Chev Basosucapit ¢. YL,APPLIED OFFSHORE STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING Copyright © 1984 by Gulf Publishing Company, Houston, Texas. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. This book, or parts thereof, may not be repro- duced in any form without permission of the publisher. Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Hsu, TengH. ~~ Applied Offshore Structural Engineering Includes index. 1. Offshore structures. I. Title. TC1665.H79 1984 627'.9 84-628 ISBN 0-87201-750-8CONTENTS Preface .. 0... cc sce c cece ence eee tee ene cee Vil Notation ©... 0.0... cece cece eee eee eee IX 7 1. Conversion of Units ..........eeeeeeeeeeee eed i The International System of Units. References. 2. Wind Forces .......0eeeeeeeeeeee ) API Wind Force Formula. ABS Wind Force Formula. DNV at Wind Force Formula. Unsteady Wind Forces. References. 3. Wave Forces ..... 60. e cece eee e eee eee eee IZ Small Amplitude Waves. Stokes’ Second and Third-Order Waves. Stokes’ Fifth-Order Waves. Wave Forces by Mori- son’s Equation. Stream Function Wave Theory. Wave Slam- ming. Vortex Shedding Due to Waves. References. |. Energy Spectrum of the Sea .......-....4++4.37 Energy of the Sea. Wave Histogram. Wave Spectra. Refer- ences. 5. Fundamental Naval Architecture .............46 o Definition of Terms. Transverse Stability. Stability Under Wind Forces. Longitudinal Stability. Rolling in Calm Wa- ter. Free Undamped Heaving Motion. References. . Offshore Platform Topside Structures .........55 Plate Design. Shear Lag and Effective Width Concept. ‘ Buckling of Plates. Girders with Transverse Stiffeners. Web ‘ Crippling. Lifting Padeye Design. References. +7 > a= 10. 11 12. 1 we 14, Offshore Platform Jacket Structures Layouts and Preliminary Sizing. Tubular Members. Tutu- lar Joints. Hydrostatic Pressure. Conical Transition Be- tween Tubular Sections. Corrosion Protection of Jacket Structures. Boat Landings and Barge Bumpers. Reter- ences. Offshore Platform Pile Foundation ........... 95 Pile Capacity for Axial Loads. Soil—Pile Interaction. Pile Design. Pile Make-Up. Pile Drivability Analysis. Refer- ences. Offshore Platform Marine Operations . . Loadout and Seafastening. Transportation. References Fabrication and Installation of Offshore Platforms ....... cece cece eee ete e cece ee DST Structural Steel. Welding. Fabrication. Launching and Floating. Flooding and Upending. Lifting. References. Seismic Analysis of Offshore Platforms ...... - 140 Step-by-Step Analysis Method. Mode Superposition Method. Resfonse Spectrum Method. References. Dynamic Analysis of Offshore Platforms ......152 Natural Frequency of a Structural System. Dynamic Re- sponse of Offshore Platforms. Dynamic Response by the Time Domain Approach. Dynamic Response by the Fre- quency Domain Approach. References. Fatigue Analysis of Offshore Platforms ....... 167 Fatigue Analysis and Hotspot Stress. Fatigue Analysis by the Discrete Spectrum Approach. Fatigue Analysis by the Power Spectral Approach. References. Mooring Design .............5.00.2-2--+- 196 Mooring Buoys. Mooring Line with Hydrodynamic Resis- tance. References. «2127 Index 22.2... eee cee cee eee eee eee ee 203 viPREFACE The book is designed to bridge the gap between theories and practical applications in offshore structural engineering. It provides both theoreti- cal background and practical design data in the areas of design loads and forces, engineering procedures, codes of practice, and platform fabrica~ tion and installation. It also includes hundreds of charts, curves, and equations that can be directly applied to practical design. Examples showing how to use the design data are provided. In order to familiarize engineers with metric units, the book starts with basic unit conversions. This is then followed by a review of fundamental - wind and wave forces and the sea spectrum concept. Next, the practical design of offshore structures is presented in three consecutive sections, covering superstructures, jackets, and pile foundations, all with codes of practice. Following these practical design aspects, the fundamentals of Platform fabrication, loadout and seafastening, sea transportation, and offshore installation are examined. Finally, the concluding chapters de- scribe the advanced techniques of dynamic, seismic, and fatigue analyses for offshore structures. The book contains a number of references to codes and specifications of API, AISC, ABS, and DNV. The discussions of these provisions are Not intended to be interpretations of those specifications. Engineers are obliged to make direct reference to the latest editions and/or revisions of the particular specification or code that is applicable to the structure. While the book emphasizes practical application, it provides theoreti- cal information to support the design philosophy, and, therefore, should help fill the gap between theory and practical design in offshore struc- tural engineering. vil _1 wish to acknowledge the contribution uf Dr. f. Verner, Dr. K Pajouhi. and Mr. H. Edward who reviewed the manuscript and offered many valuable suggestions. Particular acknowledgment is due to API. AISC. and DNV, for permitting the use of formulas and data from their publications Although every care has been taken to avoid errors. it is possible some could escape. T will be grateful for any suggestions that readers may make concerning needed corrections, Teng H. How vill90 ° NOTATION surface area of structure and pile shear strength of undisturbed clay soil wave velocity damping matrix block coefficient drag coefficient, lift coefficient, mass coefficient prismatic coefficient shape coefficient, height coefficient ~waterplane coefficient consumption rate of anode diameter of tubulars barge displacement pile diameter and drilled diameter pin diameter modulus of elasticity of steel (29,000 ksi) total energy per square foot of seaway secant modulus of soil reaction force matrix axial compressive stress permitted in a prismatic member Euler stress for a prismatic member divided by safety factor critical hoop buckling stress elastic hoop buckling stress allowable bearing stress allowable welding stress ixon fas foo mre ® e Poorer Rann Ez* M, Z Ny Nr N Nw NG (oi) P Ps Por Go Po Qs, Q, QW q R R R, tp Ry Ra r critical elastic Jocal buckling stress allowable shear stress yield stress of steel cyclic frequency axial, bending, shear stress hoopstress average shear stress separation between branches wave height significant wave height current output moment of inertia effective length factor for a prismatic member elevation of mean wave height above mean water level stiffness matrix 2a/L coefficient of lateral pressure chord length span length wave length barge waterline length moment mass matrix mass bearing factor number of cycles per sea state per year total number of stress cycles in a year total number of stress ranges in a year total number of wave cycles per year number of cycles to failure at stress level 9; number of loading cycles at stress level 9; sling load Static pressure effective overburden pressure ultimate capacity, skin friction, and end bearing of pile, respectively uniform load anode to electrolyte resistance radius of main plate curve chord and brace radius, respectively barge resistance Reynolds number governing radius of gyration te eeTT S. Snax 8 SCF SCF, SCF. SCF, SF,, SFy Sw) Sw), S(f) cE T T, To Tp F =z Greek letters radius of cheek plate and pin hole, respectively stress and maximum stress average stress range stress concentration factor SCF of brace member SCF of chord member SCF of vertical member safety factor for axial tension and hoop compression Strouhal number spectral acceleration spectral displacement spectral velocity input spectrum spectrum main plate thickness wave period tension in the mooring line sea state dominated period fundamental natural period of the structure response amplitude operator cheek plate thickness thickness of tubulars chord and brace wall thickness, respectively time velocity components in rectangular coordinates amplitude of vibratory motion punching shear stress lift weight unit submerged weight of a mooring line rectangular coordinates displacement, velocity, and acceleration effective acceleration acceleration relative to the base base acceleration amplitude of the n* mode life of anode in years deflection 1J/R, ratio of brace radius to chord radius Rit, ratio of chord radius to thickness soil effective unit weight xiwoo me C3 HL dw) (X, Z, T) Yar Pins Yoo Yon © v displaced volume angle of fricuon wave surface profile angle between the brace and chord Poisson's ratio damping ratio mass density resistivity of the electrolyte ratio of brace wall thickness to the chord wall thickness mode shape vector of n® mode Tesponse spectrum velocity potential ratio of punching shear to the punching shear stress for axial, in-plane bending, and out-plane bending, respectively stream function circular frequency volume xi a1 CONVERSION OF UNITS The Internationai System of Units (SI) The international system of units is a new language of measurements. It was developed by the General Conference on Weights and Measures. The system was derived from the eaflier decimal metric system. It con- sists of seven base units which form the basic core of dimensionally inde- pendent units from which other measurements are derived. The follow- ing base units and derived units are often used in structural engineering: Length: meter (m) 1m = 100 centimeters (cm) 1cm = 10 millimeters (mm) Mass: kilogram (kg) 1 kg = 1,000 grams (g) 1 metric ton (t) = 1,000 kg Force: newton (N) IN 1 kg-m/s? 1 kilogram force (kgf) 9.81 N 1 metric ton (t) 1,000 kilograms force = 1 tonne 1 tonne (t) = 9,810 N Moment: newton-meter (N-M) Energy (Work): joule (J) 1 J = 1 newton-meter2 Applied Ottshore Structural Engineering Pressure: Pascal ( Pa) 1 Pa = N/m? 1 kPa = 1,000 N/m? 1 MPa = 1,000,000 N/m: = 1 N/mm? 1 MPa = 1,000 kPa Velocity (Speed): meter per second (m/s) Dynamic Viscosity: Pascal-second (Pa-s) Kinematic Viscosity: square meter Per second (m/s) Mass Density: kilogram per cubic meter (kg/m?) Factors of conversions of length, force, moment, and stress are gener- ated and shown in Table 1-1. Table 1-2 shows the yield and allowable the allowable compressive stresses in MPa for A 36 sees up to KI/r = 120. Table 1-4 shows F values in MPa up to Ki/t = 200. Example 1-1 A 10-meter tension member has a cross-sectional area of 100 cm?, What is the elongation when the axial load is 100 tonnes? d = PL/(AE) P = 100 tonnes = 980,700 N L= 10m= 10,000 mm A = 100 cm 10,000 mm? E = 30x 10° psi = 30 x 103 ksi = 207,000 N/mm? (MPa) d= 980,700 x 10,000/(10,000 x 207,000) = 4.74 mm Example 1-2 The shear module, G, is related to Poisson’s ratio v and the module of elasticity E by the equation G = B21 +») Calculate G in MPa: E = 30x 10° ksi = 207,000 MPa »=03 G = 207,000/2(1 + 0.3)) = 79,615 MPaConversion of Units 3 Table 1-1 Factors of Conversion Length Conversion oO inches feet millimeters centimeters meters 1.0 = 0.083 = 25.407 = 2541 12.0 = 10 304.878 = 30.488 0.039 = 0.003 = 10 = 0.100 0.394 «== 0.033 10.0 = 1.00 39.370 = 3.281 1000.0 =__ 100.0 71.233 0.0072 10 9.807 > 077 0.00074 0.102 10 : Stress Conversion psi S ksi Nimeet 10 = 0.001 = 0.0069 : 1000.0 = 10 2 14.234 = (0.0142 ) 0.1451 = 0.000145 : 145.125 = 0.1451 Example 1-3 A simply supported beam (IPE 300) with an unsupported length of 20 ft is loaded with 4 tons axial and 20 ton-ft bending loading. Calculate the ‘ maximum stress and stress ratio. = A = 53.2 cm’ > 557 cm4 Apples Ottsnore Structural Engineering Table 1-2 “Structural Stee! Plates snd Shapes F, for Selected Steels F, 0.6 F, Grade (ksi) (MPa) (ksi) (MP2) ASTM A36 36250 149 ASTM Aas 42-50 290-35 174-207 ASTM AST72 Grade 42 42 290 174 ASTM A572 Grade 50 50.345 207 ASTM A588 50. 345 207 API Spec 2H 42290 174 Structural Stee! Pipes 0.6 F, Grade (ksi) (MPa) (ksi) (MPa) ‘API SL Grade B 35240 21 144 ASTM AS3 Grade B 35 240 21 144 ASTM A135 Grade B 35. 240 21 14d ASTM A139 Grade B 35 240 21 144 ASTM A501 36 250 21.6 149 API SLX Grade X42 42 290 25.2 174 API SLX Grade X52 52. 360 31.2 216 X60 i. r= 12.5cm 4 tons = 35.58 kN 20 ton-ft = 54,244.4 N-m PIA 35.58/53.2 = 6.69 MPa MIS = 54,244.4 x 100/557 = 97.39 MPa 609.76/12.5 = 48.87 127.10 MPa (from Table 1-3) 6.69/127. 97.39/149 0.0526 0.65 Stress ratio = 0.0526 + 0.65 = 0.7026 jF, Table 1-3 Allowable Stress tor Compression Members of A36 Steet F. Conversion of Units 5 kur (MPa) kur (MPay kle (MPa) 1 148.56 4 131.69 81 105.02 2 148.29 a2 131.14 82 104.26 3 148.02 43 130.58 83 103.50 4 147.74 44 129.96 84 102.68 5 147.40 45 129.41 85 101.92 6 147.12 46 128.86 86 101.09 1 146.78 47 128.24 87 100.33 3 146.43 48 127.69 88 99.51 9 146.16 49 127.07 89 98.68 10 145.81 50 126.45 90 97.85 iL 145.40 st 125.83 91 97.78 2 145.06 52 125.21 2 96.27 13 144.71 3 124.59 3 95.37 4 144.37 54 123.97 94 94.54 15 143.95 55 123.35 95 93.72 16 143.54 56 122.73 96 92.89 17 143.19 37 122.04 97 91.99 18 142.78 58 121.42 98 91.17 19 142.37 59 120.80 99 90.27 20 141.95 60 120.11 100 89.45 2 141.54 61 119.42 101 88.55 22 141.13 62 178.80 102 87.65 23 140.65 63 118.11 103 86.76 24 140.23, 64 117.42 104 85.93 25 139.75 65 116.73 105 4.97 26 139.34 66 116.04 106 84.07 27 138.85 67 115.36 107 83.17 28 138.37 68 114.67 108 82.28 29 137.89 0 113.91 109 81.38 30 137.41 70 113.22 110 80.42 31 136.92 n 112.53 in 79.52 32 136.44 n 14.77 112 78.56 33 135.96 B 111.08 113 71.59 34 135.41 74 110.32 4 76.70 35 134.93 15 109.57 1s 15.73 36 134.37 6 108.81 116 14.77 37 133.82 7 108.12 117 73.80 38 133.34 8 107.36 118 72.84 39 132.79 19 106.60 119 71.87 40 132.24 80 105.85 120 70.846 Applies Offshore Structural Engineenng Table 1-4 Values of Fe’ lel (MPa) ledty (MPa) kle/ta (Pa) 2 2126.15 82 153.95 12 51.06 24 1786.56 84 145.81 144 49.62 26 1922.22 86 139.13 146 48.31 28 1312.53 88 132.86 148 47.00 7 30 1143.35 90 127.07 150 45.76 32 1004.91 92 121,56 152 44.52 34 890.18 94 116.86 154 43.41 36 793.98 96 111.63 156 42.31 > 38 712.67 98 107.16 158 41.21 40 643.14 100 102.88 160 40.17 42 583.32 102 98.89 162 39.21 } 44 531.50 104 95.16 164 38.25 4 46 486.30 106 91.58 166 37.35 48 446.61 108 88.20 168 36.45 50 411.60 110 85.03 170 35.63 52 380.59 112 82.00 172 34.80 34 382.89 14 79.18 174 33.97 56 328.15 116 76.49 176 33.21 oO 58 305.89 118 73.87 178 32.46 , 60 285.84 120 71.46 180 31.77 : 62 267.72 122 69.12 182 31.08 64 251.25 124 66.91 184 30.39 66 236.22 126 64.84 186 29.77 68 222.51 128 62.78 188 29.15 =r 70 210.04 130 60.92 190 28.53 } nR 198.53 132 39.06 192 27.91 74 > 187.92 134 37.33 194 27:36 76 178.13 136 55.61 196 26.81 B 169.11 138 54.03 198 26.25 ) 80 160.77 140 52.51 200 25.70 | References 1. ANSI/ASTM E621-78, Standard Practice for the Use of Metric (SI) ! Units in Building Design and Construction, March 1978. 2. ASTM, Standard for Metric Practice, E 380, 1976.c 2 WIND FORCES The motion of air is defined as wind. Air motion may be caused by gravity, deflective forces from the earth’s rotation, or centrifugal forces due to the curvature of the wind path. Wind possesses kinetic energy. When a structure is placed in the path of the moving air so that wind is stopped or is deflected from its path, then all or part of the kinetic energy - is transformed into the potential energy of pressure. Wind forces on any structure therefore result from the differential pressure caused by the ob- struction to the free flow of the wind. These forces are functions of the wind velocity, orientation, area, and shape of the structural elements. Wind forces on a structure are a dynamic problem, but for design pur- poses, it is sufficient to consider these forces as an equivalent static pres- sure. For an ideal fluid by Bernoulli’s theorem, pVo'/2 + pp = pV2/2 +p qt+Po=a+p where: p = Mass density of the air Static pressure Vo = Velocity of the approaching free flow = Static pressure and velocity at a point on the object The term pV?