which was impossible for the lay people to follow. + Lack of royal patronage. + Division of Jainism into two sects weakened its position. Buddhism Gautama Buddha, the founder of Buddhism, was born as Siddhartha. He was a contemporary of Mahavira. Siddhartha was born in 567 BCE in Lumbini near Kepilavastu in Nepal. His father, Suddhodana, was the chief of Sakya clan of Kapilavastu. When Siddhartha was bor, astrologers predicted that he would renounce the comforts of the materialistic world. Thus he was protected from all kinds of suffering, Siddhartha was brought up in great luxury. He married Yasodhara and had a son named Rahul.One day when Buddha was travelling in his chariot, he saw the Four Great Sights. He saw an old man, a sick man and a dead man. ‘This convinced him of the misery in the world. But he also saw the calm, peaceful and satisfied expression on the face of a hermit. At the age of 29, he left his wife and child to find an answer to all his questions—the truth about life. This was known as the Great Renunciation. His search for truth tookhim to many places. He found that mere meditation would not lead to true knowledge. After some time, he sat in deep meditation under a pipal tree near Gaya. On the 49th day of his meditation, he attained enlightenment and understood the truth of life. From that moment he was called the Buddha (the enlightened one) or Sakyamuni (the sage of the Sakya clan). Buddha gave his first sermon containing the four noble truths at Deer Park in Sarnath. He travelled throughout North India to preach his faith to the common people. He died at the age of 80 in 487 BCE at Kushinagar in Uttar Pradesh. A stone panel showing Buddha's First Sermon at Sarath Mahabodhi Temple at Bodh Gaya Teachings of Buddha Buddha's teachings were based on ahimsa or non-violence, love and compassion for all living beings. Itwasa moral code of conduct prescribed forthe ordinary person. Buddhism did not follow the strict rules of Jainism or the superstition and rituals of Hinduism. Thus, it came to be known as the Middle Path. Buddha's teachings comprised the four noble truths and the eightfold path or ashtangika marga. The Four Noble Truths +The world is full of sorrow and mysery. + Material desire is the main cause of our suffering, + Suffering can be avoided by overcoming desire. + Desire can be overcome by following the eightfold path or ashtangika _marga, which ultimately leads to nirvana or salvation.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.+ Many beautiful stupas at Sanchi, Vallabhiand Nalanda were built. The Sanchi Stupa, Madhya Pradesh + Gandhara sculptures and paintings at Ellora and Ajanta tell us about the great heights achieved in Buddhist art. + The Buddhists built many rock-cut structures called chaityas (prayer halls), stupas and viharas (monasteries). Causes for the Decline of Buddhism Buddhism declined and gradually lost its prominence due to the following reasons: + Hinduism became purified and reformed under the Gupta kings, who patronized Hinduism. + Invasion of the Hunas led to widespread destruction of the Buddhist viharas. Buddhism died out in India, but it is the main religion in China, Japan and Tibet. Birth of Buddha <—+ er ee T 1000 {uo iit { Ah 2000 1500 = 500 toe |e Bm en ls u T T t Confucianism The Chinese Confucius, the of Confucianism, contemporary of Mahavira and Gautama Buddha. Born (| in a noble family, he acquired knowledge in different subjects and became a teacher. The Chinese society and polity were in chaos during those days. Confucius wanted to revive the old values of the Chinese society, based on rational thinking and morality. He was an unknown figure during his lifetime but histeachings became popular after his death. Gradually, Confucianism became a part of the Chinese state religion. philosopher i founder | was a | Statue of Confucius Teachings of Confucius Confucius was a practical philosopher and teacher. He laid emphasis on family ties and respect for elders and traditional values. He also emphasized on developing strong ties between ruler and subjectat the state level. His philosophy was basicallya code of conductbased on honesty, morality, integrity, brotherhood, compassion, love and respect for all people. ‘Thus, Buddhism, Jainism and Confucianism aimed at reviving and reforming the society through moral codes of conduct and they succeeded in their endeavours to a great extent. > Birth of Mahavira Peat sey 2 500 1000 1500 2000aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Development of Empires: During the Later Vedic period, the Aryans migrated to the Gangetic plains and settled there. They used iron implements to cultivate the land. The others were monarchies ruled by kings, e.g. There was surplus production and Prosperity. Nature of Society Society was tribal and