V-n Diagram

Date of Submission: August 19th, 2005

By

Jayender

AE02B007

M.Santhosh -

AE02B022

A.Sivaram

AE02B034

Introduction:
The V-n diagram plays an important role in Aircraft design. The V-n diagram is
a plot between the load factor and the velocity. Load factor is defined as the ratio of the
aerodynamic load to the weight of the aircraft. Aircraft has to perform different loading
conditions at different speeds, controls and high loads due to stormy weather. But at the
same time, it is impossible to investigate all possible loading conditions.
There are structural limitations on the maximum load factor allowed for a given
airplane. There are two categories of structural limitations in airplane design:
1

Limit Load Factor: This is the boundary associated with permanent structural
deformation of one or more parts of the airplane. If n is less than the limit load
factor, the structure may deflect during maneuver, but it will return to its
original state when n = 1. If n is greater than the limit load factor, then the
airplane structure will experience a permanent deformation, i.e., it will incur
structural damage.

Ultimate Load Factor: This is the boundary associated with outright structural
failure. If n is greater than the ultimate load factor, parts of the airplane will
break.
There are four main critical conditions:

High Angle of Attack (+)

Low Angle of Attack (+)
Low Angle of Attack (-)
High Angle of Attack (-)
For airplane design, the limit load factor depends on the type of the aircraft.
Some typical values for limit load factors are given below:
Aircraft type
Normal general aviation
Aerobatic aviation
Civil transport
Fighter

npositive
2.5 to 3.8
6
3 to 4
6.5 to 9

nnegative
-1.5 to -1
-3
-2 to -1
-6 to -3

Courtesy: Anderson, Aircraft Performance and Design

A typical V-n diagram looks like this:

Ultimate load
Factor n=1.5n1
Proof load
Factor n= 1.25n1

Maneuvering load factor

+HAA

+LAA

Positive
Stall

D1
n1 (limit load)
Level flight

n4

1.0
n=1.0

D2

Flight
Speed

0
VA

VC

VD
n3

-HAA

Negative Stall

-LAA

VA-Design Maneuvering Speed

VC- Design Cruising Speed
VD- Design Diving Speed

As mentioned Aircrafts can be classified into three categories, namely,

Non Aerobatic

Semi Aerobatic

Aerobatic

Our aircraft being a civilian aircraft, it is Non-Aerobatic.

Table 1: Maneuvering Load Factors:

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - -- - - -- - -- - -- - - -- - - - - -- -- -- -- --- -- --

Aero plane Type

Load factor -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Non Aerobatic
Semi
Aerobatic
Aerobatic
11,000
n1

2.1 +

+ 4.5
+ 6.0
W+ 4600
But need not be greater than
(Group A) + 3.5
(Group C, D)+ 3.8
And shall not be less than + 2.5
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------n3
-1.0
-1.8
-3.0
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------n4
(Group A) 0.75 n1
+ 3.5
+ 4.5
But shall not be less than + 2.5
+2.5
(Group C, D) n1
+ 4.5
+ 6.0
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

V-n diagram for take-off:

Our first aim is to draw the V-n diagram for take-off.
The maximum load factor during take-off is given by:
n1 = 2.1 +

11000
W + 4600

W for our aircraft during take-off is 60852 kgf.

So we get n1 = 2.268, which falls in the above mentioned range.
n4 = 0.75 n1
Therefore, n4 = 1.701.
n3 = -1
Clmax = 2.4
Vs1 = Stalling speed = 60 m/s
VA =

n1 Vs1

VA = 90.4 m/s
Now to calculate VB, we calculate VB by two different methods and take the
minimum of the two values.
The first method to calculate VB is as follows:
VB = 1.6 Vs1
Therefore VB = 96 m/s
Also VB can be calculated by equating the gust load factors.
ng = 1 + n

n is given by
Also, ng =

C l UvS
WTO

0.5C l v 2 S
WTO

Thus, solving for VB we get VB = 88.526 m/s.