/2 designated by q is the dynamic pressure. Thus, the sum of the dynamic and static pressure is a constant at all points. Usually8 — Anpled Otishore Structural Engmeenng it is convenient to resolve the wind force into horizontal and vertical components and use dimensionless coefficients to define the magnitude of the forces Fy = Cy qa F, = C. ga where: Fp, F, = drag and lift force, respectively > = Drag coefficient Cy = Lift coefficient A = Exposed area The magnitude of Cp and C, depends on the shape of the object and its orientation in the wind stream. API Wind Force Formula American Petroleum Institute recommends the following formula to. calculate wind force on offshore structures (Reference 2): F = 0.00256 V°C,A (English units) (2-1) F = 0.0473 V°C,A (metric units) where: F = Wind force, Ib or N nou v Sustained vind velocity at 10 meters above water surface, mph or km/h C, = Shape coefficient ‘A. = Projected area of object, ft? or m? API also recommends the following shape coefficients: Beams 1s Sides of building 1S Cylindrical section 0.5 Overall platform projected area 1.0 The height factor is considered in API formula by V = Vyoly/10)* where: Vio = wind velocity at 10 m above water surface y = height above water surface in meters x = exponent, usually assumed to be between one-thirteenth and one-seventh depending upon sea state, relative dis- tance from land, and duration of the design wind velocity }Wind Forces 9 15 20 25 #30 35 40 45 50 55 60 Ng (1 im movers) Figure 2-1. API height factor. API recommends that x x ha for gusts Vg for sustained wind The height factor (y/10)* is plotted in Figure 2-1. ABS Wind Force Formula American Bureau of Shipping specifies the following formula to calcu- late the wind force (Reference 3): F = 0.0623 ViC,C,A (metric units) (2-2) F = 0.00338 ViC,C,A (English units) where: F = Wind force, kg or Ib Vy = Wind velocity, m/s or knot10 Applied Ottshore Structural Engineering C, = Height coefficient C, = Shape coefficient A = Projected area, m’ or ft? The following height coefficients are specified by ABS. The height is the distance above the water surface: 0 ftto 50 ft 1.00 50 ft to 100 ft 1.10 100 ft to 150 ft 1.20 150 ft to 200 ft 1.30 200 ft to 250 ft 1.37 250 ft to 300 ft 1.43 ABS recommends the following shape coefficients: Cylindrical shapes 0.5 Hull (surface type) 1.0 Deck house 1.0 Isolated structural shapes 1.5 Under-deck areas 1:0 Rig derrick (each face) 1 DNV Wind Force Formula Det Norske Veritas (DNV) recommends the following formula to cal- culate wind force on structural members (Reference 4): Fs 5 Vy C A sin a (2-3) where: Mass density of air (1.225 kg/m? for dry air) Wind velocity averaged over a time interval t at a height y meters above the mean water level = Shape coefficient Projected area of the member normal to the wind = Angle between the wind direction and the axis of the member In the DNV formula, Vy: is a function of time, height, and gust factor. It may be expressed as Vx = a’ Vigly/10Wind Forces 11 Gust factor Exponent of height factor Height in meters above mean water level Average wind speed over one-hour interval at a height 10 meters above the mean water level where Vio DNV recommends the following values: 1.00 B =1.50 for 1-hour interval 1.18 B =0.113 for 1-minute interval 1.33 8 =0.100 for 3-second gust Figure 2-2 is a plot of height factor versus height ratio. + 16 Figure 2-2. DNV height factor.12 Apgiieg Offshore Structural Engineering The shape coefficient for structural members of finite length is defined as Cc kc’ where: k = Reduction factor C’ = Shape coefficient for members of infinite length Values of k and C’ are provided in Appendix B of Reference 4, One must refer to Appendix B to determine a proper shape coefficient C. Solidification effect of a plane truss or a series of columns is taken into account by using solidity ratio ¢ and effective shape coefficient C,. The wind force may be calculated as F, = 0.50V2C,A¢ sin & C. and ¢ are also provided in Appendix B of DNV rules. Shield effect for members located behind each other is taken into ac- count by multiplying a shielding factor 7 to the wind force Equation 2-3. Shielding factors for various spacing ratios are provided in Appendix B of DNV rules. Unsteady Wind Forces Slender or relatively flexible offshore structures such as derricks or flare booms may be subject to wind-induced oscillation of large ampli- tude and severe stress when damping is small. This is especially true when the struéture or structural component is free to oscillate in a bend- ing and torsional mode simultaneously. This type of motion may become quite violent and reach a catastrophic amplitude in a few cycles of oscil- lation. When cylindrical objects are loaded with high wind speed associ- ated with a high Reynolds number, vortex formation may cause periodic alternating forces perpendicular to the wind direction, resulting in vibra- tion of the structure. The frequency of vortex shedding f is given by the telationship = SV a) where: V = Wind speed D = Diameter Sw = Strouhal number The average value of Sy for circular members is 0.2 when Reynolds number R, < 6 x 10°. If Ry > 6X 10°, the average value of Sy is aboutWine Forces 13 O4 Por acircuiar member, the vortex shedding ts strongly dependent on Q the Reynolds number of the flow. In general, when R, <6 < 1. the > shedding 1s random, A reduced velocity tctor 1s detined as Vv rD where: f° = Fundamental frequency of the member vibrating in-line with the flow DNV recommends that the following regions for resonant vortex shed- ding should be considered: 1. When 1.7 < F, < 3.2. in-line exitation may occur. 2. When 4.7 < F< 8.0, cross-flow vibration may occur. Figure 2-3 is a plot of vortex shedding frequency for various pipe sizes. It is noted that f is double when the Reynolds number R, > 6 x 10° Forces induced by vortex shedding can be calculated by F = 0.5pC,AV? where: p = Mass density of air Fluctuating force coefficient Flow velocity normal to the member ‘Values of C; are provided in Reference 4 by DNV. When R, > 3 x 10°, use Cy = 0.2. A dynamic load factor of 0.5/E is © recommended by DNV when resonant vortex shedding is likely to occur. > A damping ratio, £, of 0.005 is recommended. > Example 2-1 A 36-in.-diameter flare pipe extends 40 ft above an offshore platform deck which is 30 ft above the water surface. If the maximum wind speed is 150 mph, calculate the wind forces. By API formula y = 30 + 40/2 = 50 ft above water surface yO = 15.24/10 = 1.52 From Figure 2-1, height factor = 1.0614 Applies Otfshore Structurai Engineering V = 150 x 1.06 = 159 mph = 256 km/h F = 0.00256 x 159° x 0.5 x 3 x 40 = 3.883 Ibs = 3.88 kips F = 0.0473 x 256? x 0.5 x 0.915 x 12.2 = 17300N = 17.3kN By ABS formula V = 150 mph = 241.4 km/h = 67.06 m/s F = 0.0623 x 67.06 x 1.1 x 0.5 x 0.915 x 12.2 = 1721 kgf = 16.9 kN a F = 0.00338 x 130.35? x 1.1 x 0.5 x 3 x 40 = 3,790 Ibs | = 3.79 kips By DNV formula F O.5pVAC A sina Vy = 1.28 X 67 = 85.85 m/s C = kC’ = 0.7 x 0.62 = 0.43 (Reference 4) jo F = 0.5 x 1.225 x 85.85? x 0.43 x 11.15 = 21.65 kN : Example 2-2 fe Tf the flare pipe in Example 2-1 has an 0.50-in. wall thickness, what is | the critical wind speed? The natural frequency of the flare pipe is calculated by = 0.56 for fundamental mode 386 in./sec* | 30 X 10° Ibs/in.? 8,786 in.* = 189.57 Ibs/ft, 15.79 Ibs/in. | = 480 in. [eet _ , fa86 x 30 x 10° x 3786 _ 2,538.39 x 10° | w 15.79 : ;wing Forces 15 2g e & Ste 100 50, 80 Ao so 30 4ob 20 20 ° 40 6 80 100 120 140 v(mpn) Figure 2-3. Vortex shedding frequency. _ fo= 0.56 x 2538.39 x 10 _ 6 47 cps 480 x 480 From Figure 2-3, where the wind speed is about 60 mph. the frequency of vortex shedding f = 6 and F, > 4.7. When the wind speed is 102 mph, f = 10 and F; = 8. Itis this speed range that can give rise 10 large- amplitude, cross-wind oscillations.16 Applied Offshore Structure: E~gireenng References American Society of Civil Engineers. ASCE transaction paper No. 3269 American Petroleum Institute. API RP 2A, Planning, Designing, and Constructing Fixed Offshore Platforms, January 1982 pp. 13-14. American Bureau of Shipping. Rules for Building and Classing Off- shore Mobile Drilling Units, 1980, Section 3. Det Norske Veritas, Rules for the Design, Construction and Inspec- tion af Fixed Offshore Structures, Appendix A and Appendix B, May 1978 “Winki Forces on Structures,”3 WAVE FORCES In addition to wind forces, water forces are a basic environmental load- ing problem that must be considered when designing an offshore struc- ture. Water forces can be classified as forces due to waves and forces due to currents. Wind blowing over the ocean’s surface drags water along with it, thus forming a current and generating waves. There are three basic forms of waves: (1) sinusoidal waves, (2)cnoidal waves, and (3) solitary waves. Each wave form can be examined with low- and high-order wave theory. To calculate wave forces, one must first select a proper wave theory to compute the water particle velocities and acceleration. Generally, the sinusoidal wave theory is suitable for deep-water waves, and the cnoidal wave theory is applied to shallow wa- ter. For extremely shallow water, solitary wave theory is recommended. In computing wave forces a high-order theory should be considered when drag forces are the primary concern; if inertia forces predominate, a low- order theory is sufficient. The most fundamental description of a simple sinusoidal oscillatory wave consists of its length L, height H, and period T. Small amplitude wave theory and some finite amplitude wave theories can be developed by introduction of a velocity potential $(x,z,t). Horizontal and vertical water-particle velocities are defined as18 — Applied Offshore Structural Engineering The velocity potential, Laplace's equation, and Bernoulli's dynamic equation—together with the appropriate boundary conditions —provide the necessary information needed in deriving the small-amplitude wave formulas. ‘Small-Amplitude Waves In an incompressible irrotational fluid, wave motion is governed by the following equations: Fe, 0% | . 4 47% 9 ; G+) a6 , IIIa P as} Py = 3-2) at «ie (3 Peta G2) Equation 3-1 is Laplace’s equation of continuity, and Equation 3-2 is the Bernoulli equation. The coordinate system is illustrated in Figure 3-1. 7 ‘There are three boundary conditions to be satisfied: 1. At the sea fioor, vertical particle velocity should be zero: coe =- w= 5 =0 — (when z = -d) 2, At the water surface, pressure should be zero: a , 1 {(a6P (| E i on + 28 4|(e) +(2)] = 0 cohen 2 = » 3. The same surface of particles should continue to be the free surface throughout the motion: Sp 4 90 dp , db dp _ = at * x ax * az az 9 (when p = 0) The boundary z = 7 appears as an unknown. The general solution is extremely complex, and usually it is assumed that the solution is in the form of a series consisting of selected parameters (H, L, d) which will exist and satisfy the wave equations. For small-amplitude waves, the fol- lowing potential function is satisfied: H ¢ cosh k(d + 2) sinh (kd) o= sin @—£>. we}sks @}eUIPI009 EARM “4-E ANGI20 Appiieg Offshore Structural Engineer:ng where: k = QaeL 0 = kx ~ wt o = nT C = Wave speed The surface profile 7 (x,t) is given by 7 = 0.5 Hoos é ‘The wave length and speed are related to the period and the water depth by L = &E tanh ka 6-3) Qe c= BT ranh kd G-4) Qe The particle velocities u and w in x and z directions are given by u = TH cosh kd +2) 00 oe) (3-5) A sinh kd 65 = THsinhk(d +2. 7 “Sop sinh ka S08 G6) The corresponding accelerations are given by Su _ 29H cosh k(d + 2) : a sinh ka SiN on dw _ ~20°H sinh k(d + 2) - at Te sinhka °°? G8) It is noted that when d > L/2, the hyperbolic functions in Equations 3-3 through 3-8 are considerably simplified: cosh k(d +2) . sinh(d +2) |, sinh kd Sink kd = tanh kd = |Wave Forces 21 ‘The wave leagth and speed computed for this condition are denoted L and Co. respectively. Tables provided by Wiegel (Reference 2) are very helpful for hand calculation. very helpful < 0.04, a d 0.04 < — < 0.15, & Lo d 0.15 < = < 0.39, Lb 7 d ox <4 a Ly Example 3-1 Water deptli d Wave height H Wave period T = 0.43 The following approximation between d/L and d Ly (Reference 3) is (3-9) m = 0.511 0.54 m = 0.58 = 0.83 m = 0.808 1.00 m = 1.06 130 ft 20 ft 15 sec Determine the wave length L d 130 32.2 = x 15? a = 1,153 ft 2: = I = 0.1127 1,153 By Wiegel’s table, dL = 0.1522 L= 130/0.1522 = 854 ft '22 Applied Offshore Structural Engineering By using Equation 3-9 = 0.54 0.58 0.540.127) = 0.1524 L = 130/0.1524 = 853 ft The wave solution given in this section is valid only for small wave motion. When it is applied in cases for large wave motions, the answers obtained will only be approximate. The degree of approximation be- comes more inexact as the wave height increases. Stokes’ Second- and Third-Order Waves ‘The solution is given by a series for ¢ in ascending Power of Hk/2. Let S=dtz and N Hk)" cosh nkS_. eu (3) Sink ka" where: a, = polynomials in cosh kd and sinh kd For Stokes’ second-order waves, the surface profile, particle veloci- ties, and accelerations are given by H gs g ® HE cosh kd(2 + cosh 2kd) = Hosp tH : TF 8 OE nD) os 29 (3-10) aH cosh kS 32°H? cosh 2kS =! 6 + Sanea — 8 sinh? kd 3 1 F, = 3 kay —1_ 2 = 3 (ea) San kd24 Applied Offshore Structural Engineering 3 11 = 2 cosh 2kd Fy = = (kay $=? cosh 2kd > = gy (a a kd Stokes’ Fifth-Order Waves The Stokes’ wave has been extended to a fifth-order approximation by Lars Skjelbreia and James Hendrickson (Reference 4). Let S = d+ Zz, and the particle velocities are written as u = o¢ (3-21A) Ox = 9% _ ob 3-21B) “a2” as ae The surface boundary conditions are p = 0 and ay/8x = —wi(C-u): This is written as 7 +) + gk + 5-4 +9 = (-22) 2=(C-w a - w (C — u) (2 (3-23) where: C = Wave velocity K = Elevation of mean wave height above mean water level. It is noted that 9. _¢ dd at Cx Equation 3-22 can be written as (a - CP — C2 + w+ 29(K +z) = 0 (3-24) The boundary condition at the seabed is written by ab a 7 OMS = 0 (3-25)Wave Forces 25, To solve the problem, one has to find a solution for 77 = 0 and sat- isfy Equations 3-23, 3-24, and 3-25. The following series of solutions are assumed for the fifth-order approximation: t kg/C = (KA), + MA + ASA,s) Cosh KS sin & + (NAx + MAga) cosh 2kS sin 26 + O8Ax + Ass) cosh 3kS sin 36 + Ag, cosh 4kS sin 40 + Ags cosh 5kS sin 56 kn = dcos 8 + (XB + d*By,) cos 20 + OOB3 + By3) cos 36 + MBy cos 44 + MBs cos 56 (3-27) 7 kK = MC; + MC, (3-28) kC? = g tanh kd(I + NC, + MC) (3-29) To determine the coefficients Ay, Bj, and C; in the above equations, one can evaluate 4¢/4x and 44/4S from Equation 3-26 and 4n/dx from Equation 3-27, then substitute into Equation 3-22. Two sides of Equation 3-22 will contain terms in \" multiplied by terms such as sin , sin 20, sin 36, etc. Similar terms of equal value on either side will yield a series of > linear equations in Aj, By, etc. The coefficients given by Skjebreia and Hendrickson are shown as follows: Lets = sinh kd > ¢ = cosh kid > C3 = g tanh kd 3 then, Ay = i 2 5 ) _ —c%(Se? + 1) ogee ac = 18 ~ 249c? te =(1,184c!® — 1,440c% — 1,992c8 + 2,641c* + ac) Te eee 1,536 s!"26 Applied Offshore Structural Engineering An ac By Bu Bay 3128 + 480c? — 17 768s'° 512c!? + 4,224¢!9 ac — 6,800c* — 12,808c® + 16,704c* — 3,154c? + 107 4,096s"(6c? — 1) 80c® — 816c* + 1,338c? — 197 1,536s!(6c? — 1) 163,470c? — 16,245 —(2,880c!° ~ 72,480c* + 324,000c6 — 432,000c* + ac5) 61,440s!"(6c? — 1)(8c* — L1c? + 3) Qe + Ve as c(272c8 — 50406 — 192c* + 322c? + 21) 384s? 3(8c® + 1) 648° 88,128c!