the tribes were called janas. As society became more settled and agriculture became the main occupation, groups/ tribes of people began settling down in particular areas or territories which came to be called janapadas. ‘This literally means ‘areas where the tribe put its foot down’ By 600 ce, many of the janapadas became bigger and bigger by capturing large territories and came to be known as mahajanapadas. During the 6th century BCE, several of these mahajanapadas or kingdoms flourishedin thenorthern and north-western parts of India, before the rise of Buddhism. _ we The Rise of Magadha ‘The Buddhist, Jain and some Vedic texts mention the existence of sixteen mahajanapadas of which some were republics —governed by the councils, eg, the Shakyas and the Lichchhavis. Magadha and Kosala. MAHAJANAPADAS: Wiese és La land ao be 2s —— vase, a pit 4 Pratisthar Ba ban a i ee , \ we py BAY OF BENGAL lal \ a iS \ \ wet ©. petrtnne ) © sas of ey . areca, Fat We oc |Rise of Magadha There were constant conflicts between the rulers of these kingdoms. Finally four powerful kingdoms emerged—Vatsa, Avanti, Kosala and Magadha. Gradually, Magadha emerged as the most powerful. Magadha—corresponding roughly to the present-day Patna and Gaya districts—occupies an important place in the early history of India. Magadha was the birthplace of two great religions—Buddhism and Jainism. Magadha also produced learned scholars like Kautilya, Panini and Patanjali. The existence of the famous University of Nalanda also contributed to the greatness of Magadha. Bimbi Bimbisara was the first important ruler of ‘Magadha. His capital was Rajgir. He became the king of Magadha at the age of 15 and ruled for $2 years. His first campaign was against Anga. Bimbisara annexed Anga with its famous port Champasituated on the banks ofriver Ganga. The control of this port gave Magadha an economic advantage over other kingdoms in north India. ‘Magadha had a flourishing maritime trade and become rich and prosperous. mA RG a Feiss 3 The ruins of Bimbisara’s capital, Rajgir Artand education flourished duringhis reign. He also strengthened his empire by providing an efficient administrative system. He was the greatest patron of Lord Buddha and converted to Buddhism. Ajatashatru After Bimbisara, his son Ajatashatru became the ruler of Magadha and ruled for nearly 32 years. He conquered neighbouring states and further contributed to the growth of Magadha as an imperial power. ‘The Magadha empire reached the climax of its glory during the reign of Ajatashatru. Pataliputra was the capital city of Magadha during his time. Rise of the Nandas ‘The Nanda empire originated from the kingdom of Magadha during the fourth century BCE. ‘Mahapadma Nanda seized the Magadha throne. He was the founder of the Nanda empire. At its greatest extent, the Nanda empire extended from Bihar and Bengal in the east to Sindh and Baluchistan in the west. The Nandas are sometimes described as the first empire builders of India. They built a vast army consis- ting of infantry, cavalry, chariot and war elephants. ‘The power of the Mauryan empire was so great that Alexander's army refused to advance into India. ‘The last Nanda king, Dhana Nanda, was defeated and dethroned by Chandragupta ‘Maurya. His death finally signalled the beginning of the Mauryan empire in 321 BCE under Chandragupta Maurya.India on the Eve of Alexander's Invasion In 326 BCE, Alexander, the king of Macedonia (in Greece), invaded India. This ambitious young king wanted to conquer the whole world. He had already conquered Egypt, Mesopotamia, Syria and the Persian Empire, which stretched to the borders of India. Alexander the Great At the time of Alexander's invasion India was divided into many kingdoms. There was constant rivalry and warfare among these kingdoms. Alexander took full advantage of this and conquered many of these states, Alexander's Invasion of India Ambhi, the rulerofTaxila (also Takshashila), sent an invitation to Alexander to visit India. Certain other kings of frontier kingdoms followed Ambhi and accepted the sovereignty of Alexander. Alexander then advanced towards the kingdom lying between the Jhelum and the Chenab, ruled by Porus. The armies of Porus and Alexander faced each other on the banks of Jhelum. Although Porus was defeated, Alexander was pleased with the valourand bravery of Porus. When Alexander asked how he wished to be treated, Porus replied, ‘Treat me, O Alexander, as befits a king’ Alexander was so impressed with A painting depicting the battle of between Alexander and Porushis answer that he not only returned his territory but also gave him certain conquered states. In his thirst for more conquests, Alexander marched towards Magadha, which lay beyond the Beas river. Unwilling to face the might of the Magadha army and tired offighting