5.

1
Chemical equation – summarizes what happens to substances during a chemical reaction

In periodic table – the letter is the chemical symbol, top right number is the mass number (sum of protons and neutrons
in the atom’s nucleus), and bottom right number is the atomic number (number of protons in the atom’s nucleus)

Periods – horizontal rows in periodic table

Groups – vertical columns in periodic table
Left – metals
Right – Non-metals

State Appearance Conductivity Malleability and

ductility
Metals - Solid at room temp. (except - shiny - good conductors of - malleable (easily
mercury – liquid) heat and electricity influenced)
- ductile
Non-metals - Some gases at room temp. - not very shiny - poor conductors of - brittle
- Some solids heat and electricity - not ductile
- One (Bromine) liquid
Metalloids - Solids at room temp. - can be shiny or dull - may conduct - brittle
electricity - not ductile
- poor conductors of
heat

Electrons move rapidly around the nucleus in regions called shells

Each shell can accommodate certain number of electrons

Valence shell – the outer shell

Valence electrons – the electrons that occupy the valence shell
Elements wish to look like noble gases

Ion – any atom of atoms that carries an electrical charge

Cation – a positively charged ion (results from a neutral atom giving up an electron)
Anion – a negatively charged ion (results when an element gains an electron)

Cations – Alkali metals give up electrons very easily, form cations easily, and are chemically very reactive.
Reactivity increases as you move DOWN the elements in the alkali group (because of distance between valence shell
and nucleus, the farther away the easier to be removed)

Anions – Non-metals must gain electrons, halogens are most reactive, gain electrons easily and release a lot of energy.
Reactivity increases as you move UP the elements in the halogen group (the closer to the nucleus, the easier to pull in
another electron

Say an element uses 2 electrons to fill its valence shell, it has a charge 2-

Electron dot diagram or Lewis diagram - uses symbol of element to replace the nucleus and inner shell electrons
(Gilbert Lewis)

5.2

When two atoms collide, valence electrons on each atom interact. A chemical bond forms between the atoms if their
valence electrons make a new arrangement that has less energy than their previous arrangement (for many, the lowest
energy arrangement of valence electrons is the same as the arrangement for the noble gas they are closest to)
 - An atom may give up electrons
- An atom may gain electrons
- An atom may share electrons

Ionic compounds – substances that are composed of cations and anions

Ionic bond – the attraction between oppositely charged ions (the charge on the whole compound must be neutral)

Covalent bond – atoms that share a pair of electrons

Molecule – a neutral particle that is composed of atoms joined together by covalent bonds
Molecular compounds – Substances that are composed of molecules (most composed of atoms of two or more non-
metallic elements)

Diatomic molecule – a molecule that contains 2 atoms (ex. F2)

Bonding and the properties of ionic compounds

Nearly all ionic compounds involve bonds between metal cations and non-metal anions
- Tend to have relatively high melting points (a large amount of energy is needed to break the strong attraction
of ionic bonds)
- Conduct electricity when molten or dissolved in water (melting or dissolving allows ions to move freely and
therefore can carry an electric charge)
- Solid ionic compounds are not electrical conductors (ions cannot move)

Bonding and the properties of Molecular Compounds

Bonds between atoms within a molecule are strong, but forces of attraction between the molecules is weak
- Relatively low melting points (little energy needed to break forces of attraction)
- Tend not to conduct electricity when solid, liquid, or dissolved in water (because they don’t contain ions)

Electrolyte – A substance that dissolves in water to produce a solution that conducts electricity.
Ionic substances tend to be electrolytes while molecular substances tend to be non-electrolytes

5.3 Chemical Names and Formulas

IUPAX – International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry – global organization of scientists that is responsible for
setting standards in chemistry and recommend how compounds should be named

Binary compounds – compounds that contain two different elements

Simple anions are named according to the element that forms the anion with the ending changed to ‘ide’

Cross over method Ca2+(top) O2-(top) = Ca2O2

Transition element – An element with more than one valence

2 Ways to name transition elements – Classical and Stock system

Classical – Using the Latin names for metals that form more than one ion (ex. iron - ferrum, copper - cuprum, lead -
plumbum), dropping the “um” ending and adding the suffix “ic” to show the ion with the higher charge or “ous” for the
lower charge.