* — 208,224c!? + 70,848c!? _be + 54,000c — 21,816c® + 6,264ct — 54c? - 81 12,288s!(6c? — 1) c(768c! — 448c8 — 48c5 + 48c4 + 106c? — 21) 3843%(6c? — 1)Wave Forces 27 beS = 192,000c!® - 262,720c'* + 83.680c + 20.160¢'° ___beS = 7.280ci + 7.160c" = 1,800c* — 1.050c? + 225. 12.288s!%6c? — 1)(8ct ~ Lc? + 3) Bet = 8c? +9 oF Bs cc = 3,840c!? — 4,096c!? ce + 2,592c* — 1,008c° + 5,944c% — 1,830c7 + 147 fae 312862 — 1) -1 Agee ase c, = eet + 36% — 162c! + Male = 27 4 = Weck + 3608 — 162c! + Mc? ~ 27 192cs? Tables of Aj, By, and C; values are provided in Reference 4. To deter- mine k and A, relate the wave height H and wave Profile 7 by the relation H = 1-0 Nen+ Using Equation 3-27 and rearranging Equation 3-29, it is shown that the following simultaneous equations yield d/L and ) to be solved: TH = ED + Ba + MBs: + Bs] G30) é = © tanh besa + XC, + NC) 3-31) where Ly = gT%/(2z) For a given wave, substituting the values of H, d, and T into Equations 3-30 and 3-31, the simultaneous equations yield the correct values of d/L and ).28 — Applied Offshore Struc: Let F, = AAy + MAG - MA F, = MAn + MA: Fy = + As Fy = Fs = Using Equation 3-26, particle velocities are derived from u = CY) ak, cos nf cosh nkS (3-32) 5 w = CJ of, sin nd sinh nkS (3-33) Differentiation of Equations 3-32 and 3-33 with respect to time yields the local water-particle accelerations mL ey a ke? YY °F, sin nB cosh nkS 3-34) 5 = —ke? }) n°F, cos né sinh nkS G-35) aw ot The absolute horizontal particle acceleration is given by du _ du, du ou 3-36: dt at ax | 3s ee The second and third terms in Equation 3-36 are called convective ac- celeration terms, and they are neglected in the linear wave theory. From Equation 3-32, we get du ax 5 —kC }) r’F, sin n@ cosh nkS du 5 $e 7 CEL mE, cos né sinh nkSWave Forces 29 It is noted that au _ <1 ou ax Can du. =Law as CH The absolute vertical particle acceleration is given by dw _ dw aw aw eae Ow yo dt ar as ax Differentiation of Equation 3-33 with respect to S and x yields aw = KC) WF, sin nf cosh nkS 38 a = = CY nF, cos nd sinh nkS x Wave Forces by Morison’s Equation There are two major wave-induced forces exerted on structures. The drag force Fp is due to frictional and form drag. The magnitude of Fp depends on shape, roughness of the object, Reynolds number, and inten- sity of turbulence in the flow. The inertia force F; is due to water-particle acceleration. It is assumed in practical application that the total forces acting on a structure can be obtained by linearly superimposing the drag and inertia forces. This is the basis of the Morison equation, which gives the total force as F = Fo +F, The equation for drag force is given as Fp = 0.5CppAlutul where: Cp = Drag coefficient A = Projected area of the object perpendicular to water-parti- cle velocity30 Applied Ottshore Structural Engineering Drag coefficient is a function of Reynolds number R,. For a flow which has a velocity u past a cylinder of diameter D, R, is given as R, = uD/y where » = Kinematic viscosity of the flow For design purposes, an assumption of Cy = 0.65 for turbulars is rea- sonable. The determination of Cp for the case of unsteady flow is ex- tremely difficult. In practicle design, it is common to use the steady flow values of Cp in calculations involving unsteady flow. The inertia force exerted on a fixed body in frictionless incompressible fluid can be expressed by du du Fo= (Mo + M24 = 1 + cat 3-37 1 = Me + MIST = C+ Cpa G37) F, = Cpa (3-38) at woere C, = Coefficient of virtual mass C, = So-called “added” mass coefficient M, = Mass of displaced fluid M, 2. = Added mass which depends on the body shape and the flow around it It has been found that, theoretically, C, is equal to 2.0 for cylinders when their diameters are small compared with the wave length. From Equation 3-37, it is noted that the total inertia force can be considered in two parts: M,(du/at) and M,(du/dt). The term M,(du/at) is the force caused by the hydrodynamic pressure within the fluid in the absence of the body. This force is known as the Froude-Krylov force. The term M,(Gu/dt) is the force due to the disturbance in the fluid caused by the Presence of the body. The total hydrodynamic force on the body is given by CopA lulul + Coat 3-39) F= Thus, for a cylinder of diameter D normal to the direction of wave Propagation, the total force per unit length is expressed by 1 1 du F = lcppD 4h 2 p0veD I ulul + 1CoaD (3-40)Wave Forces 31 Morison’s equation is valid only when the diameter of the structural member is smal] compared with the wave length. It is assumed that the structure does not influence the pattern of the wave propagation. When the structural member is large in diameter compared with the wave length, diffraction of incident waves has to be taken into account. Nor- mally, Morison’s equation is applicable when wave length is more than five times the diameter or projected dimension of the structural member. Stream Function Wave Theory The stream function theory developed by Dean (Reference 6) is a non- linear wave theory similar to higher order Stokes’ theories. It is con- structed of sums of sine and cosine functions that satisfy the original dif- ferential equation. It determines the coefficient of each higher-order term so that a best fit, in the least-squares sense, is obtained. The stream func- tion wave theory represents a better solution to the equations used to ap- proximate the wave phenomena. The differential equation is vy =0 The boundary conditions are w= Oatz = -d atta — oF + wy + 2 — 1% & constant at z = n(x, ) 2g pg gat ‘The stream function solution is expressed as Vx, 2) = Ee + J) x(a) sinh (kn(d + 2)] cos kx am ae L wae t ¥Y x(n) sinh (kn(d + m)} cos knx i where k = 2a/L ¥_ = Constant value of the stream function on the free surface32 Applied Ottshore Structural Engineering The velocities are defined by =c-3# usc-# = WS ox u(6, S) = ~S) x(n)kn cosh knS cos né w(@, 8) = ~J) x(n)kn sinh knS sin no a=1 Du = @ — 624 4 wit De 7 Oa + 5, Dw aw ow Dw - 4 yew Dr OO ER + 5 Det Fy(@, S) = CoP? fiulutas CnexD? ¢* Du = (6,8) = —™ a A= 6.8) 4 oDT Variables w'(@, 8) = 20.8) H/T “@, 8) = ¥@.S) w’(8, S) WT Du’ _ 1 Du DT ~ (H/T) DT Dw’. _1_ Dw DT O/T) DT y 2 Fy = >” Gebata’? are presented in the following dimensionless form:Wave Forces 93 FY = —_+___F, C,p7D(H Td Reference 6 provides tabulation of dimensionless stream function the- ory variables. Volume 2 presents the dimensionless wave characteristics for the 40 sets of tabulations. Tables D, E, and F describe the variables tabulated and all dimensionalized quantities. Example 3-2 A free-standing caisson 48 inches in diameter is to be installed in 35 ft of water. If the maximum tide plus storm surge is 6 ft, wave height is 31.8 ft, and wave period is 20 seconds, determine the deck elevation and calculate the wave forces and moment acting upon the caisson. d = 35+6=41ft Ly = gT(2z) = 32.2 x 400/27) = 2050 d/lg = 41/2050 = 0.02 H/L) = 31.8/2050 = 0.0155 HIT = 1.59 From Figure 23 of Reference 6, Case 4-D will be used. The maximum wave displaceméhi occurs at @ = 0 TmavH = 0.889 Tmax = 0.889 X 31.8 = 28.27 ft Required deck elevation = 41 + 28.27 + 3 = 72.27 ft above mudline _ CopD (§ : Fo@,8) = j,u ful ds F4(0,S) = Fo(@.8) 2 CopDH Td From Table 5 of Case 4-D, F{(6,S) = 36.1 at S/H = 0.5 CppD(H/T)*d = 1.05 x 1.99 x 4 x 1.5% x 41 _ | 2 2 Fp = 36.1 x 433 = 15,637 lbs = 15.64 kips34 Applied Offshore Structural Engineenng _ CypD ¢° Mp(@,s) = See? j,s Mg(6,8) = 2 Mp = 9.314 este CopDHTya@ x 42 CopD(H/T)'d? _ 1.05 x 1.99 x 4 x 1.5! SEO Eee eee 2 17,760 ft-lbs Mp = 9.314 x 17.76 = 165.42 ft-kips Wave Slamming Members in the splash zone will be subject to wave slamming forces. DNV recommends the following formula to calculate slamming force for horizontal members: F, = 0.5pC,Du? where: F, = Wave slamming force per unit length C, = Slamming coefficient (DNV recommends C, > 3.0 for tubulars) Water-particle velocity normal to the surface of the mem- ber u D = Diameter If the force due to wave slamming is impulsive, dynamic amplification should be considered. DNV recommends that for a horizontal member, the factors of 1.5 and 2.0 should be used for the end moment and the midspan moment, respectively. Vortex Shedding Due to Waves DNV recommends that when V, > 1.0 and K, > 3.0, vortex shed- ding due to waves should be considered V, is the reduced velocity factorWave Forces 35 as defined in Reference 7, and K. is the Keulegan-Carpenter number de- fined as 3 K. = V,T/D o where: V, = Maximum orbital velocity due.to wave motion T = Wave period D = Diameter of member pH Unit force induced by vortex shedding may be calculated from the fol- lowing formula: Fy = 0.5pC,Aw where u = Flow velocity normal to the member ep Mass density of water ° C; = Fluctuating coefficient. ° Cr coefficients are provided by DNV in Reference 7. Dynamic amplifi- cation shall be considered for resonant vortex shedding. DNV recom- 7 mends the following dynamic load factor: DLF 1 are 5g en) ° where: a 3 au Damping ratio (0.02 for offshore structures) Number of load cycles in the time interval of half a wave period, where the wave orbit velocity is within the range fA that will cause resonant vortex shedding. For steady cur- > rent, n should be taken as infinite. References 1. Myers, J. J., et al., Handbook of Ocean and Underwater Engineer- ing, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Section 12, 1969. 2. Wiegel, R. L., Oceanographical Engineering, Prentice-Hall, Inc. 1964. 3. Cross, R. H., Water Wave Teaching Aids, Massachusetts Institute of ‘Technology, 196836 Applied Otfshore Structural Engineering 4. Skjelbreia, L. and Hendrickson J., “Fifth Order Gravity Wave The- ory” Proceedings of the 7th conference on Coastal Engineering, 1961. 5. Kirk, C. L., Lecture Notes for Dynamic Analysis of Offshore Struc- tures, Cranfield Institute of Technology, 1975. 6. Dean, R. G., Evaluation and Development of Water Wave Theories for Engineering Application, Special report No. 1, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Coastal Engineering Research Center, 1974. 7. DNV Rules for the Design, Construction and Inspection of Offshore Structures, Appendix B, May 1978.4 ENERGY SPECTRUM OF THE SEA Energy of the Sea The sea contains a great number of waves of all different sizes, lengths and directions. The result is an irregular sea that never repeats its pattern from one interval to any other. We cannot characterize or define an irreg- ular sea by its pattern or shape. However, there is one way we can define the’sea in simple terms. Its total energy must be made up of the sum of the energies of all the waves that make up the sea. The energy of a simple, sinusoidal wave is pgH?/8 for each square foot of water surface. Then the total energy in every square foot of the seaway or simply a constant times the sum of the squares of the heights of all waves that exist in the seaway. Thus, the intensity of the sea is character- ized by its total energy. We can show the individual contribution made by each wave. In other words, with each component wave of different length or frequency, we can show how the total energy of the sea is distributed according to the frequencies of the various wave components. This en- ergy distribution is called the energy spectrum of the sea, or simply the “wave spectrum.” A wave spectrum is expressed as energy-second ver- sus wave frequency so that the area under the spectrum curve represents 3738 Applied Offshore Structural Engineering the entire energy of the system. It is noted that energy is proportional to the square of wave height. We may conveniently substitute m?-s or ft-s for the ordinate and m? or ft? for the area as a direct indication of compo- nent wave height variation Wave Histogram By statistical method, we can predict how often waves of various heights will occur over any given period of time. Heights of all waves in a given record are measured and the percentages of occurence calculated, These percentages are then plotted against the wave heights. This curve is called a histogram. Most sea wave histogram records can be expressed as mathematic functions. Two probability distribution functions which are of particular interest in the study of random waves are the Rayleigh dis- tribution and the Gaussian distribution. These functions are commonly employed to describe the probability distributions of wave height H and water surface elevation 7, respectively. The Rayleigh distribution is given as = 2Hi .-Wime PH) = re ids This is expressed as “the percentage of times that a wave of height H; will occur in all the waves of that series.” H? is the average of all the square of the wave heights in the record: = HP Aa 1 where n is the total number of waves in the record. It is noted that the average energy of the sea is given by E= oat Thus, once we know the area under the spectrum curve, we car relate it directly to the Rayleigh distribution function and determine all sorts of useful probabilities of occurrence of different wave heights. For exam- ple, the probability that the wave height will be greater than H, is given as A, 2 Pai) = 1 - J pana = e¥PEnergy Spectrum of the Sea «39 This means that out of a number of waves n, there will be ne~H* waves that will be higher than Hj. We can determine the average wave height, the average height of the one-third highest waves. or the one- tenth highest waves: Average wave height: Hy = 0.89VH? Average height of one-third highest waves: Hyg = 1.41V Average height of one-tenth highest waves: Hino = 1.80VF? The Rayleigh distribution is mathematically indicated to apply accu- rately only to a narrow spectrum. This spectrum is highly peaked in shape, with most of the energy contained in a narrow range of frequency. Example 4-1 A wave record is shown as follows: Wave height (ft) 2 4 6 8 10 Wave number 45 35 25 5 2 Calculate Hy,s, Hino, Hisoo, and the average wave height. Wave Wave % Height No. Occurrence Hin Hine Hiroe 1 2 3 1x2 tx2 1x2 1x2 2 45 40 90 ot oe <7 4 35 31 140 20 ised ce 6 25 22 150 150 24 - 8 5 5 40 40 40 aa wo 2 2 20 Hee 20-1 204 Fee HO 112 100 440 230 84 10, 1123 = 37, Hy; = 230/37 = 6.22 ft 112/10 = 11, Hino = 84/11 = 7.64 ft 112/100 = 1, Hine = 10/1 = 10.0 ft Average wave height = 440/112 = 3.93 ft40 Applied Offshore Structural Engineering Example 4-2 The wave record over a period is shown as follows: Height (ft) 0-2 2-4 4-6 6-8 8-10 Numbers 4,200 5,000 3,600 2,000 500 Plot the wave histogram, and compare it with the Rayleigh distribution. Wave Mean Number * Rayleigh Height Height Occurrence Occurrence _S4/ft pH) 0-2 1 4,200 27.4 13.76 10.43 % 2-4 3 5,000 32.7 16.35 20.13 % 4-6 5 3,600 23.5 UTS 13.89 % 6-8 7 2,000 13.1 6.55 5.18% 8-10 9 500 aia 1.65 1.143% The wave histogram is plotted in Figure 4-1. FF 1 2 Ye 2 2 5,300 41200 x t + 5,000? x 3? + 3,600 x 5 + 2,000 x 7? + 500 x 9) = 18.15 ft H = 4.26 ft Ho = 0.89 x 4.26 = 3.79 ft Hix = 1.41 x 4.26 = 6.01 ft Hino = 1.8 X 4.26 = 7.67 ft 2x1 =1 = = 0.1043 POD = Teas oP Ges) Pa = 2x3 -9 | = 92 PG) = Te ig OP (=e oe = 2x5 = 013 26) = 273 exp 0.1390Er ergy Spectrum of the Sea 44 40 30 leigh distribution Percent occurrence per foot wove height Wave height (f1) Figure 4-1, Wave histogram. 