so many wars, ‘Alexander's army refused to march further. ‘Therefore, quite reluctantly Alexander ordered his soldiers to retreat. Territories under his control were placed under Greek generals. During the retreat, Alexander had to face many difficulties. In 323 BCE, Alexander fell ill in Babylonia and died. Effects of Alexander’s Invasion + The most significant political impact of Alexander's invasion was that small states in north-west India lost their power. This paved the way for the rise of the Mauryan empire. Chandragupta Maurya expanded his empire into this region, bringing about the political unification of India. + Direct contact between Europe and India was established. + This changed the organization of the Indian army. Horses replaced elephants. + Alexander’s invasion opened new routes for trade and commerce with the European countries. + Date of Alexander's invasion of India (326 BCE) was recorded by Alexander's historians. This helped in the chronological reconstruction of the ancient history of India. + The establishment of the Greekempireinthe north-west of Indialed to the development of the Graeco-Buddhist School of Indian Art or the Gandhara School of Art. Indians learnt to make beautiful and well- shaped coins from the Greeks. Standing Buddha, Gandhara School of Art Mahapadma Nanda captured throne of Magadha and founded the Nanda dynasty Present ecicrepiernsresti rena tte camer igen cn iaetsetciaiinlfelel amo woo ho] teeta > Rise of Mahajanapadas: ‘Alexander's invasion of India <——!aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.After the decline of the Mauryan empire by 185 ace, the Kushanas in the north and the Satuahanas in the Deccan region were two of the largest kingdoms to emerge. After their decline, there was a period of Political chaos. There were several smaller kingdoms that existed. In the beginning of the 4th century ce, these kingdoms were again united under the rule of the Gupta dynasty. ‘The Gupta empire was one of the largest political and military empires in ancient India, It ruled from 320 cE to $50 CE and their empire covered most of northern India, Rise of the Guptas ‘We get plenty of information about this dynasty through coins, inscriptions, monu- ments and Sanskrit classics. The Gupta rulers were great conquerors and administrators. ‘They defended the country from foreign infiltrators like the Sakas and the Hunas. The all-round development and prosperity led scholars to describe this periodas the Golden ‘Age of India, The Gupta Empire Chandragupta | Chandragupta I was the first important ruler of the Gupta dynasty. He succeeded his father Ghatotkacha in 320 CE. Chandragupta married Kumardevi, a princess of the Lichchhavi tribe— the main power in and around Magadha, He got Magadha with its capital city of Pataliputra as part of his dowry. With the help of the Lichchhavis, he conquered a number of surrounding territories. His kingdom stretched up to Prayaga or modern-day Allahabad. He assumed the title of Maharajadhiraja. Regn ated ty Santana The extent of the Gupta empireSamudragupta Chandragupta I was succeeded by his son Samudragupta in 335 CE. He is considered to be one of the greatest military geniuses in Indian history, and sometimes called the Napoleon of India. ‘The main source on Samudragupta's reign is an inscription engraved on a stone pillar at Allahabad known as the Allahabad Pillar Inscription or Prayaga Prasasti. It was written in Sanskrit by his court poet Harisena. Conquests of Samudragupta The beginning of Samudragupta’s reign was marked by the defeat of his immediate neigh- bours. His conquests included western UP and the areas around Delhi. Empowered by his new conquests, Samudragupta began a campaign against the kingdoms in the south, along the Bay of Bengal, and reached as far as Kanchi (Kanchipuram). In South India, Samudragupta did not annex these territories. After capturing his enemies he allowed them to rule as tributary ings as he realized that without proper transport and communication, it would be difficult to control these states. Samudragupta possessed a powerful navy in addition to his army. He conquered over twenty kingdoms including the frontier states of eastern and western India. These included the kingdoms of Assam, Nepal, the Ganga Delta in the east and the tribal republics in the west. His direct rule extended from the Himalayas in the north to ‘Narmada in the south, and from the Brahmaputra in the east to the Yamuna in the west, He performed the Ashvamedha yagna (horse sacrifice) to celebrate his conquests. These states accepted his sovereignty and paid large sums of money as tribute. ee Samudragupta issued eight different types of coins, all in gold. He was also a patron of learning, a celebrated poet and a musician. Several coins depict him playing the