Stock system – Use the English name of the element, and write the cation in parentheses as a Roman numeral after the
name of the metal.
Polyatomic ions – consist of two or more different non-metal atoms which are joined by covalent bonds (charged ion)
ex. OH- (formed when one covalent bond in a water molecule is broken)
Only one common polyatomic cation (NH4+) but many polyatomic anions

amonium ion NH4(+)

hydroxide ion OH(-)
carbonate CO3(2-)
nitrate NO3(-)
sulfate SO4(2-)
hydrogen carbonate HCO3(-)
hydrogen sulfate HSO4(-)
phosphate PO4(3-)

The names of the polyatomic ions (except hydroxide) end in “ate” instead of “ide” Otherwise, has the same procedure
for naming

Binary molecular compounds – covalent bonds between two atoms of two different non-metals
1. Name of the binary molecular compound ends in ide
2. The name and formula usually begin with the element more to the left of the periodic table
3. Use a prefix to specify the number of atoms of each element present (mono –only used for second element-, di, tri,
tetra, penta, hexa)

WHMIS – Workplace hazardous materials information system (products must have informative labels in Eng. +Fr.,
must have material safety data sheet, workers who handle must complete education program)

5.4

Laviosier’s law of conservation of mass - During a chemical reaction, the total mass of the reactants (reacting
substances) is always equal to the total mass of the product (resulting substances)

Dalton’s atomic theory:

- All matter is made up of small particles called atoms
- Atoms cannot be created, destroyed, or divided into smaller particles
- All atoms of the same element are identical in mass and size, but different in mass and size from atoms of other
elements
- Compounds are formed when atoms of diff elements combine in fixed proportions

Ways to write a chemical equation:

- Word equation
- Skeleton equation – replacing words with chemical symbols and formulas
- Balanced chemical equation

6.1

All chemical reactions involve the release or absorption of energy

Exothermic – energy releasing reactions (ex. explosion, burning fuel, rusting iron)
- Needs a continuous input of energy
Endothermic – energy absorbing reactions (ex. cooking food (energy absorbed by food), electrolysis – the process of
separating a compound into component elements)
- Require some form of energy to start the reaction, generates heat energy by itself, without further energy
needed

Law of conservation of energy – energy can be converted from one form to another, but the total quantity of energy is
constant.

Energy is always required to break chemical bonds

Energy is always released when new bonds form

6.2

Synthesis reaction – when two or more reactants combine to produce a new product
X+Y –> XY

Decomposition reaction – when a compound breaks down into two or more simpler compounds or elements
XY –> X+Y

6.3

Single displacement reaction – when one element takes the place of (displaces) another element in a compound
A+BX –> AX+B
Or
AX+Y–>AY+X

(Activity series of metals – list of metals, in order of chemical reactivity)

Double displacement reaction – the cations of two different compounds exchange places, forming two new compounds
WX+YZ–>WZ+YX

Neutralization – a special double displacement, the reaction between an acid and a base.
Form a harmless aqueous solution of sodium chloride
Acids react with carbonates to produce carbon dioxide, then the carbonic acid decomposes.

6.4

Organic chemistry – the study of carbon containing compounds and their properties

Hydrocarbon – an organic compound that contains only carbon and hydrogen atoms. (ex. crude oil and natural gas,
95% burnt as fuel

Complete combustion – When hydrocarbons are burned in a plentiful supply of oxygen (exothermic, produces CO2,
water vapour, and generates energy)

Incomplete combustion – When hydrocarbons are burned in a poor supply of oxygen (exothermic, not as much heat
energy, CO2, water, carbon, and carbon monoxide)

Carbon monoxide grabs on to haemoglobin (haemoglobin combines with oxygen in your lungs)

7.1 Acids and Bases

As defined by Svante Arrhenius:

Acid – a substance that produces hydrogen ions in solution, H+(aq)
Base – a substance that produces hydroxide ions in solution, OH-(aq)
Indicator – chemical that changes colour as the concentration of H+(aq) or OH-(aq) changes

Acids notes:
- Some tangy and sour, many deadly
- Lactic acid (by product of cell metabolism with too little oxygen, also by mil) – builds up in muscles and
causes soreness
- Acids occur naturally in many fruits, some insects use acids to deter predators

Bases notes:
- Bitter tasting comounds with slippery feel
- Most soaps+ drain+ window cleaners are bases
- Quinine (occurs naturally in bark of cinchona tree) – base responsible for bitter taste of tonic water, used as a
drug to treat malaria
- Local anaesthetics used by dentists are bases
- Some bases are harmless, other very dangerous

Indicator notes
- Help distinguish solutions of acids or bases (usually colourless and look like water)
- Most common ones are phenolphthalein and litmus
- Litmus – a compound extracted from lichens (plant like member of the fungi kingdom)
- Litmus paper made by dipping paper in litmus solution

Oxide – a compound that consists of an element combined with only oxygen

- Oxides of many elements react with water to form an acid or a base
- You can compare chemical properties of different kinds of elements by testing their oxides

7.2

Litmus is red in acid solutions and blue in basic solutions

It will not tell you which is more acidic. A delicate balance between acids and bases is vital for organisms to survive.

Neutral water has H(aq) and OH-(aq) because a tiny number of water molecules ionise
H2O(l)H+(aq)+OH-(aq)
Neutral water must contain equal numbers of the ions (since one is a cation and the other an anion)
The double arrow shows that the reaction is reversible
Products can also combine to form reactants.

When an acid dissolves in water it produces H+(aq) ions, making more of them than OH-(aq) in the solution. It’s
concentration determines whether the acid solution is safe or dangerous. Vise versa with basic solutions. With high
concentration, just as dangerous as acidic ones.

pH scale – a measure of the acidity of a solution. (acids on left, bases on right, 0-14, 7 = neutral)
Soren Sorenson suggested it
pH stands for “power of the hydrogen ion”

Stomach acid 2, ant bites 3, acid rain 3-5, ‘pure’ rainwater 5.5, blood 7.5, sea water 8.2, detergents 10.5, drain cleaner
14

pH meter- measures an electrical property of the solution and uses this to determine the pH

Universal indicator paper – (pH paper) contains a number of indicators that turn different colours depending on the pH
of the solution
7.3

Concentration of an acid – the amount of pure acid dissolved per litre of water
Not all of the acid will ionize.

Strong acids – acids that ionize completely in water (100 percent ionization) ex. Sulfiric acid H2SO4
Weak acids – acids that only partly ionize in water ex. Acetic acid (in vinegar) CH3COOH (only one in 200 molecules
ionizes)
Strong bases – ionize completely in water
Weak bases – low percent ionization
Important acids

Sulfiric acid H2SO4 - Strong acid

- Most widely used industrial chemical
- Used to clean metals and to manufacture fertilizers and detergents
- Present in automobile batteries
Hydrochloric acid HCl(aq) - Strong acid
- Sold in hardware stores as muriatic acid
- Produced by the reaction of Sulfiric acid and brine (sodium chloride solution)
Nitric acid HNO3 - Strong acid
- Used to manufacture fertilizers, explosives, and dyes
Carbonic acid H2CO3 - Weak acid
- Present in rainwater and carbonated drinks

Important Bases

Sodium hydroxide NaOH - Strong base

- Common name is lye
- Most widely used industrial base
- Used to manufacture paper, glass, and soap
- Present in drain cleaners
Potassium hydroxide KOH - Strong base
- Used to make some liquid soaps
Calcium hydroxide CA(OH)2 - Strong base
- Used to manufacture paper and cement
Magnesium hydroxide Mg(OH)2 - Strong base
- Active ingredient in some antacids
Ammonia NH3 - Weak base
- Used to make fertilizer and cleaning solutions