So we take the minimum value which is VB = 88.526 m/s.
VC , the cruise speed is, 236.2 m/s.
VD , the diving speed is, VC + 31.39 for altitude less than 6 km.
So the summary of the velocities along with the load factor is
Point
A
C
D
E
F
G
B
C
D
E
F
G

Velocity

Load factor

90.43
236.2
267.59
267.59
236.2
88.53
88.53
236.2
267.59
267.59
236.2
88.53

2.27
2.27
1.71
0
-1
-1
1.99
2.97
2.12
-0.12
-0.97
0.014

V-n diagram for landing:

The same procedure is followed for landing as well.
The maximum load factor during take-off is given by:
n1 = 2.1 +

11000
W + 4600

W for our aircraft during landing is 51115 kgf.

So we get n1 = 2.297, which falls in the above mentioned range.
n4 = 0.75 n1
Therefore, n4 = 1.723.
n3 = -1
Clmax = 2.5
Vs1 = Stalling speed = 53.93 m/s
VA = n1 Vs1
VA = 81.72 m/s
Now to calculate VB, we calculate VB by two different methods and take the
minimum of the two values.
The first method to calculate VB is as follows:
VB = 1.6 Vs1
Therefore VB = 86.288 m/s
Also VB can be calculated by equating the gust load factors.
ng = 1 + n

n is given by
Also, ng =

0.5C l v 2 S
WTO

C l UvS
WTO

Thus, solving for VB we get VB = 107.41 m/s.

So we take the minimum value which is VB = 86.288 m/s.
VC , the cruise speed is, 236.2 m/s.
VD , the diving speed is, VC + 31.39 for altitude less than 6 km.
So the summary of the velocities along with the load factor is
Point
A
C
D
E
F
G
B
C
D
E
F
G

Velocity

Load factor

81.7
236.2
139.88
139.88
236.2
86.24
86.24
236.2
139.88
139.88
236.2
86.24

2.297
2.297
1.723
0
-1
-1
2.11
3.29
1.678
-0.321
-1.29
-0.11

So all the critical velocities for take-off and landing and their corresponding load factors
have been tabulated.
The V-n diagram has been plotted in the following pages for take-off and landing with
and without gust.

V-n Diagram
Date of Submission: August 19th, 2005

By

Jayender

AE02B007

M.Santhosh -

AE02B022

A.Sivaram

AE02B034

Introduction:
The V-n diagram plays an important role in Aircraft design. The V-n diagram is
a plot between the load factor and the velocity. Load factor is defined as the ratio of the
aerodynamic load to the weight of the aircraft. Aircraft has to perform different loading
conditions at different speeds, controls and high loads due to stormy weather. But at the
same time, it is impossible to investigate all possible loading conditions.
There are structural limitations on the maximum load factor allowed for a given
airplane. There are two categories of structural limitations in airplane design:
1

Limit Load Factor: This is the boundary associated with permanent structural
deformation of one or more parts of the airplane. If n is less than the limit load
factor, the structure may deflect during maneuver, but it will return to its
original state when n = 1. If n is greater than the limit load factor, then the
airplane structure will experience a permanent deformation, i.e., it will incur
structural damage.

Ultimate Load Factor: This is the boundary associated with outright structural
failure. If n is greater than the ultimate load factor, parts of the airplane will
break.
There are four main critical conditions:

High Angle of Attack (+)

Low Angle of Attack (+)
Low Angle of Attack (-)
High Angle of Attack (-)
For airplane design, the limit load factor depends on the type of the aircraft.
Some typical values for limit load factors are given below:
Aircraft type
Normal general aviation
Aerobatic aviation
Civil transport
Fighter

npositive
2.5 to 3.8
6
3 to 4
6.5 to 9

nnegative
-1.5 to -1
-3
-2 to -1
-6 to -3

Courtesy: Anderson, Aircraft Performance and Design

A typical V-n diagram looks like this:

Ultimate load
Factor n=1.5n1
Proof load
Factor n= 1.25n1

Maneuvering load factor

+HAA

+LAA

Positive
Stall

D1
n1 (limit load)
Level flight

n4

1.0
n=1.0

D2

Flight
Speed

0
VA

VC

VD
n3

-HAA

Negative Stall

-LAA

VA-Design Maneuvering Speed

VC- Design Cruising Speed
VD- Design Diving Speed

As mentioned Aircrafts can be classified into three categories, namely,

Non Aerobatic

Semi Aerobatic

Aerobatic

Our aircraft being a civilian aircraft, it is Non-Aerobatic.