veena. He patronized a galaxy of poets and scholars of Sanskrit literature. Though he followed the Hindu religion, he was tolerant towards other religions. He granted permission to the king of Ceylon (Sri Lanka) to build a monastery for Buddhist pilgrims in Bodh Gaya. Samudragupta probably died in 375 CE and was succeeded by Chandragupta II. Gold coin of Samudragupta portraying Ashvamedha yagna Chandragupta Il Chandragupta II or Vikramaditya was one of the most powerful kings of ancient India. He ruled from 375 CE to 414/15 CE, during which the Gupta empire reached its zenith. He married the daughter ofa Naga ruler. He also gave his daughter to a powerful ruler in the Deccan. In return, he got useful help in his campaigns of expansion. His greatest victory was over the Saka-Satraps with the annexation of their kingdom in Gujarat. ‘This gave the Gupta empire control over these seaports and they developed a large network of trade overseas. Chandragupta II controlled a vast empire which extended from the Ganga to theaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.India is a land of great diversity—both natural and cultural. So we have the Himalayan mountains in the north and the flat river valleys in northern India. In the east and west there is cultural diversity of traditions, customs and religions, music and art, food and dress. However, in spite of all our diversities, there is an undercurrent of unity that binds us as a cohesive unit. Irrespective of caste, creed, colour, region and language, we are Indians. Religion India is a secular country, which means we are free to practise and follow any religion of our choice, Hinduism, Christianity, Islam, Buddhism, Sikhism, Zoroastrianism, Jainism and other religions coexist in India. Each one of us should respect the other's religion and its beliefs. ae Differentstateshavedifferentlanguages. Ihere are many linguistic communities. However, with the migration andmovement of people from one state to the other, the linguistic communities are no more confined to a particular region. Punjabi is spoken in Punjab, Bengali in West Bengal, Oriya in Orissa, Telugu in Andhra Pradesh, Tamil in Tamil Nadu, Marathi in Maharashtra, Gujarati in Gujarat, Malayalam in Kerala and so on. There are twenty-two official languages of India including Hindi and English. These two languages act as a unifying force. So even if you live in an area where your mother tongue is not spoken, you can still communicate. Art Different forms of art and architecture, sculpture, painting, music and dance are important aspects Christmasof our culture. There are various classical dance forms of India like the Bharatnatyam of Tamil Nadu, Kathakali of Kerala, Kathak of Uttar Pradesh, Odissi of Orissa, Kuchipudi of Andhra Pradesh and Manipuri of Manipur, Besides, there are numerous forms of folk dances prevalent in India such as the Bhangra of Punjab and the Bihu of Assam. Similarly several forms of classical music also exist. We also have folk music, bhajans (religious music) and light music. It is important that we develop a healthy and happy environment so that we can appreciate the many benefits of community life. ‘This will help us to respect our differences and understand the importance of cooperation. We have to understand our duties and social responsibilities so that we can work towards a better world. wee OY = Classical dance forms of India =. Civics: The study of the functioning of the government and the duties and rights of the citizens, = Community: A group of people with common interests who live and interact amongst themselves. = Folk dance: The traditional dance form of a community living in a particular area. = Man-made environment: The environment that man has created—villages and towns, transport and communication, etc. = Natural environment: Includes all the elements of nature. = Secular: The freedom to practise and follow any religion of our cheice. = Team spirit: The willingness of people to work together and help each other as part of a cohesive group. = Universal brotherhood: The concept which stands for friendship and fellow feeling involving all people of the world.