2X7 -49 = XT exp| =] = 0.0518 P(7) 1e.15 oP ( ) 0.0: 18.15, Hy 2x9 ~81 = = 0.0114 si pO) 2X3 exp {=81) 0.011 15,300 exp 4 = 2,105 : Of 15,300 waves, there are 2105 waves higher than the significant ¥ wave Wave Spectra Some of the better known one-dimensional wave spectra that have been employed to describe ocean’ waves are listed here. Many of these were developed in terms of a reference wind speed V as a parameter. Of those42 Applied Offshore Structural Engineering spectra given here, the Bretschneider and Pierson-Moskowitz spectra are perhaps the most commonly used. The JONSWAP spectrum, which is an extension of the Pierson-Moskowitz spectrum to account for a much sharper peak, is more recent and involves additional parameters. The spectra presented here are in terms of cyclic frequency f. (Reference 3) Neumann spectrum si) = B v2 The peak frequency fo = [5 This spectrum requires only wind speed V and relates to fully devel- oped conditions. Bretschneider spectrum = SHEL (-3 +) S@) = Tee qs ere [- 7A f Ast fy This spectrum is given in terms of the significant wave height H, and peak frequency fo, rather than the wind speed. It is designed to ensure that the area under the spectrum curve corresponds to H,/16, as should be the case on the assumption of a Rayleigh distribution of wave heights. ‘The significant wave height and peak frequency are obtained from “hind- casting,” (the calculation of wave characteristics from meteorological in- formation on old weather maps) relation in terms of wind speed V and fetch F and the duration t, fy is empirically related to the significant pe- riod T.. In the case of a fully risen sea, gH/V? = 0.283 eT/Qxv) 12 T, = 0.946/fy nou tl) Energy S,actrum of the Sea 43, Pierson-Moskowitz spectrum _ 8.1 x 1073 _B pela SL ex a B = 0.748 __ Gry This depends only on the wind speed V and refers to fully developed conditions. V is taken at a height of 19.5 meters above the sea surface. This spectrum was obtained semiempirically by the analysis of extensive wave data relating to fully developed sea conditions in the North Atlan- tic. JONSWAP spectrum = 08" a “ a sf) gtae | 125(¢) r where: a = exp oS | fo o = 0.07 for f < fo ao = 0.09 for f > fo F = Fetch F\-933 fo = 2.84(et) 2 aoe 7 = 3.3 (the peaked parameter) __The spectrum derived from the Joint North Sea Wave Project is a mod- ification to the Pierson-Moskowitz spectrum to account for.the effect of fetch restrictions and provides for a much more sharply peaked spec- trum.44 Applied Oltsnore Structural Engineenng Significant differences exist between spectrum formulas. Significant differences also exist in terminology, notation, and parameters used for the ordinates and abscissas of the spectral curves. For the ordinate of the curve, the generally accepted label is “spectral density.” The spectral density can be referred to directly as the square of the height H or ampli- . tude a of the waves. Most researchers use a°/2, but oceanographers pre- fer 2H? for the ordinate of the spectral curve. These may be referred to as amplitude half spectrum and height double spectrum, respectively. For the abscissa of the spectral curve, there is a difference between cyclic frequency f and circular frequency «. Spectrum presented as frequency spectrum S(f) or Sc) is related as PSF) = w/(2r) S(wy The following spectra are presented on a base of circular frequency w and 2H? for ordinates of spectral density. This means the square root of the area under the curve will give the significant wave height H, with no multiplying factor, that is, H, = Varea Neumann spectrum S() = 400w~* exp ( — 725V~%w-?) V is in knots taken at 64 feet above the sea surface and H, = 1.9 x 107Sv5 Pierson-Moskowitz spectrum S(w) = 135e°5 exp (—9.7 x 10°V-4w~4) H, = 3.5 x 10-*Vs nou Bretschneider spectrum S(w) = 4200H?T>*u~S exp (— 1050Tp*a~*) For a fully developed sea, H, = 0.025V? (ft) T, = 0.64V (s)seeeaceesagadh oeee 6 Geerroee eoode ao Besseeoegoanoe ca 5 FUNDAMENTAL NAVAL ARCHITECTURE Definitions and Terms Length (L). The distance in feet or meters on the summer load line from the foreside of the stem to the afterside of the sternpost. Breadth (B). The greatest molded breadth in meters or feet. Depth (D). The molded depth at side measured at the middle of L from the molded base line to the top of the deck beams. Drajt (d). The vertical distance between the waterline and the bottom of the vessel. Tonnage. A nautical term used to describe the size of a vessel. In the marine community a ton may be a weight measure equal to 2240 pounds or to 2000 pounds, or it may be a volumie measurement based on 100 cubic feet. Deadweight. The weight that can be carried by a seagoing vessel. It is the difference between the weight of the vessel and its displacement when fully loaded. Load Line. The maximum draft to which a vessel may be safely loaded Reserve Buoyance. The buoyancy above the waterline that keeps a ves- sel upright when subjected to wind, waves, currents, or accidental flood- ing. Stability. The word used to describe the ability of a floating vessel to remain upright or return to an upright position when subjected to envi- ronmental or operational forces. 4648 Applied Offshore Structural Engineenng Metacenter. The intersection point of vertical lines through the centers of buoyancy in the initial and slightly inclined positions. The distance be- tween the center of gravity and this point is metacentric height. Trim. The difference between the draft at the forward perpendicular and the draft at the aft perpendicular. Change of trim is the difference between the original and the final trims. Center of Flotation (CF). The geometrical center of the waterplane and the point about which the vessel trims. Roll. The angular motion of a floating vessel about the longitudinal axis. Heave. The up-and-down motion of a ship. Pitch. The angular motion of a floating vessel about the transverse axis. Surge. The motion of a floating vessel backward and forward in the direction of vessel travel Sway. The athwartship motion of a floating vessel. Heel. The inclination of a floating vessel to one side caused by wind, waves, or weights on board. Yaw. The angular motion of a floating vessel about the vertical axis. Hogging. The distortion of the hull of a vessel when the bow and stern are lower than the middle due to heavy loads or waves. Sagging. The distortion of the hull of a vessel when the middle is lower than either end due to excessive weight. Transverse Stability ‘When a vessel floats freely in still water, the weight of the unit acts downward through the center of gravity and the buoyancy acts upward through the center of buoyancy. When the vessel rolls slightly to one side, the center of buoyancy shifts to a new location B’, as shown in Fig- ure 5-1, The intersection of the middle line by the vertical through B’ at small angles of roll is called transverse metacenter M. GM is the meta- centric height. GZ is the righting lever. For angies up to about 15°, GZ = GMsing 6-D When M is above G, the condition is stable equilibrium and BM = IV (5-2) where: I Moment of inertia of waterplane about the middle line Volume of displacement wuFundamental Naval Archtectus 49 Figure 5-2. Stability at large heel. When the heel angle is greater than 15°, the upright and inclined wa- terlines do not intersect on the middle line. The metacenter does not re- main fixed. In this case the righting arm is given by Atwood’s formula, GZ = Vth — BG sin (5-3) where: v = Volume of immersed wedge hh, = Horizontal distance between the centroid of the two wedges When the vessel heels, there is a transference of buoyancy from one side to another. In Figure 5-2, g and g; are the centers of gravity of the50." Applied Offshore Structural Engineering cmersed and immersed volumes or wedges of buoyancy. The volume of caca wedge is v : Static Stability. The ability of a vessel to return to her initial position after being forced to heel. Righting Moment (W x GZ). A measure of the vessel's ability to re- turn to the initial position. Initial Stability. The stability of a vessel in her initial position. It is ex- Pressed by the metacentric height GM. Dynamical Stability. The work done on a ship when it is heeled to seme specified angle by external forces. Stable Equilibrium. The stability condition when the forces of gravity and buoyancy are on the same vertical line, and the center of gravity is below the metacenter. Stability Under Wind Forces Because wind accounts for the largest overturning forces, stability re- quirements for ships are based on broadside wind force. Wind force on the side of a vessel creates an overturning moment. American Bureau of Shipping specifies 100-knot wind for stability criteria. This is calculated for several angles of heel. The result is plotted, along with the righting moment, as shown in Figure 5-3, American Bureau of Shipping specifies the area under the righting moment curve to the second intercept or the oo 7b Righting moment 26 First intercept Es é 4 z Intercept = 3 = 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 Angle of hee! (degrees) Figure 5-3. Wind hee! stability criteria.Fundamental Naval Architecture 51 angle of downflooding to be not less than 40% in excess of the area under the wind heeling moment to the same limiting angle. The 40% excess area has been derived from vears of experience with ships and from stud- ies of models and analytical investigation. Longitudinal Stability For longitudinal stability. Equation 5-2 is expressed as i longitudinal BM, = ts (5-4) where: Le = Moment of :nertia of the waterplane about a transverse axis through the center of flotation. Moment to change trim one inch (MTI) is 2 MTI = W GM//(12L) ef Approximate MTI = 31 TYB tft (5-5) 7 where: T; B ‘Tons per inch Breadth of ship moment changing trim Change of trim (in.) = wa Moment to change trim one centimeter (MCT | cm) is 9 MCT lcm-= .W GM, (100L) (5-6) Ch: tri — moment changing tim ange of trim (em) = ONC mene Example 5-1 The TPI (t/in.) and MTI - moment to change trim one inch) of a 300-ft vessel are 57 t and 300 t-ft respectively. The drafts are 19 ft forward and 21 ft aft. The center of flotation is 6 ft abaft midlength. If 280 t of weight is loaded 32 ft forward of :he midlength, calculate the new drafts. Sinkage = 280 5 = 4.91 in.52 Applied Offshore Structural Engineering Change of trim = 280 x 38/300 = 35.47 in 180 x 35.47/360 = 17.74 in 174 x 35.47/360 17.14 in Forward draft 19 + (4.91 + 17.74)/12 Aft draft = 21 + (4.91 — 17,14)/12 20.89 ft 19.98 ft Rolling in Calm Water For ships of ordinary form roll at moderate angle, it is assumed that the axis of roll passes through G, the center of gravity. Under this assump- tion, the ship motion is expressed as 2 C6 iM =0 (5-7) dt? 7 where: I = Mass moment of inertia of the ship about a longitudinal axis through the center of gravity. 6 = Inclined angle M = Righting moment uu This is a simple harmonic motion; the rolling period is given by pe 2m _ Loar (5-8) Ve GM GM where: r = Radius of gyration of mass about a longitudinal axis through the center of gravity. The solution of Equation 5-7 is 8 = 22 sin 28 4G, cos 2m Qn T T The initial angular acceleration is See Pa (5-9) where: wy = (2)Fundamental Naval Architecture 53 > = Initial inclining angle (t = 0) o-(. Free Undamped Heaving Motion The equation of motion is given by MZ + KZ = 0 The solution is Z = Asin (wt ~ 8) where: M = Virtual mass (ship mass plus added mass) ° K = Spring constant ) B = Phase angle @ = Natural circular frequency of the heaving motion an _ [kK : =2t _,|K 5-10 ® Es 6-10) ° . 4? ‘The maximum heaving acceleration is =A Example 5-2 The length, beam, and draft of a vessel are 400 ft, 50 ft, and 20 ft respectively. Assume that block coefficient (C,) = waterplane coeffi- cient (C,) and that added mass = 90% of the vessel mass. Calculate the heaving period (neglecting damping). M = m+ 0.9m, = 1.92 g K = pgLBC,Apphed Ottshore Structural Engineering T = dea 194 : LBdC 0g Vge8L BC, \ gpglLBC, = In l9d = any S70 = 6.83 sec Ve 323 References . Kemp J. F. and Young, P., Ship Stability Notes and Examples, Stan- ford Maritime Ltd., 1972. . Smith, R. M., Notes and Examples in Naval Architecture, Edward Arnold Ltd., 1965. . Manning, G. C., Principles of Naval Architectures, The Society of Naval Architectures and Marine Engineers, 1967, Chapter 1. . Bhattacharyya, R., Dynamics of Marine Vehicles, John Wiley & Sons, 1978. : . Collip, B..G., Buoyancy, Stability, and Trim: Unit V, Lesson 3, a home study course issued by Petroleum Extension Service, The Uni- versity of Texas, 1976.6 OFFSHORE PLATFORM TOPSIDE STRUCTURES Plate Design The maximum bending moment and deflection for a long rectangular plate with uniform load and simply supported ends have been developed. by Timoshenko in Reference 1: ; : Max = 4 (x) 1 = Sql Your = 23E* fu) (62) where: g(u) = ceeeh cr aie fu) = sech a w/2 p=— ft (6-3) 120 — 7) = Uniform load 2 f L = Span 5556 Applied Otshore Structural Engineering Plate thickness Poisson’s ratio A parameter An approximate method to calculate parameter u is expressed as fol- lows: (+ a@Va = V3(yit) u = 0.54Va 5 ql here: y = > dE where: y = 57S x is the ratio of the axial force S to the Euler critical load. With q, Ly and t known, y/t can be calculated and, from Table 6-1 or Figure 6-1, u, g(u), and f(u) can be obtained. The direct tensile stress is calculated by Ss 4wD fee eee 6-4) t wl? eat Table 6-1 u, g(u), and f(u) Functions yt u sech u tu) tu) 112’ 1.571 0.2985 0.4874 0.6828 2.393 2.221 0.2145 0.3185 0.3316 3.909 2.721 0.1311 0.2347 0.2481 5.642 3.142 0.0993 0.1825 0.1987 7.569 3.512 0.0596 0.1525 0.1649 9.674 3.848 0.0426 0.1293 0.1332 11,942 4.156 0.0313 0.1122 0.1234 14.362 4.443 0.0235 0.0989 0.1096 _ 16.926 4.712 0.0180 0.0885 0.0986 19.625 4.967 0.0139 0.0800 0.0895 22.455 5.210 0.0109 0.0729 0.0820 25.407 5.44 0.0087 0.0670 0.0756 28.479 5.663 0.0069 0.0619 0.0702 31.665 5.877 0.0056 0.0576 0.0655 34.962 6.084 0.0046 0.0538 0.0614 38.365, 6.283 0.0037 0.0505 0.0577 41.872 6.477 0.0031 0.0475 0.0545Offshore Platform Topside Structures $7 Figure 6-1. u, g(u), and f(u) functions. The maximum bending stress is calculated by f= Max (65) Example 6-1 The floor plate of a topside structure is 0.5 inch and supported by floor beams spaced at 4 feet. The uniform load is 3000 psf. Calculate the plate maximum stress and deflection. E’ 30 x 10° x 0.5? 7 = p05" = 343.41 kin, Rd - T20 — 0.09) ian y = Sat _ 5 x 0.02083 x 48" 193 in 384D 384 x 343.4158 Applied Otfshore Structural Engineering yit = 4.193/0.5 = 8.386 From Table 6-1 u = 3.643 Lesech u _ 1 = 0.0523 = = — C= 0.1428 at) = Tut 6.6357 2 Myae = oF atu) = aOR x % 0.1428 = 0.857 k-in fy = &m = ©% 9-857 _ 99 57 ksi e 0.25 f, = 4D _ 4 x 3.6437 x 343.41 = = 15.82 ksi tL? 5 x 48? fmax = 20.57 + 15.82 = 36.39 ksi sech u — 1+ w/2 _ 0.0523 ~ 1 + 6.636 = X = ——_———— = 0.155 ao ~ Sura 36.694 : Omax = Sf(u) = 4.193 x 0.155 = 0.65 inch The maximum moment and deflection for simply supported and uni- formly loaded rectangular plates are provided in Reference 1 (M)mx = Bga* (6-6) (My)max = Biga® (6-7) Bos = 298 (6-8) Numerical factors 8, 6;, and are provided in Table 8 of Reference 1. It is noted that when b/a > 3, the plate can be treated as long plate, and the stress can be calculated by cutting unit strips, without substantial er- Tor.Offshore Plattorm Topside Structures 59 Plate design for offshore structures should consider not only stresses but also deflection. Excessive deflection can be prevented by increasing plate thickness or reducing span. Corrosion is another problem to be con- sidered. It is recommended to use at least */6-in. plate for platform deck floors. In practical design, ¥s-inch plate is the most popular size for deck floors, Shear Lag and Effective Width Concept It is assumed in basic bending theory that the cross section of a girder or beam which was plane before bending remains plane after bending. For a girder with wide flanges. this assumption is not always justifiable. The longitudinal displacements in the parts of the flanges remote from the webs always lag behind those nearer the webs. This is called shear lag. Shear lag results in greater deflection and longitudinal stresses at the web-flange intersection of a girder than those given by basic bending the- ory. For design purposes, it is more convenient to replace the actual width B of each flange by a certain reduced width B,, such that the application of basic bending theory to the transformed cross section gives the correct value of maximum deflection and longitudinal stress. The reduced width is called effective width. Reference 2 provides effective breadth ratios for five different cases. The effective breadth ratios of girders with single-web symmetrical flanges and free sides are shown in Figures 6-2 and 6-3. B is the flange width, and L is the distance between points of zero bending moment. Example 6-2 A plate girder 40 ft long with fixed ends is loaded with 1,000 kips at midspan. Calculate the maximum bending stress. B = 2b = 24 in.60 Applied Oitshore Structural Engineering Net Mya = PL/8 at center and ends. The distance etween zero bend- ing moment L = 40/2 = 20 ft. L/B = 20 x 12/24 = 10 Effective width ratio = 0.807 Therefore, the effective width B, = 24 x 0.807 = 19.37 in. 1,000 x 40/8 = 5,000 kip-ft 2272 in? fy = 5,000 x 12/2,272 = 26.41 ksi When the entire flange width is used, the section modulus will be 2,699 in.? and the bending stress will be 22.23 ksi. : 08 2 os i 2 3 os a * o2 ° ° 2 4 6 8 0 L ‘8 Figure 6-2. Effective breadth ratio (uniform load).Otfsnore Piattorm Topside Structures 61 7 tlw H Bea n= bdeptn et 10 fares [ sz wed thickness 1 = tlonge thickn lange thickness na 08 B=0.1 2 B=001 A eae > 5 = 04 a oz ° ° 2 4 6 8 10 y % Figure 6-3, Effective breadth ratio (concentrated load). Buckling of Plates The buckling stress of a perfect plate within the elastic range is given by ke fee = eG (6-9) 12 bay y where: b/t = Width-to-thickness ratio fi, = Buckling stress64 70 Applied Offshore Structural Engineering wae tittt 3 2 3 8 ° isa) &y 30! 