Table 1: Maneuvering Load Factors:

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - -- - - -- - -- - -- - - -- - - - - -- -- -- -- --- -- --

Aero plane Type

Load factor -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Non Aerobatic
Semi
Aerobatic
Aerobatic
11,000
n1

2.1 +

+ 4.5
+ 6.0
W+ 4600
But need not be greater than
(Group A) + 3.5
(Group C, D)+ 3.8
And shall not be less than + 2.5
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------n3
-1.0
-1.8
-3.0
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------n4
(Group A) 0.75 n1
+ 3.5
+ 4.5
But shall not be less than + 2.5
+2.5
(Group C, D) n1
+ 4.5
+ 6.0
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

V-n diagram for take-off:

Our first aim is to draw the V-n diagram for take-off.
The maximum load factor during take-off is given by:
n1 = 2.1 +

11000
W + 4600

W for our aircraft during take-off is 60852 kgf.

So we get n1 = 2.268, which falls in the above mentioned range.
n4 = 0.75 n1
Therefore, n4 = 1.701.
n3 = -1
Clmax = 2.4
Vs1 = Stalling speed = 60 m/s
VA =

n1 Vs1

VA = 90.4 m/s
Now to calculate VB, we calculate VB by two different methods and take the
minimum of the two values.
The first method to calculate VB is as follows:
VB = 1.6 Vs1
Therefore VB = 96 m/s
Also VB can be calculated by equating the gust load factors.
ng = 1 + n

n is given by
Also, ng =

C l UvS
WTO

0.5C l v 2 S
WTO

Thus, solving for VB we get VB = 88.526 m/s.

So we take the minimum value which is VB = 88.526 m/s.
VC , the cruise speed is, 236.2 m/s.
VD , the diving speed is, VC + 31.39 for altitude less than 6 km.
So the summary of the velocities along with the load factor is
Point
A
C
D
E
F
G
B
C
D
E
F
G

Velocity

Load factor

90.43
236.2
267.59
267.59
236.2
88.53
88.53
236.2
267.59
267.59
236.2
88.53

2.27
2.27
1.71
0
-1
-1
1.99
2.97
2.12
-0.12
-0.97
0.014

V-n diagram for landing:

The same procedure is followed for landing as well.
The maximum load factor during take-off is given by:
n1 = 2.1 +

11000
W + 4600

W for our aircraft during landing is 51115 kgf.

So we get n1 = 2.297, which falls in the above mentioned range.
n4 = 0.75 n1
Therefore, n4 = 1.723.
n3 = -1
Clmax = 2.5
Vs1 = Stalling speed = 53.93 m/s
VA = n1 Vs1
VA = 81.72 m/s
Now to calculate VB, we calculate VB by two different methods and take the
minimum of the two values.
The first method to calculate VB is as follows:
VB = 1.6 Vs1
Therefore VB = 86.288 m/s
Also VB can be calculated by equating the gust load factors.
ng = 1 + n

n is given by
Also, ng =

0.5C l v 2 S
WTO

C l UvS
WTO

Thus, solving for VB we get VB = 107.41 m/s.

So we take the minimum value which is VB = 86.288 m/s.
VC , the cruise speed is, 236.2 m/s.
VD , the diving speed is, VC + 31.39 for altitude less than 6 km.
So the summary of the velocities along with the load factor is
Point
A
C
D
E
F
G
B
C
D
E
F
G

Velocity

Load factor

81.7
236.2
139.88
139.88
236.2
86.24
86.24
236.2
139.88
139.88
236.2
86.24

2.297
2.297
1.723
0
-1
-1
2.11
3.29
1.678
-0.321
-1.29
-0.11

So all the critical velocities for take-off and landing and their corresponding load factors
have been tabulated.
The V-n diagram has been plotted in the following pages for take-off and landing with
and without gust.