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Sources of Income The funds for the functioning of the gram panchayat are obtained from the following sources: + Taxes on houses, fairs and shops. + Fees for recording the sale of land and cattle. + A part of the land revenue collected by the state is given to the panchayats. + Grants from the state government. + Fines charged from offenders found guilty of petty criminal cases. Nyaya Panchayat ‘The gram panchayat elects the members of the nyaya panchayat which helps to settle disputes among people. Its main function is to provide cheap and speedy justice. Block Samitis at Block Level There are certain problems which cannot be solved by the gram panchayat alone. So, panchayat samitis have been constituted. Several villages are grouped together to form ablockwith the governing body called panchayat samiti or block samiti, The panchayat samiti fulfils functions like building hospitals or high schools-which cannot be done by the village panchayat. The panchayat samiti usually looks after needs of a hundred villages. Composition + Sarpanches ofall gram panchayats under the panchayat samiti. + A Member of Parliament and a Member of the Legislative Assembly representing the block. + Seats are reserved for the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes. + One-third of the total seats are reserved for women. + ‘The chairperson and vice-chairperson are elected by the members of the block samiti. + The block development officer is responsible for carrying out the plans of the block samiti. Functions The term of a samiti varies from 3 to 5 years in different states. The chairperson presides over the meetings of the panchayat samiti, The functions of the samiti are as follows: + It supervises the working of the village panchayats. + It arranges funds from the government for developmental programmes. + Itprepares programmes for irrigation projects, arranging seeds and fertilizers, education, health facilities, supply of drinking water, sanitation, financial assistance, etc. Sources of Income + Grants from the state government. + Income from taxes. + Afixed percentage ofland revenue is given by the state to the panchayat samiti. Zila Parishads at District Level The zila parishad is the top tier in the panchayati raj system. It functions at the district level. Generally, it functions for a period of 3 to 5 years depending on the law of the state concerned.Composition ‘The zila patishad is also an elected body. The people of the district elect the members of the zila parishad. The president and the vice-president are the top two office-bearers who are elected by the members. It consists of the following members: + Chairpersons of the block samitis. + Members of Legislatures. + Members representing the Scheduled Castes, the Scheduled Tribes, the Other Backward Classes and women. Parliament and State + Important district officers like the collector, judges and police officers. Functions + The zila parishad supervises the working of panchayats and block samitis. + It approves the budgets of block samitis and distributes funds among them. + Itsupervises developmental programmes. + Itbuilds, maintains and inspects primary and secondary schools, hospitals, dispensaries and health centres. + It coordinates the working of the panchayats and panchayat samitis on the one hand and state government on the other. Sources of Income + Grants and aids from the state government. + Taxes imposed on land, houses, water, electricity, fairs and cattle. ‘The panchayati raj system has been fanctioning successfully in India and the villages under this system have definitely made progress. Ithas created a sense of community development, self-reliance and initiative among the villagers, ‘The system has uplifted the weaker sections of the society by giving them an opportunity to participate in the governance of their own areas. ‘The three levels of the panchayatiraj system work in proper coordination which in turn leads to the development of the villages. Urban Local Self-government ‘The urban local bodies are set up to look after the problems of urban areas, such as metropolitan citiesand towns. They are municipal corporations, municipality, town area committee, cantonment board, improvement trustand port trust, notified area committee, special purpose agency and townships. Municipal Corporations Municipal corporations are local governing bodies of big cities such as Delhi, Chennai, Kolkata, Mumbai, etc. These are elected for a period of S years. Composition + ‘The mayor is the head of the corporation and presides over the meetings of the corporation. + The municipal commissioner, appointed by the state government, is the chief executive officer. + Aldermen or respected citizens (senior members) of the city are also elected. + Members of Parliament and the State Legislative Assembly.