60 55 45 by Figure 6-5. Maximum bit vs. yielding stress.Otfshore Platform Topside Structures 65. AISC recommendations of plate girder design are provided in Reference 4 and are summarized as follows: 1. When hit > 760//F, (Fs in ksi), the maximum bending stress in the compression flange shall not exceed Fy calculated from Equation 6-12: A.{h _ 760) . F< FJt.0 — 0.0005 «(2 — SU 6-12) Pee a(t ra Sisneas where: A, = Area of web, in.? A; = Area of compression flange, in.? 2. If the girder is a hybrid girder, Fy shall be calculated from Equation 6-13: 12 + A‘’Ga — a) 12 + 2A” 13) AWAy ratio of web yield stress to flange yield stress 3. The largest average shear stress in the web F, shall not exceed the value calculated from Equation 6-14: Cc, < 04 F, (6-14) for C, < 0.8 c, = 10k for C, > 0.8 nit VE, 5.34 k = 4.00 + 334 for ah < 1.0 fine TS k = 5.34 + 4:0 for ah > 1.0 (ay68 Applied Otfshore Structurat Engineering P TR = to) # 2r = rot > FE (6-18) where: R= Radius of main plate To = Radius of pin hole r = Radius of cheek plates . From Equation 6-18, Proper plate thickness can be selected. In Hl most cases, the plate thickness selected from Equation 6-17 will govern the design 3. Check welding between the main Plate and cheek plates. If the welding size is w and the allowable welding stress is F,, then t e 2 .707w x Fy, > at x 0.707W Pots yi ee rere (6-19) i S44F(T + 2pt From Equation 6-19, the required welding (fillet) between the main plate and the cheek plates can be calculated. } 4. Check axial and shear stress along a section cutting through the main plate. If a section is cut through the main plate at b distance from the center of the hole, the section is h units high: Axial stress f, = P.cos @ : Bending stréss f = Me : Shear stress f, = P sing 2 : ear stress sino where: § = Angle between slings, and the horizontal EB Static moment of the cross-sectional area beyond the point where the shear is calculated (taken about the neutral axis of the section) M = P sind ~ Pos (2 ~ x} :Offshore Plattorm Topside Stucures 69 The maximum bending stress fy = 6M/(Th*) The average shear stress f/ = P sin 6/(Th) is calculated and the princi- pal stress at the edge of the section can be calculated’ f, +f, Soe Ora = + ~ (ht 4} + (fF (6-20) 2 \| 7 In practical design a horizontal force of 5% of the static sling load should be applied simultaneously with the sling load. Padeye design should provide sufficient clearance for easy installation. The following clearances are recommended: 1. The Padeye pin-hole diameter should be one-quarter inch larger than the pin diameter. 2. The Padeye thickness should be one-half inch less than the jaw width of the shackle (Figure 6-6). 3, The outer radius of Padeye main plate should allow about one-quar- ter-inch clearance between the main plate and the sling. Figure 6-6. Padeye clearance.70 Applied Offshore Structural Engineering 4. It is important to locate the Padeye such that the shackle, the pin, and slings clear the adjacent structural members. Example 6-3 The topside structure of a offshore platform weighs 800 t. Four Pad- eyes are needed for the lift. Design the Padeyes. Given: a = 30° @ = 60° Fy = 42 ksi d = 6in. 1. Calculate sling loads (consider one sling sags). = 2W_ _ 2 x 1,600 _ 1,232 kips 3 cos a 3 x cos 30 2. Check bearing stress. Fp = 0.9F, = 37.8 ksi d(T + 2t)Fp > P 6(T + 2t) x 37.8 > 1,232 T + 2t > 1,232/(6 x 37.8) = 5.43 in. Try 2 in. main plate. 1.75 cheek plates Tris 24+3.5 = 5.5 > 5.43 in. 3. Check shear stress. F, = 0.4 x 42 = 16.8 ksi Try R = Hin. r = 10in, Use 2ro = d + 1/4 = 6.25 in. TR — 1) + 2 — rt > P/QF) (11 — 3.13) + 2110 — 3.13) x 1.75 = 39.78Ot'shore Platform Topside Structures 71 Po 1,232 _ 36.67 < 39.78 IF, 2x 168 It is noted that bearing governs the design. 4. Check welding of the check plates. Assume E60 welds are used Pt w > 444F(T + 2t)r ae 1,232. x 1.75 = 065 in, 444 x 13.62 + 3.5) x 10 Use three-quarter-inch fillet welds around the cheek plates. 5. Check stress at a section 11 in. from hole center. Try h = 48 in. Psin@b — Pcos6(hi2 — R) = 1232 x 0.87 x 11 — 1232 x 0.5224 - 11) = 3782 k-in. P cos 0 1232 x 0.50 ‘ fh = = = 6 Th 7x48 6.42 ksi Five percent of static sling load = 0.05 x 616 = 30.8 kips M= 31x12 = 372 kin. f = 6 x 37248 x 4) = 11.63 ksi f = 6.42 + 4.92 + 11.63 = 22.97 ksi _ VQ _ 3V _ 3x 1,072 Shear at N.A. '= 2h = 27 = 8.38 ksi IT 4Th 4x2 x 48 Shear stress at edge = 0 Maximum stress. = 62 +e + \O0F + B58? = 21.35 ksi Itis suggested that sufficient stiffeners be provided to reduce the lateral bending stress (11.63 ksi). The designed Padeye is shown in Figure 6-7. x72 Applied Offshore Structural Engineering we “ ° «| “ee Figure 6-7. Padeye design.Offshore Plattorm Topside Structures 73 References Timoshenko, S. and Woinowsky-Krieger, S., Theory of Plates and Shells, McGraw-Hill Book Co. 1959 Schade. H. A., “The Effective Breadth Concept in Ship Structure Design,” Annual Meeting of the Society of Naval Architects and Ma- rine Engineers, 1953. Brockenbrough, R. L. and Johnston, B. G., Stee! Design Manual, U.S. Steel, 1968. AISC, Specification for the Design, Fabrication and Erection of Structural Steel for Buildings, 1980. Russo, E. and Hall, R., “Systematic Approach to Lifting Eye De- sign,” Ocean Resources Engineering, Nov. 1977.7 OFFSHORE PLATFORM JACKET STRUCTURES Layouts and Preliminary Sizing The following information shall be available when the design work is started: - Function of the platform (drilling, production, or other) . Deck areas required . Location of the platform . Environmental data and soil report - Method of fabrication and installation UpYN— Layouf Of a jacket structure should consider easy fabrication and in- stallation and high structural efficiency. From the available environmen- tal data and soil report, the required pile sizes can be estimated, and pre- liminary member sizes can be estimated by using KL/r values. The following KL/r values are a guide for selecting preliminary member sizes: Areas KUr Values Gulf of Mexico 85 U.S. East Coast 30 U.S. West Coast 80 Alaska 75 North Sea 18 Middle East 10 74Offshore Platicrm Jacket Structures.» 75 Southeast Asia 110 Africa West Coast 110 South America East Coast 85 Figure 7-1 shows KL/r values for tubulars based on K = 0.8. This is for pre- liminary design only. Tubular Members: When the Dit ratio of a tubular member exceeds 60, local buckling should be investigated, and the allowable axial compression and bending stress should be calculated by substituting the local buckling stress F,. for F, in the appropriate AISC formuias. F,, is expressed in AP! RP 2A as: F,, = F,[1.64 ~ 0.23(D/t)*] < Fre (7-1) Oe ofn FS oe gfe 120 5 100 ee ‘| 0 60 40 Nn rn 30 0 20 700 120 kam Figure 7-1. Slenderess ratio of tubular sizes.76 Applied Oftshore Structurs! Engineering Where: F,. = Critical clastic local buckling stress Fort > 0.25 in. and Di < 300, F.. = 2CEVD where: E = Young’s modulus of elasticity c= 03 Figure 7-2 presents the D/t for various pipe sizes. Equation 7-1 is cal- culated for various F, versus D/t and is presented in Figure 7-3. ost Figure 7-2. Dit ratio of tubular sizes. i +sI001S SNOUIeA Jo ssoxjs Bulyong e907 “e-2 ean} 7 va 002 oe O98! Ot oz ool 08 og f T T T T T aT T Offshore Platform Jacket Structures Xd sy)78 Applied Otfshore Structural Engineering An effective shear area of one-half the gross cross-sectional area should be used when shear stress is calculated in tubular members. For tubular members subjected to combined compressive and bending stresses, the stress ratio should satisfy the API and AISC specifications. Tubular Joints Most tubular members in an offshore jacket structure are welded to- gether without using stiffeners. Loads are transferred from one branch to the other via chord. It is often necessary to use a heavy can in the connec- tion area to prevent overstress. API RP 2A recommends the following formulas to calculate the acting punching shear: vp (axial) = 7 Sind (7-24) sl fi " vp (bending) = a (7-2B) where: 7 = ratio of brace wall thickness to the cord wall thickness 4 = angle between the brace and chord K,, K, are defined in API RP 2A, Section 2.5.5¢ The acting punching shear stress in the chord wall should not exceed either F, or V,: F, = 0.4F, (7-3) i . *F, Vp = QS rs 74) where: y = Rit (the chord radius divided by its thickness) Q, Q ate defined in API RP 2A Let Vj = F,/(0.94°"), Figure 7-4 shows V, and F,. These curves provide a clear picture of allowable punching shear when the R/t ratio and f,, fy stresses are available. Qr is a design factor. API RP 2A defines the factor as a a wou 1.0 for A < 0.44 1.22 — 0.5A for A > 0.44Offshore Platform Jackét Structures 79 30- =. Fy260 By ri Fy=50. zoh 3 Fy242 Vp 8 2 4 6 8 10 2 Yee ate ae a SE oF st PEE eo eee eee | eee 30 sO 60 Fy (ksi) Figure 7-4. Punching shear stress. where: A = 1h i +1 ft 0.6F, ‘The Q, factor is shown in the following table. A good design always keeps the A value between 0.7 and 0.9. This means the Q, factor is al- ways between 0.87 and 0.77. We can conservatively assume Q, = 0.85.80 Applied Offshore Structural Engineering Qe 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.97 0.92 0.70 0.87 0.80 0.82 0.90 0.77 Q, is a complicated factor given in API RP 2A, Table 2.5.5. A study of this table indicates that Q, is always more than 1.0, except in cross joints. When the ¥,/R ratio is between 0.4 and 0.8 and axial compression is the type of loading, the Q, factor at cross joints can be as low as 0.7. Figure 7-4 provides a convenient way of obtaining F, and V; for use in the preliminary design of joint cans. In supplement 1 to API RP 2A (13th Edition), it is recommended that the following interaction equation should be satisfied: ly.l + 0.637 sin'y, < 1.0 where: yy, = (4, + Aye Va» Yin, and Yop are the ratios of punching shear (acting) to the punching shear stress (capacity) for axial, in-plane bending and out-plane bending, respectively. It is noted that sin~'y, should be in radians. Hydrostatic Pressure The acting hoopstress f, for an unstiffened tubular member in deep wa- ter should not exceed the critical hoop buckling stress F,, divided by the safety factor: Fre < Fm hSoF The hoop stress in ksi at a still-water depth of d feet is expressed as = H, [D' 6 = Bell 75)Offshore Piattorm Jacket Structures 81 H, = Z + 0.5H cosh k(d ~ Z)/cosh kd where: Z = Depth below still-water surface H wave height k = 2nL Equation 7-5 is plotted in Figure 7-5 To calculate the critical hoop buckling stress F,,, a geometric parame- ter M and the elastic hoop buckling stress F,, have to be computed. M and F,, are defined in Section 2.5.4 of Reference | as: M = Lepmy? (7-6) D Fre = 2CEVD an where: L Length between stiffeners € = Function of Dit and M API RP 2A provides the following formulas to compute C values: C = 0.44 UD, when M > 1.6 Dit c= 0.44 £ 9210/9 when 0.825 Dit < M < 1.6 Dit 0.736/(M ~ 0.636) when 3.5 < M < 0.825 Dit M< 0.755/(M .~ 0.559) when 1.5 < M < 3.5 C= 08 when M < 1.5 When C is calculated, the elastic buckling hoop stress F,. can be com- puted from Equation 7-7. When M > 1.6D/t, the F,- values are pro- vided in Figure 7-6. After the F,. value is calculated, the critical hoop buckling stress F,. can be obtained from Figure 7-7. API RP 2A, Section 2.5.4, provides a detailed method to check for hydrostatic collapse. A member in tension or compression has to check for axial stress and collapse interaction Let 7 f= f +f, — 0.5f82 Applied Offshore Structural Engineering = 80 on Figure 7-5. Hoop stress vs. 100 i20 OntOffshore Platform Jacket Structures 83 fy —* SF, B i. he Members with simultaneous axial tensile and hoop compressive stresses should satisfy the following interaction ratio: A? + B+ 0.6/AiB < 1.0 (7-8) TOR so For Mal6 O/t so 40h Fhe (kai) 30 6 DES Ere pee eee eed eee ° 20 40 oO 80 100 \ on Figure 7-6. Elastic hoop buckling stress for M 2 1.6 Dit.cy Applied @Htshore Structural Engineering ri i S000 syeaane Fy36ns x0 20 > oo 26 20 60 rr 700 7 uo] > Falta 3 Figure 7-7. Critical hoop buckling stress. 2 where: SF, and SF, = Safety factors for axial tension and hoop com- a Pression, respectively. Let } fk = f, + f, + O.5f, a F,/SF, F,/SF, Members with axial comp the following equations: f= 05h (& 7 7 F.-05F, * (ef < i) § aL(SF,) <1 FS a ° ression and external pressure must satisfy fy =(SFy) < F,! ) < 1.0Offshore Platform Jacket Structures 85. API recommends the following safety factors: Axial tension SF, = 1.67 for operation condition | SF, = 1.25 for storm condition. Axial compression SF, = 1.67 to 2.0 for operating condition SF, = 1.25 to 1.5 for storm condition. Hoop compression SF, = 2.0 for operating condition. SF, = 1.5 for storm condition. now Conical Transition Between Tubular Sections ‘The cone section between two tubular sections should be chosen to sat- isfy the axial and bending stresses at the end of the cone. The stress at any section of the cone is expressed as f = (he + fi)/cos @ (7-10) where: cw = One-half the projected apex angle of the cone fas fy = Axial and bending stresses computed using equivalent cy- tindrical properties at the section, respectively API RP 2A provides the following limits of cone transition angles, as- suming t = t.: pr Maximum a (degree) oO 12.2 48 14d 36 16.9 24 : 20.7 18 23.6 R 28.1 When a cone section satisfies the criteria, no stiffening ring is needed. Figure 7-8 shows the criteria. The localized bending stress for an unstif- fened cone-cylinder junction may be estimated using the following for- mula recommended by API RP 2A: fy = 2. VDE + OES He, +f) tana ly)86 Applied Offshore Structurai Engineering where: D = Cylinder diameter, in. (mm) t Cylinder thickness, in. (mm) t Cone thickness. in. (mm) & t for stress in cylinder section t. = t for stress in cone section fy Axial stress. ksi (MPa) fy Bending stress. ksi (MPa) ee © (Degree) = One-half the apex angle of the cone, degrees The total stress f = (f, + f, + f) is less than or equal to design hot spot stress. API recommends the design peak hot stress should not ex- ceed 60 ksi (415 MPa). 