Wing Design
By
Jayender

AE02B007

M. Santhosh AE02B022
A. Sivaram AE02B034

The structural design of the wing requires a complete quantitative knowledge of

the different loads it will be subjected to during its flight regime. These loads can be
briefly classified as
1) Distributed loads - Loads such as aerodynamic loads, weight of the wing and
weight of fuel.
2) Concentrated loads Loads such as thrust, engine weight, landing gear weight
and armament weight.

Where,
S

- Wing gross area m2

- Span m

C ell

- Chord of equivalent ellipse.

C cl

- Local Chord

Cl

- Local lift coefficient

CL

- Mean lift coefficient

To find lift distribution - Cla

i) Draw actual plan form (one half) from taper ratio and semi span data.
ii) Draw trailing edge as Y axis and chord as X ordinate.
iii) Draw equivalent area elliptical plan form wing with span and wing area same as
actual wingiv) Draw on the same base as (i).

We know,

1
v 2 S CL
2

Lift = L =

Lift per unit span =

1
v 2 (c C l )
2

= q cCl

(cCl )C =1
L

1
4S
= c actual +
2
b

C
cCla = (cCl ) C L = L
2

c actual + 4 S
b

2 y 2
1
b

2 y 2
1
b

(1)

Equation (1) gives cCl for a wing that has no twist and no change in the airfoil shape
along the span.
In case of wings with changing airfoil along the span, mo =

dC l
for each section.
d

Assuming linear variation,

b/2

m c dy
o

mo =

cCla1 =

C L
4S
ci +
2
b

2 y 2
1
b

(2)

where
ci =

m0 c actual
mo

For wings with twist, we define

a = a W
R

(3)

where

a = effective angle of attack

a = absolute angle of attack (angle of attack to zero lift chord) from any
R

reference plane at each section of wing- linear variation from root to tip.

b/2

m
o

W =

aR

c dy

b/2

m c dy
o

If mo is constant, we get

b/2

W =
O

aR

c dy

C lb =

1
m o a
2

(4)

For the wing, we have

(cCl ) = cCl
For our aircraft wing,
Root chord = 5.167 m
Tip chord = 1.415 m
Semi-span = 14.06 m

+ cClb

(5)

Hence, the chord varies as c actual = 5.167 0.267 y where y is measured from the wingfuselage intersection.
The maximum load factor for the flight regime = nmax = 3.29 .
3.29 =

q S C L 0.5 0.3648 236.2 2 99.5 C L

=
60852 9.8
W

Hence,

C L = 1.937 =

6.556
aR + 3.99
57.3

At the root, aR = 12.965 0 . But due to a twist of 3 0 , aR varies as

a = 12.965 0.213 y
R

W =
o

2
99.5

14.06

(12.965 0.213 y )(5.167 0.267 y )dy

0

= 10.927

From (3),

a = 2.023 0.213 y
C lb =

1
2 a = 6.35 0.67 y
2

From (1) we get

cCla = (cCl ) C L =

1.94
4 99.5
5.167 0.267 y +
2
28.13

+ (5.167 0.267 y )(6.35 0.67 y )

2 y 2

1
28.13

2 y
Lift per unit span = 10176.2 37.82 5.416 y + 0.178 y 2 + 4.369 1

28.13

Wing weight per unit span = (5.167 0.267 y )

Fuel weight per unit span = (5.167 0.267 y )

6446.51 9.8
= 1640.26 84.76 y
99.5 2

10418 9.8
= 2650.91 136.98 y
99.5 2

Net load per unit span acting upwards is

2y
380572.714 54892.56 y + 1811.36 y + 44459.8 1

28.13

14.06

Torque at cross section t =

1
v 2 c dy c c m
2

14.06

10042.28 (5.167 0.267 y) 3.8 0.05 dy

t

14.06

1908.03 (5.167 0.267 y) dy

t

The three graphs namely Shear force, Bending moment and Torque distribution along
wing span have been plotted.