+ Seats are reserved for the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes. + One-third of the total seats are reserved for women. Functions ‘The functions of the municipal corporation are of two types—compulsory and optional. Compulsory functions include provision for public health and sanitation: + Safe drinking water supply. + Public health and welfare with the construc- tion of hospitals and welfare centers. + Arrangement for vaccinations and ino- culations. + Cleaning roads and drains and disposal of garbage. + Provision for public works and services. + Construction of roads, bridges and public buildings. + Arrangement for street lighting and security. + Maintenance of records for births and deaths. + Establishment and maintenance of schools and adult education centres. Optional functions are as follows: + Construction and maintenance of public parks, gardens, zoos, theatres and museums. + Cheap public transport. + Supply of cooking gas. + Organising events like sports, exhibitions and cultural programmes. + Construction of roads and bridges. Sources of Income + Income from taxes. + Grants from the state government. + Income from profitable undertakings like shopping centres, malls and other entertainment centres. Municipality Municipalities are constituted in towns and cities with a population between 20,000 and 5,00,000. Composition Municipalities are headed by chairpersons who are assisted by the general boards and executive officers. They carry on their work with the help of different committees such as health committee, education committee, etc.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Property is something that you own or possess. You take care of it and do not want anyone to spoil it. Property can be broadly divided into two types—personal property and private Property. Personal Property Personal or private property is the property which is owned by an individual, a family or a small group of people. A toy is a child’s property, whereas the house, the car and the furniture are also private property, as these are owned by all the members of the family. Private property of a family Public Property Public property or national property is the property which is collectively owned by the Preservation of Property— Private and Public aS The National Museum, Delhi, is a national property people of a country. Everyone is entitled to the use of this property, provided they take proper care of it. Public property includes buses, railways, government buildings, hospitals, government rest houses, power stations, educational institutions and libraries, parks, museums and historical and religious monuments, and so on. ‘As responsible citizens of the country, we should not damage public property. Often ‘we find that people callously litter and throw garbage in public places, destroy public transport and damage monuments. We, as citizens, must inculcate civic sense and prevent damage to public property. ‘This kind of damage to public property is called vandalism. Vandalism has ‘become a common feature in our society. Quite often, people destroy buildings and set vehicles on fire during strikes and demonstrations. As good citizens, we should be proud of the public property and treat it as our own.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Frank Modern Certificate History and Civics is a series of three books for the middle school (Classes 6-8). The series is based on the syllabus prescribed by the Inter-State Board of Anglo-Indian Education. Each book in the series comprises of three separate learning modules that are organized sequentially. The book for Class 6 covers topics on the Ancient Period in history and community development in society. The book for Class 7 covers topics on the Medieval Period in history and the Constitution of India. The book for Class 8 covers topics on the Modern Period in history and major global and national issues and concerns, and international cooperation. Historical learning is enriched through a comparative study of different patterns of historical development. This entails the study of world traditions and civilizations. To facilitate this, the series covers topics on the world history and civilization as per the syllabus requirement. The treatment of the subjects is factual, for historical analysis depends on data. It is also in accordance with the ICSE requirement. The series provides a solid foundation in History learning. The section on Civics is developed in a way that helps learners understand and comprehend the organization and functioning of the Indian political system and the world they tive in better. Key Features Captures the imagination of young learners through an interesting and easy-to- understand style. The text is supported by visually engaging and relevant photographs, pictures, tables, charts, maps’, etc. Timelines provide a clear chronological perspective on the subject. Key Words explain difficult terms and words and help build vocabulary. (Quick recap concludes a chapter and helps in easy recapitulation. Did you knows give additional interesting information on the subject. . Exercises, activities and You can do something interesting topics help to reinforce Warning and serve asa valuable teaching as wall as exciting learning tool. Si 144.90 {ISBN 076.81.8400-990.0 el INN f FRANK BROS. & CO (PUBLISHERS) LTD | | . see 8-41, Sector-4, Noida-201301, Gautam Budh Nagar