40 20 10 20 30 40 50 on Figure 7-8. Limiting cone transition angles.Offshore Platform Jacket Structures a7 60 © 8 Soh 2 40h e 2 30h x 4 20 + 2 ) ob EERE ESE Sere eet eee ete eee eee on Figure 7-9. Bending stress of unstiffened conical transition Figure 7-9 is the plot of Equation 7-11 using t = t,. In practical design it is more convenient to select the cone and cylinder with the same wall thickness. The hoop stress may be estimated from D fh = 0.45 yD, + &) ana (7-12) The hoop tension is limited to 0.6 F, and the hoop compression is lim- ited to 0.5 Fyc, where Fye is computed using Figure 7-7 with F,, equal to 0.4 Et/D. Figure 7-10 is a plot of Equation 7-12. In practical design the88 Applied C.tshore Structural Engineenng on Figure 7-10. Hoop stress of cone section. value (f, + f,) tan a is always less than 16 for mild steel, since the angle « is always less than 30°. When considering t = t., fh = 1.89 fy When a cone-cylinder junction does not satisfy the criteria shown in Figure 7-7, the wall thickness may be increased or the junction strengthened by providing ring stiffeners. The section properties of the stiffener should satisfy the following requirements: A= Pt + f) tan a 7-13)Offshore Platform Jacket Structures 89 wb? LE (f. + f,) tan a (7-14) where: D, = Diameter to centroid of composite ring section. For inter- nal rings, D should be used instead of D,, in. (mm). Cross-sectional area of composite ring section, in.* (mm?) Moment of inertia of the composite ring section, in.‘ (mm*) A I. In computing A, and I,, an effective width of b, = 0.55 VDt) + (VDt_ of the shell wall acting as a flange of the composite ring sec- tion should be considered. Figure 7-11 is a plot of Equations 7-13 and 7-14 for internal ring stiffeners with F, equal to 36 ksi. Example 7-2 A conical transition section connecting 42-in. and 60-in. cylinders is shown in Figure 7-12. If the axial load is 1000 kips and the bending mo- ment is 1,500 kip-ft, design the conical section. Let te Lin. Dt = 42 in. Dit =.42 f, 1,000/128.81 = 7.76 ksi f = 1,500 x 12/1289.59 = 13.96 ksi From Figure 7-7, the limiting angle « = 15° L, = 9cot 15 = 33.59 in. Use a 36-ircone section (f, + f,) tance = (7.76 + 13.96) x 0.25 = 5.43 ksi From Figure 7-8, f§ = 28 ksi From Figure 7-9, ff = 14.8 ksi f, +f, +f = 7.76 + 13.96 +28 49.72 ksi < 60 ksi 0.40 EVD = 0.4 x 30 x 10? x 1/42 = 285.71 ksi 7.94F, > 6.2F, Fy, = F, = 36 ksi 0.5 Fy = 0.5 x 36 = 18ksi > K90 Applied Ottshore Structural Engineering 100 80 40 Figure 7-11. A. and |, of internal junction ring.im Offshore Plattorm Jacket Structures 91 fet" or=42 On =42, 60" (Figure 7-12, Conical transition. Corrosion Protection of Jacket Structures visa An offshore platform has its members exposed in the atmospheric zone, the'splash zone, and the submerged zone. Corrosion in the atmo- spheric zone is typically prevented by the application of a coating system. Corrosion in the splash zone is prevented by: 1. Monel sheathing 2. Vulcanized neoprene 3. Silica-filled polymeric resin cladding 4. Steel wear plates Corrosion control in the submerged zone is achieved through the appli- cation of cathodic protection. Galvanic anode systems are always used for cathodic protection. Galvanic anodes may be alloys of active metals such as aluminum, zinc, or magnesium. The performance of galvanic an- 7 odes in seawater depends on the composition of the alloy. A method for calculation of galvanic anode current ouput is expressed as follows: R= flint = ) (7-15) bese22 Applied Offshore Structural Engineering where: R = Anode-to-electrolyte resistance, ohms p = Resistivity of the electrolyte, ohm-cm L = Length of anode, cm r = Radius of anode, cm ‘The current output from an anode is I = BR where: I Current output, amps E 0.25-volt driving force between anode and structure to be protected The design criteria for cathodic Protection systems in different areas are given in Table 7-1. Table 7-1 Design Criteria for Cathodic Protection Systems Water Current Water Area, Resistivity Density Temperature (ohm-cm) (maim?) © Gulf of Mexico 20 55-65 2 U.S. West Coast 24 75-85 15 Cook Inlet 50 375-430 2 North Sea 26 85-160 12 Persian Gulf 15 75-110 30 Indonesia 19 55-65 24 The consumption rates of commonly used galvanic anode alloys are given as follows: Aluminum-zinc-mercury 6.8-7.0 Ibs/amp-yr Aluminum-zinc-indium —8.0-11.5 Ibs/amp-yr Magnesium 17.5 Ibs/amp-yr Life of an anode in years is given by Y, = C,W/L where: C, = Consumption rate (amp-yr/kg) W = Weight of anode (kg.) Example 7-2 An offshore platform has 16,000 ft? of submerged area, and the pile surface area from mudline to 100 ft. below seafloor is 14,000 ft?. The Platform is to be installed in Indonesia for 20 years and Dow GalvalumOffshore Plattorm Jacket Structures 93 alloy anodes (263 Ibs net weight) are to be used. Calculate the required anodes. I = 0.0050 A, + 0.002 A, 0.005 x 16,000 + 0.002 x 14,000 = 108 amps Assume consumption rate = 7 Ibs/amp-yr Required anodes: n = 20 X 108 x 7/263 = 57.49 58 anodes are required Boat Landings and Barge Bumpers Boat landings and barge bumpers for offshore platforms are usually de- signed for loads that occur during normal operation. Loads which occur in accidental and catastrophic conditions are difficult to evaluate. In prac- tical design it is always best to consider the vessel approaching velocity at between | and 2 feet per second. The tonnage of vessels will vary be- tween 500 and 2500 tons displacement. The kinetic energy of the vessel at impact is expressed as kE = CW 28 = Displacement tonnage = Approaching velocity Impact coefficient (in practical design use C = 1.40) Reaction to the impact can be calculated by relating the kinetic energy to the internal work KE = Ry/2 where: y = Deflection created by the impact and may be expressed as Rik ” 4 Stiffness of the fenders Ni= KE R nln R = V2k(KE)94 — Applied Otfshore Structural Engineering Example 7-3 A working barge of 2000 t displacement approaches a platfcrm’s bumpers at 1.5 ft/s. The stiffness of the bumpers is 13 t/in. Calculate the reaction and deflection KE = 1.4 x 0.5 x 2000 x 1.57/32 = 98.4 tft R V2 «98.4 x 13 x 12 = 175.2 t 175.2/13 = 13.48 in. References 1. API, Recommended Practice for Planning, Designing, and Con- structing Fixed Offshore Platforms, Jan. 1982, pp. 25-38. . 2. National Association of Corrosion Engineers, (NACE), Standard RP- 01-76, Control of Corrosion on Steel Fixed Offshore Platform Associ- ated with Petroleum Production, 1976. 3. Thoresen, C. and Torset, O., “Fenders for Offshore Structures,” pa- per presented at the 24th International Navigation Congress, 1977. 4. Supplement 1 to API RP 2A (13th Edition), Recommended Practice for Planning, Designing, and Constructing Fixed Offshore Platforms, March 1983.8 OFFSHORE PLATFORM PILE FOUNDATIONS Pile Capacity for Axial Loads The ultimate pile bearing capacity is determined by Qs = Q@ + Q = EFA, + GA, (8-1) where: Qy = “Ultimate bearing capacity of a pile Q = Skin friction resistance Q, = Total end bearing f Pile unit skin friction = Pile surface area End bearing capacity A, = Gross end area of pile Note that qA, should not exceed the capacity of the internal plug. The ultimate tensile or pull-out capacity is determined by Q = fA, The skin friction f in clay is limited by API RP 2A as follows: c or V2 vf? for Gulf of Mexico © fore < Ms vit f 3s vit? mom nAawnr 95»o¢ 96 Applied Oftsnore Structural Engineering where: ¢ = Shear strength of undisturbed clay soil , The skin friction in sand and silt is given by f = kpy tans where: k = Coefficient of lateral pressure (0.5~1.0) ) Effective overburden pressure . 5 = Angle of friction Normally, limiting values of 30-60 kPa are recommended for calcare- ous sands, and 100-120 kPa for silica sands. For drilled and grouted piles in all soi! materials, the limiting friction is governed by the strength » of the bond. It is given by D, fab Da.” where: f = Limiting friction D, = Pile diameter Dg = Drilled diameter Sy = Limited bond stress (API recommends between 20 psi to 26.7 psi, depending on loading conditions). For pile end bearing in sand and silt, it is computed by : 4 = PON, (8-2) where: Ny = Bearing factor. . API recommends the following values: * ee N, Clean sand 30° 40 Silt sand 25° 20 Sandy silt 20° 12 Silt 15° 8 Normally, the limiting values of 6 MPa for calcareous sands and 10 MPa for silica sands are recommended. DOffshore Platiorm Pile Foundations 97 Soil-Pile Interaction For piles under lateral loading, the lateral resistance of the soil near the surface is significant to pile design. To determine pile lateral load capac- ity, the soil resistance versus pile deflection (p-y) curves should be com- puted using stress-strain data from laboratory soil samples. For soft clay. the computing method is provided in References 1 and 2 and is expressed as follows: x, = 8D yDic + J N, = 9 for X > Xz Np 3. + yX/c + IXc/D for 0 < X < Xp Po N,cD Ye = 2.5€.D where: D = Pile diameter + = Soil effective unit weight J = Empirical constant (ranging from 0.25 to 0.5) X = Depth’below soil surface ¢ = Undrained shear strength Pa = Ultimate resistance € = Strain that occurs at one-half the maximum stress X > Xp X < Xp 0 y= O.5py Y2 .. Ps = 0.72p, Y3 0.72p, Ps = 0.72py Y= oO 0.72X'p, where: X’ = X/Xp p-y curves for sands can be computed using formulas and figures pro- vided in API RP 2A, Section 2.6.7f. Generally, soil reports will be avail- able in a design projéct. Pile capacity curves and p-y data for various pile sizes should be provided in the soil report. The problem of laterally loaded piles is handled in the same manner as a beam-column with elastic supports. Numerical analysis of laterally loaded piles is presented in Reference 4.98 Applied Ottshore Structural Engineering dty EI =p=- 8-3) ae =P Ey (8-3) where: E, = secant modulus of soil reaction It varies in an arbitrary manner with depth. But using numerical meth- ods the problem can be solved. The pile is subdivided into n increments. Leth = L/n, and Equation $-3 may be rewritten in differential form as Yor — A¥met + ym = An: + Yona = Ee nty, 8-4) Similarly, expressions for slope S, moment M, shear V, and soil reac- tion p are written as follows: Sm = Ee (-Ymet + Ym (8-5) Ma = FFO'me1 — 2¥m + Yor) 8-6) Vin = FRC Ymee + 2¥me1 — 2m + mrs) 7) _ EL : oe 8 Pm = Fe Om+2 — 4¥me1 + 6¥m — 4¥m—1 + Ymn-2) (8-8) There are n + 1 algebraic equations of the form of Equation 8-4, and four equations which express the boundary conditions at the pile ends. This set of n + 5 simultaneous algebraic equations can be solved by using the matrix method. Computer programs are available on the market. Pile Design Overail column buckling is normally not a problem in pile design for offshore structures. However, when axial load is significant, the load de- flection effect should be considered. As discussed in the previous sec- tion, pile is treated as beam column with elastic supports. API RP 2A recommends the following stress ratio should be used: f, fy o6F, + O66F, < 10 (8-9) IfD/t_> 60, use F,, instead of F,. In pile design the stress ratio should satisfy Equation 8-9, and the design penetration should be sufficient to oodOffshore Platform Pile Foundations 99 resist the maximum axial load with an appropriate factor of safety. API recommends safety factors of 2 and 1.5 for operating and storm condi- tions, respectively. Based on Equation 8-9, with a one-third increase in allowable stress, a set of pile design graphs has been developed and is presented in Figure 8-1 through Figure 8-24. These graphs apply only to loading conditions where the one-third allowable stress increase is applicable. Proper pile design includes obtaining required penetration. Refusal does not assure that pile capacity is adéquate to support the design loads. When contin- ued driving is not successful. jetting or drilling may be applied to con- tinue advancing the pile. {text continued on page 123} 3000 2500 Zz 2000 1500 § 2 tooo 500 1500 Axial loads (tons) Figure 8-1, 30°¢ pile capacity (Fy = 36ksi).100 Applied Otfsnore Structural Engineering 3500 - Fy =42 ksi 500 1000 1500 2000 Axial loads (tons) Figure 8-2. 30°¢ pile capacity (Fy = 42ksi). 2500 DOffshore Platform Pile Foundations 101 3500} 3000}— 2000 Moment (kips-ft.) 1500 1000 500) 1 1 1 L L °o 500, 1000 1500 2000 2500 Axial loads (tons) Figure 8-3. 30° pile capacity (F, = 50ksi).102 Applied Offshore Structural Enginesring Moment (kips-ft.) 5000 Fy = 36ksi 4000 3000 2000 1000) 500 1000 1500 2000 Axial loads (tons) Figure 8-4. 36° pile capacity (F, = 36ksi). 2500kips-f 5 2 Offshore Platform Pile Foundations 103. 6000 - Fy=42ksi 4000 3000 2000 ° 500) 1000 1500, 2000 Axial loads (tons) Figure 8-5. 36" pile capacity (Fy = 42ksi).106 Applied Ottshore Structural Engineering ° 500 1000 1500 2000 Axia! toads (tons) Figure 8-6. 36° pile capacity (F, = 50ksi). 2500Moment (kips-tt) Offshore Plattorm Pile Foundations 108, 7000 — ° 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 Axial loads (tons) Figure 8-7. 42°¢ pile capacity (F, = 36ksi).106 Moment (kips-ft) Applied Offshore Structural Engineering 7000 6000) 5000 4000) 2000} 1000 ob tg ‘500 1000 1500 2000 2500 Axial loads (tons) Figure 8-8. 429 pile capacity (F, = 42ksi).> Offshore Platform Pile Foundations 107 7000 6000 ) 5000 2000 tooo 500) 1000 1500 2000 2500 Axio) Loads (Tons) Figure 8-9. 42°¢ pile capacity (F, = 50ksi).108 Applied Otfshore Structural Engineering 7000 6000 5000 4000 tkips~ 3000 Mcment 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 Axial Loads (Tons) Figure 8-10. 484 pile capacity (F, = 36ksi).' Offshore Platform Pile Foundations 109 (hips ft) Moment 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 Axial Loads (Tons) Figure 8-11. 486 pile capacity (F, = 42ksi)110 (hips- #1) Moment Applied Offshore Structurat Engineering 8000 7000 6000 5000 4000 3000 " 2000 1000 Re eee eee 500 1000 1500, 2000 2500 3000 Axial Loads (Tons) Figure 8-12. 4876 pile capacity (F, = 50ksi).Otfshore Platform Pile Foundations 114 (kips-ft) E 2 ‘500 1000, 1500, 2000 2500 3000 Axial Loads (Tons) Figure 8-13. 54% pile capacity (Fy = 36ksi).(kips- 11) Moment 112 8000 7000 6000 5000 4000 3000 Applied Offshore Structural Engineering 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 Axial Loads (Tons) Figure 8-14. 5476 pile capacity (F, = 42ksi) 3000(hips-t1) Moment 14000 12000 10000 8000 6000 4000 Offshore Plattorm Pile Foundations 113 Fy=50ksi Axial Loads (Tons) Figure 8-15. 5474 pile capacity (F, = 50ksi).4 14000 t '0000) Ukips-f1) Moment 2000) Applied Offshore Structural Engine-ring 2000 8000} 6000) 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 Axial Loads (Tons) Figure 8-16. 60"o pile capacity (F, = 36ksi). ‘5000(kips- ft) Moment '4000) 12000 to000} 8000} 6000} 4000 Offshore Plattorm Pile Foundations 115 1000 2000 3000 ‘4000 5000 Axial Loods (Tons) Figure 8-17. 60° pile capacity (F, = 42ksi).116 (hips-11) Moment 12000 000 6000 4000 2000 ° 1000 2000 3000 4000 Applied Offshore Structural Engineering Axio! Loads (Tons) Figure 8-18. 60°¢ pile capacity (F, = 50ksi). 5000 ooTees Offshore Platform Pile Foundations 117 14000 - 12000 + 10000 + ikips: 8000 “Moment 6000 - I; 4000 | 2000 1000 2000 3000 4000) 5000 Axial Loads (Tons) | Figure 8-19. 66° pile capacity (F, = 36ksi).118 Applied Offshore Structural Engineering 14000 '2000 10000 ps Ft) 8000, Moment 6000) 4000 2000 1000) 2000 3000 4000 5000 Axial Loads (Tons) Figure 8-20. 66”¢ pile capacity (F, = 42ksi).(kips- ft) Moment Offshore Platform Pile Foundations 119 14000 12000 10000 F 2000 ¢ 1000) 2000 ‘3000 ‘4000 ‘5000 Axial Loads (Tons) Figure 8-21.” 666 pile capacity (Fy = SOksi).120 (hips-ft) Moment Applied Offshore Structural Engineering 14000 12000) ‘0000 8000 6000 4000 r 2000 3000 4000 Axial Loads (Tons) Figure 8-22. 726 pile capacity (F, = 36ksi).Offshore Platform Pile Foundations 121 \s000}— '4000;— \ 3 12000} > = 0000+ E = 6000 4000 2000) 2000 Axial Loads (Tons) Figure 8-23. 