Testing of material properties

Jayender R
M. Santhosh
A. Sivaram

By
AE02B007
AE02B022
AE02B034

INTROUCTION:

In the design of any part of the aircraft it is essential to know

accurately the properties of the material used. The aim of this exercise is
to determine crucial properties such as Young's modulus, poisson's ratio,
shear strength, yield strength, ultimate strength.
Young's modulus: It is the ratio of stress to strain and is constant for and
isotropic material in all directions.
Poisson's ratio: It is the ratio of transverse strain to longitudinal strain on
application of longitudinal stress.
Yield strength: It is the maximum stress the material can take in the
elastic region of loading.
Ultimate stress: It is defined as the maximum stress the material can
withstand beyond which it will completely fail.
Shear strength: It is the maximum shear stress the material can withstand
beyond which it will completely fail.
There are two standards followed for testing a specimen. They are
1. American Standard for Testing Materials (ASTM)
2. Indian Bureau of Standards (IBS)
The Aluminum specimens were tested in a Universal Testing Machine.

Results:
From the graph of tensile load versus deflection, we get
Young's modulus (E) =
Ultimate stress =

100 9.81 57
= 10.355 Gpa
18 10 -6 0.3 10 9

270 9.81
= 147.15 Mpa
18 10 -6

Yield stress = 141.7 Mpa

From the graph of shear load versus deflection, we get
Shear strength =

14.6 20 9.81
= 71.61Mpa
40 10 -6

DESIGN PROJECT - II
Assignment 6
Fuselage Design

Submitted by
R.Jayender - AE02B007
M.Santhosh - AE02B022
A.Sivaram - AE02B034

Detailed Fuselage Design

Introduction:

Fuselage design is the most important part of an aircraft design as it is

where the bulk of the payload is. So in this assignment we do a detailed
design of the fuselage by considering the various loads on the aircraft. Safety
is the most critical aspect of it and thereby we must consider the most
adverse conditions that the fuselage may be subjected to while designing it
for such loads.
The analysis is done by assuming the fuselage cross-section as a thin
walled closed section. The cross-section is usually elliptic with a low
eccentricity. We have a circular cross-section of radius 1.81m. But then the
cross-section alone cannot carry the desired loading and so must be
reinforced with stiffeners (longerons) and bulkheads to carry the shear force,
bending moments and torque. The method adopted to calculate the shear
flows is similar to the method adopted in the previous assignment for wingdesign.
To calculate the above mentioned quantities we must first identify the
loads acting on the fuselage. The total load can be broadly classified as
follows:
(i)

Static Loads

(ii)

Aerodynamic Loads

(iii)

Inertial Loads

(i)

Static Loads:
Static loads are those which do not vary during flight (as
the name itself suggests). This predominantly includes the
(a) Structural weight
i. Fuselage
ii. Wing
iii. Landing gear
iv. Engine
v. Flight instruments and controls
(b) Payload weight
i. Passengers
ii. Cargo
iii. Crew members and pilot
(c) Fuel weight
Fuel weight, though it varies in flight here we take it as we
want only a conservative estimate for the fuselage design.
So we do not take into account the variation of fuel weight
during flight.

(ii)

Aerodynamic Loads:
These loads are basically the loads that act on the aircraft
due the airflow past it i.e. lift and drag. The aerodynamic load
that we are interested in our case is the lift at the horizontal tail.
The drag is neglected as the contribution due to it is relatively
less.

(iii)

Inertial Loads:
These are the loads that predominantly due to the
maneuvering of the airplane. The magnitude of the load could
be high depending on the application. Military aircrafts have
higher inertial loads than civilian aircraft. We design our
aircraft for the maximum inertial load possible during the flight
as the safety is essential and also this is a preliminary estimate
and thereby can be conservative. The maximum inertial load
occurs when the plane is facing a gust wind while flying at
cruise speed.

Calculations:
To calculate the shear flow, bending moment, torque etc, we first need
the different loads that act on the fuselage and the shear force and bending
moment distribution.
To analyze this we regard the fuselage as two cantilever beams one in
front of the front spar and one behind the rear
spar.