7.4 Neutralization reactions

Acid + Base -> Salt + Water

Salt – An ionic compound that is produced by the reaction of an acid with a base
Because there are many different acids and bases, there are many different salts
The salt we add to our food is sodium chloride:

HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) -> NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

Swimming pool:
Chlorine compounds kill bacteria and algae, most effective is hypochlorous acid HOCl(aq)
- also used for purifying drinking water
Similar to water molecules, hypochlorous acid can enter the cells of micro organisms and kills them
- Bubbling chlorine gas through water produces hypochlorous acid
- Chlorine gas = corrosive and toxic, used in WWI
- Household bleach = good disinfection because it contains a solution of sodium hypochlorite NaOCl(aq)
- Sodium hypochlorite = much safer to handle than chlorine
- The above reacts with water to produce the hypochlorous acid needed to kill micro organisms
- Hypochlorous acid = weak acid, inoizes to form hypochlorite ions OCL-
- Charge on the hypochlorous ion prevents it from entering cells – not as effective in killing micro organisms
Ideal range of HOCl+OCl- = 7.2 to 7.8
- If pH too low, water = acidic + can make eyes sore and will attack concrete+ mortar between tiles (because
materials contain calcium carbonate)
To treat, add sodium carbonate Na2CO3
Na2Co3(s) + 2H(+)(aq) -> 2NA(+)(aq) +H2)(l) +CO2 (g)
- If pH to high, not enough to kill micro organisms
To treat, add hydrochloric acid to remove excess hydroxide ions
HCl(aq) + OH(-)(aq) -> H2)(l) + Cl(-)(aq)

Acid Rain:

All non metal oxides dissolve in water to form acidic solutions.

Club soda = pH of 5 because contains water saturated with Carbon dioxide
Same process happens with rainwater and carbon dioxide
Uncontaminated rainwater = pH of 5.5
Rainwater with a pH of less than 5.5 = Acid Rain (more acidic that expected naturally)
- Before mid-19 century books were printed on cotton. Today, wood fibre is used, but a ‘sizing agent’ must be
added to prevent ink from spreading ‘SA
- Causes paper to be slightly acidic

8.1

Rate of reaction – the time it takes for a given amount of production to form, or for a given amount of reactants to react
To determine rate, you need to be able to measure how quickly the reactants are being used up, or how quickly the
product is forming

Concentration + reaction rate

Concentration – the amount of substance in a given volume
Greater concentration of reactant particles=greater chance that collisions will occur=faster reaction rate
Decreased concentration=slower reaction rate
Ex. high concentration of oxygen = rapid combustion reaction, brightly burning flame
Surface area + reaction rate
Easier to start fire with kindling thatn logs
By exposing more surface to the oxygen in air, you increase the rate of reaction
Iron also reacts with air, pieces of iron react slowly producing rust (ironoxide) while powder used to make sparklers

Temp+Reaction rate
Lowering the thermal energy decreases the rate of reaction (ex: food spoiling slower in a fridge)

Catalysts – substances that speed up the rate of a reaction without being used up in the reaction themselves.
They lower the amount of energy needed to break the bonds, allowing them to occur more quickly
Enzymes – specialized proteins that speed up reactions in living cells (biological catalysts) ex. RNA polymerase II

8.2 Chemicals for consumers

Hydrochloric acid – Stomach acid

After a large meal (especially with a lot caffeine) your stomach secretes more acid
Excess acid can cause “heartburn” or acid indigestion, caused when acidic stomach contents are pushed into the lower
area of the esophagus, which does not have protective lining like the stomach
For immediate relief use antiacid – a base that neutralizes excess stomach acid (ex. pepto bismol)

Carbonic acid (H3CO3) found in soft drinks

Water molecules formed when hydrogen atoms and oxygen atoms share electrons in a covalent bond. The sharing of
electrons is unequal. They’re more likely to be found at the oxygen end.
Oxygen end=slightly negative
Hydrogen end=slightly positive
Polar molecule
They dissolve other substances with polar molecules and ionic substances (such as salts)
Not non-polar molecules (such as oil and grease)