72”¢ pile capacity (Fy = 42ksi).124 Applied Otfshore & 2000 Tons a gS 6 ° s g ¢ 3 ° 2 gS g 8 4 8 8 2 8 A —tts 20° = : | = = fy 404 hay 60' 7 2 7 gl a | ed “ f ig oo | a 120! 3 is (@ "7 -ai Engineering to) Figure 8-25. Pile design example. 48"9 (c)Olfsnore Plattorm Pile Foundations 125 Pile Make-up Each pile section has to be checked for stresses due to pile hammer driving. These stresses are the limiting factors in establishing the maxi- mum length of pile add-on section. In selecting pile section length, the following items should be considered Crane capacity and boom length. Stresses developed in the pile section while lifting . The wall thickness and material properties at field welds .. The soil type in which the pile tip is positioned during driving inter- tuption (for field welding to connect the add-on sections). - Each add-on section for which driving is required should contain a 2-5 ft cutoff allowance. BENS wa When checking stresses due to hammer driving, API RP 2A recom- mends the following: 1. The effective length factor K > 2. The bending moment and axial | oad should be calculated using the full weight of hammer, cup and leads, and the weight of the add-on section. The bending moment so determined should not be less than 0.02W, where W is the sum of the weights of hammer and cap and leads. 3. A one- ird AISC stress increase is not permitted. Pile Drivability Analysis The use of wave equat during drivifig has becor merical solution to investigate “he effects of such factors as Pe RHae and velocity, cushion and pile properties, and the dynamic behavior of soil during driving. The method has been used extensively by engineers to predict the ability to drive a pile to the design penetration. Computer programis for pile drivability analysis are available. In application, the hammer-pile-soil system is idealized as a series of concentrated weights connected by weightless springs. An analysis can ns to investigate t amie be 1. Predict the driving stresses induced in a pile 2. Determine the resistance of the soil to the pile at the time of driving 3. Optimize the cushion 4, Select proper size of driving hammer. 5. Determine the influence of the driving accessories.126 Applied Offshore Structural Engineering Instrumentation to observe piles during driving is available to verify the pile stresses and determine if the hammer is operating adequately. This pile monitoring can assist driving operation in case a high blow- count is encountered. One monitoring system on the market consists of a strain gage attached to the pile and a DMS (Dynamic Measurement Sys- tem) to record the force pulse. A comparison of the characteristics of pre- dicted force pulses to measured force pulse provides a good estimate of cushion stiffness and hammer efficiency. References 1. American Petroleum Institute, Recommended Practice for Planning, Designing and Constructing Fixed Offshore Platforms, 13th Edition, 1982, pp. 26-27 and pp. 39-50. 2. Reese, L. C., Cox, W. R. and Koop, F. D.. “Field Testing and Anal- ysis of Laterally Loaded Piles in Stiff Clay,” OTC paper No. 2312,- 1975. 3. Reese; L. C., Cox, W. R.-and Koop, F. D., “Analysis of Laterally Loaded Piles in Sands,” OTC paper No, 2080, 1974. 4. Reese, L. C. and Matlock, H., “Numerical Analysis of Laterally Loaded Piles,” 1960 . Texas Transportation Institute, Pile Driving Analysis, 1976. . American Petroleum Institute, Supplement | to API RP 2A (13th Edi- tion) Recommended Practice for Planning, Designing, and Construct- ing Fixed Offshore Platforms, March 1983. au9 OFFSHORE PLATFORM MARINE OPERATIONS Loadout and Seafastening Offshore structures are normally fabricated on land. After fabrication is complete, they are loaded out and transported to the installation site. Loadout consists of the transfer of structures from the fabrication yard to a barge or vessel for transport. In general, heavy structures such as jack- ets are transferred by skidding, and most modules or decks are trans- ferred by lifting. “Stresses due to loadout should be checked. When a jacket is skidding onto a barge, the speed is normally very low. Once moving, the coeffi- cient of friction is always less than 0.1, but the load needed to start the jacket moving is always more than 10% of its weight. Seafastening involves tying down a suture st tying down a structure to @ transport barge. The forces which must be resisted eafastenings can be determined by computer programs, model tests, or assumed design criteria. For exposed towing on the open sea, the inertial and gravity loads can be calculated by assuming the following motions: 20° single-amplitude roll 10° single-amplitude pitch 10-second period of roll or pitch 0.2g heave acceleration. The forces are the sum of heave plus roll or heave plus pitch. The cen- ter of roll or pitch can be assumed at the waterline. IF the towing is not 427128 Applied Ost re Structural Engineering transocean or ir protected waters and the weather is good, the rolling cri- teria may be reduced to 15°. Computer programs to generate barge motions in a seaway are avail- able. Most programs are evolved from a program developed by the U.S. Navy. Several have correlated the results with model tests. This ap- proach, coupled with a three-dimensional structural program, will pro- vide a comprehensive analysis. The typical way to tie down a jacket is to provide diagonal members which generally radiate from a structurally secure place on the jacket (normally legs) to the frames or bulkheads on the barge deck. Doubler plates usually. are placed on the barge deck to stiffen the plating. Tie- down of deck sectit on the stabbing tips and secured to the barge deck: tubular braces are added to secure the system. Transportation Most offshore structures transported at sea are carried on cargo barges. The barges are pulled by tugs. Tugs are vessels designed to pull other vessels. They have a large fuel capacity and are designed to be effi- cient at relatively low speeds. The engineer who is responsible for tug selection should be aware of the horsepower of a tug: ‘Indicated horsepower (IHP) is the bare engine horsepower with no losses, generally quoted for tugs; Brake horsepower, (BHP) approximately 75% of the THP, is the useful horsepower; Shaft horsepower (SHP) is the horsepower which gets to the propeller. The term “bollard pull” is commonly used. It is the maximum pull in pounds or Tons that the tug can exert. When the tug is under full power and standing still, the pull is at a maximum. The pull is measured by ty- ing a line from the tug to a fixed fitting on the dock called a bollard. ‘Tension in the line is measured. The approximate pull power of a tug can be estimated by tug pull (tons) = IHP/100 A 5,000-IHP tug will develop about 50 tons of bollard pull. The re- quired tug size is determined by towing resistance and towing speed. What is the minimum tug size which can perform the towing safely at sea? The general design criteria for towing is that the tug should have sufficient tow power to maintain a forward speed of 2-3 knots when pull-Offshore Platform Manne Operations 129) ing into a 15-ft sea with « 40-knot wind and I-knot current. A towing. design which satisifies this criteria always can maintain a suitable head- ing and avoid damage to the tow. The calculation of barge resistance needs comprehensive analysis Bright and Dai provide a set of useful data in Reference 2. Designers can oO use these data to estimate tug requirements. 9 0.0035 - o 0.0030 }- Oo 0.0025, 0.0020 Ka ¥ 90,0015 0.057% r 0.0005 Figure 9-1, Barge resistance.130 Applied Ottshore Structural Engineering Let : Ky = RVD, Kp = VilvLy = Barge resistance, kips Barge displacement, t Barge speed, knots Barge waterline length, ft Figure 9-1 shows the relation between K, and Ka. It can be used to estimate barge resistance. References 1. Collipp, B. G., “Marine Operation,” lecture outline for offshore plat- form design, University of Texas, 1980. 2. Bright, G. J. and Dai, R. Y., “Resistance of Offshore Barge and Re- quired Tug Horsepower,” OTC paper No. 3320, 1978.10 FABRICATION AND INSTALLATION OF OFFSHORE PLATFORMS Gp! 2 eyes2k : opr OS wed RPM Gpl 728i p : iF Uy eal API RP 2A places structural steels into three groups. Group 1 desig- nates mild steels with F, <40 ksi (280 MPa). These steels may be welded by any of the welding processes described in AWS D1.1. Group o UI designates intermediate-strength steels with 40 ksi < F, < 52 ksi (360 3 MPa). Steels-in this group need a low hydrogen welding process. Group 3 UL designates high-strength steels with F, > 52 ksi. Weldability has to be investigated when these steels are used. API also classifies structural steels into three classes. Class C steels have a history of successful application in welded structures at service temperatures above freezing. Steels in this class such as API 5L-B and o ASTM A 36 are most suitable for jacket and deck members. Class B oO steels have improved notch toughness. They should exhibit charpy V- : notch energy of 15 ft-lbs for group I steels and 25 ft-lbs for group I steels at the lowest service temperature. Class A steels are suitable for use at lower temperatures and where the need is to prevent brittle fractures. API Spec 2H, which has improved Z-direction properties, is recom- mended for critical tubular joints in the jacket. SAKE fd Structural Steel 131132 Applies’ Offshore Stuctural Engineering Welding Welding should be done in accordance with AWS D1.1. A weld should be achieved with ductility, fusion. and penetration throughout its entire length so that the strength of the joint shall not be less than the strength of the members being welded. The method of welding used, the technique employed, and the appearance and quality of welds made should conform to the structural welding code. AWS D1.1 Section 10 applies to tubular structures, and Section 8 applies to general structural welding of plates and structural shapes. A welding specification is required in a construc- tion project. Fabrication All fabrication shall be in accordance with the AISC Specification for Design, Fabrication and Erection of Structural Steel for Buildings, and API Recommended Practice for Planning, Designing and Constructing Fixed Offshore Platforms. All fabricated structural pipes shall conform to API Spec 2B, Fabricated Structural Steel Pipe. When fabricating an offshore structure, the various components of the structure shall be located within the tolerances recommended by API RP 2A. Column alignment. In any critical plane the horizontal distance from the center line of any column to that of the adjacent column shall be within a tolerance of + 1/4 in. (6 mm) of the drawing dimension. Jacket and deck bracings. All braces in a horizontal plane shall be heid vertically within + V2 in. (13 mm) of the drawing dimension. Deck beams. At any point along its center line, a deck beam shail not be out of line more than 3/ in. (19 mm) horizontally or '/2 in (13 mm) vertically. Also beam centerlines at their ends shall be within 2 in. (13 mm) of the drawing location. Launching and Floating When a jacket is to be installed by launching, it needs adequate buoy- ancy to prevent contact with the sea floor or unstable motion during in- stallation. The whole launching process can be divided into Tour stages: Stage 1 Jacket slides along the launch beams. Stage 2 Jacket rotates on the rocker arms with respect to the pins. Stage 3 Jacket slides and rotates simultaneously. Stage 4 Jacket completely detaches from the launching barge and seeks its equilibrium floating position.Fabrication and Installation of Offshore Platforms. 133, Before launching, the barge is ballasted to a desired draft and trim an gle. When launching is started, the jacket is pulled by a winch and ad- vances toward the stern of the barge as shown in Figure 10-1. [n this first stage of launching. the draft at the stern and the trim angle of the launch barge will increase. If the trim angle is greater than the dynamic friction angle between the jacket and launch beams, the jacket will start to slide along the launch beams. When the jacket slides to a position where the overturning moment is greater than the total uprighting moment with re- spect to the rocker arm pins, the jacket will rotate in addition to sliding The sliding and rotating motion will continue until the jacket detaches from the barge, then buoyancy and hydrodynamic forces bring the jacket toward a natural floating position. (Figure 10-2) If the trim angle is not greater than the dynamic friction angle, the jacket movement has to depend on winch-pull until the center of gravity of the jacket passes the rocker arm pins and reaches a point where the jacket tends to rotate with respect to the pins. In this case the rotation will continue until the component of the force acting in the direction of rocker arms exceeds the friction force, then the jacket will begin to slide in addi- tion to rotating until the jacket detaches from the barge. Mathematical formulation of launching analysis is simply an applica~ tion of Newton's second law of motion. Newton’s second law states that the rate of change of linear momentum equals the sum of applied forces, and the rate of change of angular momentum equals the sum of applied moments. This is expressed as where: = Linear velocity vector Angular velocity vector 6 Numerical calculation of launching analysis is very complicated and tedious. It involves calculations of instantaneous hydrodynamic forces, buoyancy, mass moment of inertia with respect to rotating axis. and coor- dinate transformation. Computer programs are available isuch as MARCS, SACS. OSCAR, ete.). It is recommended that the launching structure have at least 10-feet clearance from the sea floor as shown in Figure 10-3135 Fabneation and Installation of Ottshore Piattorms y pue ¢ sobeis Bulyouney “@-O} e4nBi4 » e601, 5 ¢ e601,Applied Offshore Structural Engineering 13¢ “eouesPe| Buyoune “€-01 onBi 4, 120301 €P ;810N ‘SUpRA Sar __Fabneation and Insta of Ottsnore Platiorms 137 Flooding and Upending A flooding system is always needed for .acket installation. From the flotation analysis, an engineer will find out ow the jacket will float. If necessary, flotation tanks have to be proviced. Upending slings are at- tached to the upending eyes in the fabrication yard with either end tied at the upper side of jacket bottom. This is for easy retrieval if the jacket floats with the top end down (nose down). Upending from nosedown po- sition to horizontal can be carried out by using an auxiliary block of the derrick barge. The main block is used to hook up the main lifting slings. The jacket legs will be flooded while the jacket is held at the top padeyes by the derrick barge crane. Reduce the hook icad as water fills the legs to allow the jacket to set on bottom. The jacket is kept level by controlling inflow with flooding valves. Computer programs for flooding and upending analysis are available. A proper flooding sequence and the required hook loads can be deter- mined. Lifting Most offshore platform topside structures are installed by lifting. Decks are lifted from the cargo barge and stabbed into the previously in- stalled piles. Lifting can be single or dual. When two derrick barges are used in a lift, the lift is called dual lift (Figure 10-4) A jacket which is within the crane capacity of the derrick barge can be installed by lifting. Small jackets with dimensions within the stability and barge width limit can be fabricated standing up and lifted or rolled onto the cargo barge. After towing to an offshore site, they are lifted and low- ered into the water without flooding and upending. When a