Front part

Rear part

Since the distance between the two spars is less and this not going to
be a critical region, we do not calculate the shear force and bending moment
diagram between the two spars.
Now we need to find the loads which are acting in front of the front
spar and behind the rear spar.
The loads are broadly classified into concentrated loads and
distributed loads.
For the concentrated loads, the load, the location of the load and the
weight of the load are tabulated.
Similarly for the distributed load, the load, the starting and ending
points, the net weight due to the load are tabulated.
From the load distribution, the shear force and bending moment at all
points along the fuselage length are calculated.
The table in the next page shows the load and their corresponding
distribution.

Distributed Loads
Uniform Loads

Staring point Ending point Total Weight

Furnishing and equipment

Passenger
Crew
Fuselage
Miscellaneous
Cargo
Fuselage:
Triangular Loads
Trapezoidal Loads

3.964
3.964
3.964
3.964
3.964
3.964

27.927 47405.41394
27.927
117720
27.927
3924
27.927 47054.12833
27.927
6107.3136
27.927
46205.1

0
23.696

3.964 4726.397848
34 13821.49441

Total Fuselage weight

65602.02059

Concentrated Loads
Different loads
Flight control(less auto pilot)
Instrument
Nose gear
Pilot
Auxilary power
Avionic(incl auto pilot)
Electrical
Hydraulic and pneumatic
Air conditioning
Anti-icing
Main gear
Dry Engine weight
Nacelle
Propulsion(less dry engine)
Load and handling
Vertical Tail
Horizontal Tail

Location(in m) Weight(in N)
2 9864.851289
2 3048.199061
2.2555 3572.670462
2.694
1569.6
3 3859.829469
3 6931.52478
3.5 10772.12621
20 5181.308253
20 6281.109932
20 2060.92429
20.603125 20245.13262
30.93214294 35821.49689
30.93214294 8455.692915
30.93214294 10846.90572
34 111.2042014
35.42401294 7844.724115
37.45608404 8086.131252

Calculating Lift at the tail:

To calculate the lift at the tail, we basically need to solve the
equations i.e.

LWing + LTail = W
M ac + LWing ( xac,wing xcg ,ap ) + LTail ( xac,tail xcg ,ap ) = 0
W

Take off weight of the airplane

LTail Lift at the tail

LWing Lift on the wing
W = 60852kgf
M ac = cmac 0.5 V 2 S c
cmac = 0.2

= 1.225kg / cu.m
V = 236.2ms 1

So we get LTail = 140.779 KN

Expressions for shear force and bending moments:

Note:
V(x) denotes the shear force as a function of x & M(x) denotes the
bending moment as a function of x
This gives the shear force distribution from the nose to the front spar
and from the rear spar to the end of aircraft.
The front spar is located at x = 16.297 & the rear spar is located at x = 18.103

The shear force V(x) is given by:

300.7897 x 2
300.7897 x 2 + 12913.04677
300.7897 x 2 + 16485.72124
300.7897 x 2 + 18055.32124
300.7897 x 2 + 28846.67549
300.7897 x 2 + 39618.8017
11519.38738 x 1317.65204
11519.38738 x 276755
11519.38738 x 255819
101.231 x 2 + 16316.5 x 312650
101.231 x 2 + 7181.81 x 57544.9
101.231 x 2 + 7181.81 x 2420.85
124737.1158
124848.32
132693.0441
0

for 0 x 2
for 2 x 2.256
for 2.256 x 2.694
for 2.694 x 3
for 3 x 3.5
for 3.5 x 3.964
for 3.964 x 16.297
for 18.103 x 20
for 20 x 23.694
for 23.694 x 27.927
for 27.927 x 30.93
for 30.93 x 34
for x = 34
for 34 x 35.42
for 35.42 x 37.456
for 37.456 x 38.5

The Bending Moment M(x) is given by:

100.2632 x 2
100.2632 x 2 + 12913.04677 x 25826.09354
100.2632 x 2 + 16485.72124 x 33886.04714
100.2632 x 2 + 18055.32124 x 38114.54954
100.2632 x 2 + 28846.67549 x 70488.61229
100.2632 x 2 + 39618.8017 x 108191.054
5759.69369 x 2 1317.65204 x 30177.57618
5759.69369 x 2 276755 x + 2047071.851
5759.69369 x 2 255819 x + 1628351.851
33.7437 x3 + 8158.25 x 2 312650 x + 2077199.38
33.7437 x3 + 3590.91 x 2 57544.9 x 1484973.134
33.7437 x3 + 3590.91 x 2 2420.85 x 3189960
124848.32 x 4692290.532
132693.0441 x 4970150.66
0

for 0 x 2
for 2 x 2.256
for 2.256 x 2.694
for 2.694 x 3
for 3 x 3.5
for 3.5 x 3.964
for 3.964 x 16.297
for 18.103 x 20
for 20 x 23.694
for 23.694 x 27.927
for 27.927 x 30.93
for 30.93 x 34
for 34 x 35.42
for 35.42 x 37.456
for 37.456 x 38.5

Shear force variation:

200000

150000

Shear force in Newtons

100000

50000

Shear force before front spar

"Shear force after rear spar"

0
0

10

15

20

25

-50000

-100000

x in meters

30

35

40

45

Bending Moment variation:

1600000

1400000

1200000

Moment in Mewton meter

1000000

800000

600000

400000

Moment before front spar

"Moment after rear spar"

200000

0
0
-200000

10

15

20

25

x in meters

30

35

40

45

Designing of Longerons and Bulkhead:

From the above table and figure we find that the maximum
Bending moment and Shear force occurs at the front spar i.e. x = 16.297.
Now to calculate the number of longerons we proceed as follows.
We take the spacing between the two longerons as around 0.7 meters, which
implies we get the number of longerons as 16. (Because our radius being
1.81 meters, we get the circumference as 11.37256 meters)
So the number of longerons is 16.
Now we decided to remove the two stringers placed at = 0 &180 as
they do not take any axial stress.
So we get a total of 14 longerons

Radius of the cross-section = 1.81 m

Now to calculate the dimensions of the stringers, we proceed as

follows.
The maximum bending moment is 1473049 Nm
The maximum shear force is 186102.8 N
The design bending moment is 2209574 Nm
The design shear force is 279154.2 N
So =

My
I

Maximum = 400 MPa

Maximum M = 2209574 Nm
ymax = 1.81 m

So Moment of Inertia required is 9.998322 10-3

Youngs Modulus (E) = 80 GPa
The maximum shear stress is 100 MPa
The skin thickness is taken as 1 mm
The shear stress in the panel between the = 90o and 67.5o is taken as
100/1.2 MPa
So we can find the corresponding shear flow in the panel.
Similarly for the other panels take the shear stress as 100/1.3, 100/1.4
and 100/1.5
And find the corresponding shear flows.
Now we know the shear flows so we can calculate the shear flow
jump across each longeron.

The shear jump +q =

V y A
I

So now we can calculate the Area (A) as other quantities are known.
We get a different area for each longeron.
We have assumed an I shaped longeron

Area = 3tl

Area = 3tl
We have assumed the thickness of all stringers to be 2 mm except the
top and bottom longerons which have a thickness of 8 mm
So now we can calculate the length of the longerons.
So the longeron geometry is specified.
Now we calculate the normal stress taken by longerons. Thereby we
can calculate the load taken the longerons by multiplying the normal
stress by the area of each longeron. Now calculate the maximum
length of each longeron so that it will not buckle by using the formula

Pcr =

2 EI . So the maximum length of each longeron is calculated.

2
L

Now take the minimum of the lengths got from the above calculations.