Soap
Soap has an ionic head and a non-polar tail.
Tail mixes easily with non-polar substances (ex. oil) and the head interacts easily with polar ones (water)
Soap is formed by reacting a fat with a strong base (fat and ashes)
- Fat – compound made up of fatty acids and glycerol
- Fatty acids separated from glycerol and sodium or potassium from the base is added to the fatty acid
- Another product of this is glycerine – a softening agent often added to hand cream

Promlem ->combines with hard water to make a scum

Hard water – sedimentary rock, high in Mg(2+) and Ca(2+)

Ionic head: COO-

Detergents
Do not combine with magnesium and calcium, therefore no scum
S – O3(-) Na(+)
Ionic head positive ion

8.3

Everything we do involves risks and benefits (ex: chemicals may be corrosive, explosive)
Chemical industries account for 10% of all world trade
Human population increasing at alarming rate
According to UN chemical trade doubled between 1992-1998
Why this is bad
- Raw material for extracting +producing chemicals/products comes from limited source of matter. Cannot be
created or destroyed, only can change form
- During chemical reactions, atoms=conserved, may result in unwanted by products

Sulfiric Acid H2SO4(l)

- colourless, odourless, liquid in pure form
- When concentrated highly corrosive
- Usually produced industrially by ‘contact process’ (burned in the presence of oxygen, then a catalyst is used to
change the sulphur into sulphur trioxide, then reacts with water to produce the acid)
- S+O2->SO2 2SO2+O2->2SO3 SO3+H2O->H2SO4
- All chemical reactions that produce Sulfiric acid are exothermic

Nirtic Acid HNO3

- Corrosive
- When concentrated, gives of choking fumes when in contact with moist air
- Highly reactive when combined with many things (ex. alkali metals, ammonia, copper, phosphorus, many
bases)
- Known since medieval times as aqua fortis
- Made commercially using a process created in 1902 by Wilhelm Ostwad (reacting ammonia with the air in the
presence of a catalyst, platinum, to produce NO2, then reacted with water to produce the acid)
- Nitroglycerina=highly unstable explosive compound (Reaction between nitric acid and glycerol (from fats or
hydrocarbons))
- Ammonium nitrate NH4NO3 also produced by nitric acid
- Nitric acid has applications in explosives+fertilizers

Consequences:

Normal rain is slightly acidic CO2+H2)->H2CO3 (carbon dioxide reacts with water vapour)

Sulfurous acid SO2+H20->H2SO

Sulfuric acid SO3+H2O->H2SO4
Nitrous+Nitric acid 2NO2+H20->HNO2+HNO3

Adding the above to the air increases the acidity of precipitation

Acid precipitation has about the same pH as tomato juice 4.2
- Soluble in water, poses threat to bodies of water
- As pH goes down, many aquatic animals die (6-insects+more, 5-plants+microorganisms therefore food sourse)
- Below a pH of 5 all life in a lake or pond is gone
- Many monuments made from marble and limestone (contain calcium carbonate CaCO3) are easily
decomposed by Sulfiric acid
- Levels of acid pollutants highest east of Manitoba

To treat, maybe neutralize by adding limestone

To know how much/when to add 3 factors:
- Volume of water
- Chemical composition+ reactivity of its rocks and soil
- Turnover time – the time needed for all the water in a lake to be replaced naturally (if too short, liming may
have to be repeated too much)
Adding limestone doesn’t restore the natural chemical balance, may kill plants sensitive to levels of calcium
Better to control emissions
Scrubbers – put on smokestacks of many industrial plants
- Scrubbers remove most sulphur dioxide which burns through, by reacting it with calcium oxide or lime
- Can remove up to 95% of sulphur dioxide

Another way to reduce emissions, is to remove sulphur from fuel

Hydrogen sulphide can be eliminated by removing the gas from the fuels and reacting it with oxygen to produce
sulphur dioxide
2H2S+3O2->2H2O+2SO2
Then reacted with more hydrogen sulphide with a catalyst to produce water and elemental sulphur
SO2+2H2S->2H2)+3S
-fuels=more expensive but good for environment.