jacket cannot be fabricated ‘im its Vertical position, it is built and loaded out in its hori- zontal position. After towing to an offshore site, the jacket is launched or lifted (Figure 10-5) into position. Closure plates and flooding systems are usually required. The platform should 32 set such that the bearing of the platform shall not vary more than '2* from that shown on the draw- ings. Design of padeye and linkage plates shou'¢ incorporate a load factor of 2.0 and a lateral load equal to 5% of the primary lifting weight simulta- neously. Slings should be sized using safe working Joad. The safe work- ing load is determined by dividing the minimum breaking strength by at least four. Sizes of shackles should be selected in the same manner using the manufacturer’s safe working load138 Applied Offshore Structural EngineeringFabrication and Installation of Ottshore Platforms 13 Figure 10-5. Single lift. References 1. API, Recommended Practice for Planning, Designing and Construct- ing Fixed Offshore Platforms, API RP 2A, 13th Edition, 1982, pp. 50-60 2. Lu, C. H., “Launch and Flotation Analysis of Offshore Structures,” Petroleum Engineer International, April 1979.11 SEISMIC ANALYSIS OF OFFSHORE PLATFORMS Offshore structures installed in seismic zones should have adequate strength and sufficient ductility to prevent buckling or collapse during the maximum credible earthquake expected during the life of the structure. Seismic analysis of an offshore platform may be accomplished using any Tecognized method for modeling the earthquake loading. The analytical model should include the three-dimensional distribution of structural stiffness and mass. The uniform modal damping ratios of 5% of critical should be used in the analysis. The mass used in analysis should consist of the mass of the platform, the mass of the fluid enclosed in the struc- ture, and the added mass. ‘Step-by-Step Analysis Method A step-by-step integration procedure is the most convenient way to evaluate the earthquake response of an offshore structure. To carry out the step-by-step analysis, the response history is divided into very short increments. During each increment, the structure is assumed to be Jine- arly elastic; however, between increments the properties are modified in accordance with the current condition. Thus, the nonlinear response is obtained as a sequence of linear response of successively differing sys- tems. Consider a very short time interval At = tn+1— ty. The system may then be considered a linear system and the corresponding acceleration, 140. Seismic Analysis of Otshore Platforms 141 velocity, and displacement will be AX, AX, Ax, respectively. The corre- sponcing incremental equation of motion is expressed as [M] {Ax} + [C} {ax} + [K] {Ax} = —[M] {Ax} (-l) where: AX, = acceleration of the base AX = acceleration relative to the base Using 8 = Ve.-, = 1, of Newmark's method (Reference 1) leads to the following equations: (hesar = (0. — Farlih + Faden aii-2) (ea = bh = athe + Laedah, + Lar (ion (11-3) Let {ay} = Ak = {Ax} = Eee {ax} = 3 (11-4) {Ax} = At{x}. + Fara) + Zoe Brees (A1-5) An algebraic operation from Equations 11-4 and 11-5 will generate the following equations {Ax} = Fax} — 3{x} — 5 Atte (11-6) {AR} = 5 {Ax} ~ 2 {kh — 34K ai-7)144 Applied Offshore Structural Engineenng 11-13, which has n degrees of freedom, provides a vibration frequency @, or period T, = 27/w,, and a vibration shape ¢, for each of its n modes of vibration. The mode shape vector @, represents the relative amplitudes of motion for each of the displacement components in vibration mode n. The orthogonal properties with respect to mass and stiffness simplify the general equation of motion in the multidegree of freedom system. The orthogonal properties (Reference 3) are expressed as (én]IMion] = 0 (m % ny (11-14) [ér]{K]lgn] = 0(m ¥ n) (11-15) In the n-degree of freedom system there are n independent vibration mode shapes. Let Y, represent the amplitude of the nth mode, and the complete displacement may be expressed as follows: {X} = [6l{Y} (11-16) By differentiating Equation 11:16, the equations of motion of the multidegree system can be expressed as follows: (MILOH{Y} + (Clo]{Y} + EXMOI{Y} = fF} (11-17) Tt is assumed that the orthogonality characteristic applies to damping as well, i.e., [S2(Clldnl = 0 (m ¥ n) (11-18) The set of n simultaneous differential equations can be reduced to a single equation by multiplying the transposition of any mode shape vec- tor o,. Thus,. [SIMIG1{¥,} + [T1CH bal {¥,} + (OAK olf Yn} = [@al{F} (11-19) Let M’ = [TMI [oq] C’ = [en{Cllon) K’ = [@N[Klfon] F’ = [Ot}{F} then Equation 11-19 becomes: M’Y, + C’Y, + K’Y, = F’ (11-20)Seismic Analysis of Offshore Platforms 145, In the case of earthquake excitation, the effective applied load vector is given by the product of the mass matrix and the ground acceleration X, {F} = (MIUIx, where: [1] = Init vector of dimension N {F’} = [osIMIJINX, = Lik, (11-21) where: L, = earthquake participation factor for mode n For carthquake response, the analysis equation 11-20 becomes M’Y, + C’Y¥, + K’Y, = Lak (11-22) By relating C’ and K’ to M‘, Equation 11-22 may be written as ¥, ~ 2kr¥, + uty, = Ing 11-23 M’ ( ) in which the following relation is applied c (11-24a) K’ (11-246) The earthquake response of the nth mode at time t may be obtained by the Duhamel integral ies M’os Ya f ,&ene-mern sin w(t — r)dr Let V- represent the value of the integral and L, =v, 2 uw (11-25) The total displacement of the structure at time t is obtained by superim- Posing the contribution of all modes evaluated at the same time {X} = fel{¥}146 Applied Offshore Structural Engineenng Response Spectrum Method The response spectrum for a given earthquake is a plot showing the variation in the maximum response of a single degree of freedom oscilla- tor versus the natural true period of vibration when subjected to the base acceleration. The term ‘maximum response” refers to the peak value of acceleration, velocity, and displacement of the oscillator. To establish a single point on the curve requires considering the effect of the earthquake acceleration on a hypothetical oscillator with a given fraction of critical damping and period of vibration. The variation in response versus time is established, and the maximum value is plotted as an ordinate. The pro- cess is repeated for different values of period in sufficient detail to estab- lish the complete curve. Thus, to establish a single point on the curve requires a complete dynamic response analysis. By application of the Duhamel integral, the response of a single degree system may be expressed as follows: x) = 1 a (er sin wet — dr (11-26) a do Let vi) = Janes sin a(t — dr x(t) = vo (11-27) The maximum displacement response is obtained by introducing the maximum value of V(t). This maximum value of response function V(t) is called the spectral velocity and is denoted by S,. Thus, Sv = Venax It can be seen from Equation 11-27 that the maximum displacement denoted by S, can be written sy = You = Sy (11-28) o @ The maximum displacement $, is called the spectral displacement.Sersmic Analysis of Ottshore Platforms 147 It is interesting to note that the spectral velocity V(t) is useful in deter- mining the forces developed in the structure during earthquake motion. The inertia forces due to earthquake are given by the product of the mass and the effective acceleration X(t). The effective acceleration is defined as the product of the frequency squared and the displacement. This is ex- pressed as X(Q = w?x(t) (11-29) By the introduction of Equation 11-27 into Equation 11-29, the inertia force may be written as follows QW) = MeVvity (11-30) The maximum effective acceleration will produce the maximum inertia force. This maximum effective acceleration is called the spectral acceler- ation and is denoted by S,. Thus, S, = wS, (11-31) and the maximum inertia force due to the earthquake may be written as Qmae = MS, (11-32) For a generalized coordinate system, the maximum response of mode n is Y= i - ou = EES (11-33) If Sy, is the spectral velocity for mode n, then the maximum displace- ment in mode n is given by Xn = Pn¥ ree = Oo St (11-34) Similarly, if Sj, is the spectral acceleration for mode n, then the maxi- mum earthquake inertia force in mode n is given by ea = Meng Su (11-35)148 Applied Offshore Structural Engineering APIRP 2A Figure 2.3.6.2 provides a set of response spectra curves. It is noted that the spectra have been normalized to 1.0 gravity. The ordi- nates of the spectra taken from this figure have to be multiplied by the factor G for the zone in which the platform is to be installed. API recom- ‘mends that when a spectrum is applied along a principal horizontal axis ofa structure, two-thirds of the acceleration spectrum should be applied in a orthogonal horizontal direction, and an acceleration spectrum of one-half of the same zone should be applied in the vertical direction. All three spectra should be applied simultaneously. Example 11.1 An offshore platform as shown in Figure 11-1 has its mass concen- trated at five levels. The weights at each level are 600, 800, 750, 500, and 4,000 kips, respectively, and the natural period is 0.7 second. the soil is type C, the seismic zone is zone 4 (0.25g). Use API spectra to calculate the maximum deflection and ground shear. Let yz) = 1 cos 5% L WS) = 1-0 = 10 yw4) 0.6 ¥G) 0.34 ¥(2) = 0.13 Wl) = 0.01 4,000 = ..424.22 1.00 124.22 500 15.53 0.61 5.78 750 23.29 0.34 2.69 800 24.84 0.13 0.42 600 18.63 0.01 0.002 6,650 133.11 T = 0.7 second S, = 2.5g x 0.25 = 20.125 ft/sec? T 0.49 Si: = 58, = 2% . = 0.25" sd ip 4a? x 20.125 0.25 = 3.0 inchesSeismic Analysis of Offshore Platforms 149, £2700" Ms, EL+50°0" 5 ELng'-0" Sa Figure 11-1. Example structure. Generalized mass 133.11 ¢ 2 ) M’ = [ y@veyde = My? Earthquake factor e ' 7 ° L= { , Weveerae = UM = 145.03150 Applied Offshore Structural Engineering L 145.03 s, = 145.03 wr YOSe = 7 x 1 x 0.25 = 0.273 ft = 3.27 in Snax 2 Qmax = as = 145.03 x 1.09 x 20.125 = 3.181 kips API recommends two-thirds of the acceleration spectrum be applied in the orthogonal direction. Snax = 3.27 X VI + 0.67? = 3.936 in. Qmax = 3,182 x VI + 0.672 = 3,830 kips The maximum displacement at each level is 8, = ¥(0)bnax 1 x 3.27 = 3.27 in. 0.61 x 3.27 = 1.99 in. 0.34 x 3.27 = 1.11 in. 0.13 x 3.27 0.43 in. 0.01 x 3.27 = 0.327 in. SP Por ‘he maximum earthquake inertia force at cach level is Pine = My), de WM) qs = 124.22 x 145.03 x 20,125/133.11 = 2,723.80 kips 9.47 X 145.03 x 20.125/133.11 . = 207.70 F92-% 145.03 x 20.125/133.11 = 173.70 3.23 x 145.03 x 20.125/133.11 = 70.83 qi = 0.19 x 145.03 x 20.125/133.11 = 4.20 3,180.23 kips Similarly, the inertia force at each level in the orthogonal direction can be calculated. References 1. Newmark, N. M., “A Method of Computation for Structural Dy- namics,” Journal of the Engineering Mechanics Division, Proceed- ings, of ASCE, July 1959.Seismic Analysis of Offshore Platforms 151 Wilson, E. L. and Clough, R. W., “Dynamic Response by Step-by- Step Matrix Analysis,” Symposium on the Use of Computers in Civil Engineering, October 1962. _ Clough, R. W., “Earthquake Response of Structures.” Earthquake Engineering, Prentice-Hall International Inc., 1969, Chapter 12. . American Petroleum Institute, Recommended Practice for Planning, Designing and Constructing Fixed Offshore Platforms, API RP 2A, January 1982, pp. 21-23. . Walpole, W. R. and Shepherd, R., “Elastic-Plastic Seismic Response of Reinforced Concrete Frame.” Journal of Structural Division, Pro- ceedings, of ASCE, October 1969.12 DYNAMIC ANALYSIS OF OFFSHORE PLATFORMS Natural Frequency of a Structural System The dynamic response of a structure without external loads is called free vibration. The equation of motion without damping of a single- degree-of-freedom system is expressed as mk + kx = 0 (12-1) The solution to this equation is x = Asin wt + B cos ot where: w = Vk/m. ‘The period of motion is given by T = 2nlo = 20 Vm/k The cyclic frequency of the motion is given by f = 1/T = wlQn) Ina multidegree-of-freedom system the equation of motion for free vi- bration was shown in Equation 11-12, that is, 152 reoDynamic Analysis of Offshore Platforms 153 (M}{8} + {K]}{x} = 0 ‘The displacement vector is given by x = vsinet from which % = -vw? sin wt where: v o amplitude of the motion circular frequency Equation 12-1 becomes [K]{v} - w&[M]{v} = 0 (12-2) This is the same equation as shown in Equation 11-13. The solution of Equation 12-2 will provide a natural frequency w, and a mode shape fac- tor 6, for the nth mode of vibration. Let x o*[M] Equation 12-2 can be written as (K = Dv = 0 (42-3) in which I is the identity matrix with the same order as matrix K. When + written in detailed form, Equation 12-3 appears as (Ky — yy + Kays to + Kins = 0 Kav; + (Kn ~ Xia + 1 + Kans = 0 Kav) + Kavp + + (Kam — AW, = 0 ‘The nontrivial solutions that are of interest exist only if iK-MI=0 (12-4) Equation 12-4 is called a characteristic equation. It provides a means of determining the values of \ so that a nontrivial solution will exist. Such154 Applied Offshore Structural Engineenng values of are called eigenvalues, and the corresponding solutions for v are called eigenvectors. Computer programs to solve eigenvalue prob- lems are available. The natural frequencies of fundamental modes for beams with uniform mass are provided as follows: EI 0.56 4] = ; EI Simpl = 1574/EL imply supported beams f, = 1.57 4/5 Cantilever beams fh Ww Fixed supported beams f, = 3.57 zo where: m = Mass per unit length of beam, Ib-sec’/in. = Length of beam, in. E = Young’s modulus, Ib/in.? I = Area moment of inertia of beam, in.4 f, = Natural frequency of beam, cps The natural frequency of a cantilever with concentrated load at the free end is given as f, = 0.28 EL (m, + 3m) where m, = Concentrated mass in Ibs-sec?/in. Dynamic Response of Offshore Platforms The dynamic responses of an offshore platform may be determined us- ing a lumped mass mathematical model with viscous damping, linearized soil spring, and a hydrodynamic force function based on Morison’s equa- tion. The equation of motion in matrix form is expressed as (MI{X} + [C]x} + OK}{x} = (F} (12-5)Dynamic Analysis of Ottshore Platforms 155, = Dolla wy ax! om + [Caa — (Cm = neg 22" pe (12-6) where: [M] = Total mass matrix of the system {C] = Damping matrix {K] = Structural stiffness matrix {F} = Hydrodynamic force Nodal displacements Nodal velocities Nodal accelerations Drag coefficient Inertia coefficient Water-particle velocity Water-particle acceleration The equation of motion 12-5 can be solved by the frequency domain approach using the power spectral density technique. It can also be solved by the time domain approach. The advantages of the time domain solution are that the nonlinearities in Equations 12-5 and 12-6 can be han- dled properly, and the solution is physically interpretable. One disadvan- tage of this approach is the expensive c~mputing cost. A great deal of computer run time is required to obtain a meaningful solution. The ad- vantage of the frequency domain approach is the relatively low comput- ing cost. The disadvantage is that it requires linear transformations of the varying parameters to find a range over which the nonlinearities are.in- significant. Dynamic Response by the Time Domain Approach The dynamic equilibrium equation 12-5 at time t is expressed by the following matrix form: (MI{x}. + [C]{k} + EK} x} = {F) (12-7) If the time increment At is small enough, we can assume that the accel- eration associated with each degree of freedom of the lumped mass sys- tem varies linearly. This assumption leads to a parabolic variation of ve- locity and a cubic variation of displacement within the time increment