This will ensure that none of the longerons buckle. This

therefore will be the bulkhead spacing.
Now we need to calculate the shear flow due to the torque due
to rudder deflection. The torque can be calculated as follows.
Assume one engine failure. So we can find the force required
by rudder deflection to balance the moment i.e.
(Thrust) (Distance of engine from FRL) = (Force needed to
be produced by rudder) (Distance of the rudder from CG of
airplane)
So we can find the Force produced by the rudder.
Now to get the torque, we multiply the force produced by the
rudder by the vertical height of the aerodynamic center of the rudder
above the FRL. So this will give us the required torque.

qTorque =

T
2 A

Now add this shear flow to the shear flow got by shear force.
And now calculate the shear stress. This is got by dividing the shear
flow by the skin thickness. Now calculate the factor of safety.
Factor of safety is defined as

Maximum allowable shear stress

Net shear stress in each panel
Thereby we get the factor of safety.
The factor of safety we got were all from 1.2 to 1.7

Conclusions:

The detailed fuselage design for our aircraft was carried out and we
ended up with 14 longerons and the bulkhead spacing was calculated as
51.28 cms. In our design we have been very conservative on various
parameters and hence this need not be the best design. But since this is
where the payload is, our design may not be far from the optimum design.
For any further parameters the table on the next page may be looked upon
where all the values have been given in design.

All units in SI units

Maximum Bending Moment

1473049.445

Maximum Sigma allowed

Design Bending Moment

2209574.167

Young's Modulous

Maximum Shear force

186102.7806

Skin thickness

Design Shear force

279154.171

Maximum Shear allowed

Radius of the cross-section

Theta
Degrees

-157.5
-135
-112.5
-90
-67.5
-45
-22.5
22.5
45
67.5
90
112.5
135
157.5

400000000
80000000000
0.001
100000000

1.81

Radians

Shear flow Shear flow Net shear Shear stress Factor of safety
(Force)
(Torque)

-2.748894
-2.356194
-1.963495
-1.570796
-1.178097
-0.785398
-0.392699
0.392699
0.785398
1.178097
1.570796
1.963495
2.356194
2.748894

-1.672222
-1.279863
-0.692657
0
0.692657
1.279863
1.672222
1.672222
1.279863
0.692657
0
-0.692657
-1.279863
-1.672222

-0.692657013
-1.279863274
-1.672221954
-1.81
-1.672221954
-1.279863274
-0.692657013
0.692657013
1.279863274
1.672221954
1.81
1.672221954
1.279863274
0.692657013

-74074.07
-68965.52
-64516.13
64516.13
68965.52
74074.07
80000
80000
74074.07
68965.52
64516.13
-64516.13
-68965.52
-74074.07

Maximum Factor of safety

Minimum Factor of safety
Bulkhead spacing

0.512848

1.704754683
1.164731972

5856.663
5856.663
5856.663
5856.663
5856.663
5856.663
5856.663
5856.663
5856.663
5856.663
5856.663
5856.663
5856.663
5856.663

-68217.41
-63108.85
-58659.47
70372.79
74822.18
79930.74
85856.66
85856.66
79930.74
74822.18
70372.79
-58659.47
-63108.85
-68217.41

-68217411.4
-63108854.6
-58659466.4
70372791.71
74822179.91
79930736.75
85856662.67
85856662.67
79930736.75
74822179.91
70372791.71
-58659466.4
-63108854.6
-68217411.4

1.465901416
1.584563698
1.704754683
1.421003737
1.336502092
1.251083176
1.164731972
1.164731972
1.251083176
1.336502092
1.421003737
1.704754683
1.584563698
1.465901416

Sigma

69849083.02
129064276.3
168630603.6
182524450
168630603.6
129064276.3
69849083.02
69849083.02
129064276.3
168630603.6
182524450
168630603.6
129064276.3
69849083.02

Area

0.000613
0.000286
0.000191
0.002553
0.000191
0.000286
0.000613
0.000613
0.000286
0.000191
0.002553
0.000191
0.000286
0.000613

Force

42806.7
36902.33
32140.74
466040.7
32140.74
36902.33
42806.7
42806.7
36902.33
32140.74
466040.7
32140.74
36902.33
42806.7

Inertia

3.55272E-07
3.61036E-08
1.07064E-08
1.61005E-06
1.07064E-08
3.61036E-08
3.55272E-07
3.55272E-07
3.61036E-08
1.07064E-08
1.61005E-06
1.07064E-08
3.61036E-08
3.55272E-07

Length

2.55988
0.878908
0.512848
1.651592
0.512848
0.878908
2.55988
2.55988
0.878908
0.512848
1.651592
0.512848
0.878908
2.55988