European Journal of Scientific Research

ISSN 1450-216X Vol.40 No.1 (2010), pp.144 -155

© EuroJournals Publishing, Inc. 2010
http://www.eurojournals.com/ejsr.htm

Experiment Analysis of Flat Plate Collector and

Comparison of Performance with Tracking Collector

P. Rhushi Prasad
Department of Mechanical Engineering, GSS Institute of Technology, Bangalore
E-mail: rhushi_bec@rediffmail.com
Mb: 9480345138

H.V. Byregowda
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Ghousia College of Engineering College, Ramanagaram
E-mail: hvbgowda15@rediffmail.com

P.B. Gangavati
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Basaveshwara Engineering College, Bagalkot
E-mail: pbgangavati123@rediffmail.com

Abstract

Application of solar energy for domestic and industrial heating purposes has been
become very popular. However the effectiveness of presently used fixed flat plate
collectors is low due to the moving nature of the energy source. In the present work, an
attempt has been made to compare the performance of fixed flat plate water heater with that
of heater with tracking by conducting experiments.
A flat plate water heater, which is commercially available with a capacity of 100
liters/day is instrumented and developed into a test-rig to conduct the experimental work.
Experiments were conducted for a week during which the atmospheric conditions were
almost uniform and data was collected both for fixed and tracked conditions of the flat
plate collector. The results show that there is an average increase of 4oC in the outlet
temperature. The efficiency of both the conditions was calculated and the comparison
shows that there is an increase of about 21% in the percentage of efficiency.

Keywords: Flat plate Collector, Tracking, Efficiency, Water Heater.

1. Introduction
In the solar-energy industry great emphasis has been placed on the development of "passive" solar
energy systems, which involve the integration of several subsystems: Flat Plate collectors, heat-storage
containers, fluid transport and distribution systems, and control systems. The major component unique
to passive systems is the Flat plate collector. This device absorbs the incoming solar radiation,
converting it into heat at the absorbing surface, and transfers this heat to a fluid (water) flowing
through the Flat plate collector. The warmed fluid carries the heat either directly to the hot water or to a
storage subsystem from which can be drawn for use at night and on cloudy days.
Since 1900, a large number of solar collector designs have been shown to be functional; these
have fallen into two general classes:
Experiment Analysis of Flat Plate Collector and Comparison of Performance with
Tracking Collector 145

• Flat plate collectors: in which the absorbing surface is approximately as large as

the overall collector area that intercepts the sun's rays.
• Concentrating collectors: in which large areas of mirrors or lenses focus the Sunlight
onto a smaller absorber.
Since of energy crisis, there has been effort to develop new energy sources as a way to solve
energy problem and at of there, solar energy has received special attention. The resource why solar
energy has not been utilized as energy source for generating large power is considered as follows. The
energy generated depends too much on time and seams to supply a stable power needed for a
secondary energy source. It will require and enormous cost of equipment to effectively take energy at
of such a moving energy source as the sun, and the energy cost obtained from the sun is comparatively
high at present.
However, as a result of increase of prices of fossil and nuclear fuels, a feasibility of solar
energy as a new energy source can be increased, when a very high energy conversion efficiency and a
reduction of cost of equipment is obtained, due above reasons, solar energy is one of the best possible
and easily available energy. For the betterment of mankind, now a day for various applications with
solar energy are in use still. Lot of research work is going on to use the available solar energy to
maximum extent. One such area is tracking mechanism to obtain maximum energy. Just by keeping the
collector fixed; it is not possible to get maximum energy from sun. It is possible to obtain the
maximum energy only when it is rotated along the sun direction. In this context, tracking plays an
important role. Tracking is desirable for orienting a solar device towards the sun there by collecting
maximum solar energy and improving efficiency. This advantageous to water heater collector
applications and this mechanism has been found more advantages than fixed flat plate collector.

2. Flat Plate Collectors

Of the many solar collector concepts presently being developed, the relatively simple flat plate solar
collector has found the widest application so far. Its characteristics are known, and compared with
other collector types, it is the easiest and least expensive to fabricate, install, and maintain. Moreover,
it is capable of using both the diffuse and the direct beam solar radiation. For residential and
commercial use, flat plate collectors can produce heat at sufficiently high temperatures to heat
swimming pools, domestic hot water, and buildings; they also can operate a cooling unit, particularly if
the incident sunlight is increased by the use of a reflector. Flat plate collectors easily attain
temperatures of 40 to 70ºC. With very careful engineering using special surfaces, reflectors to increase
the incident radiation, and heat-resistant materials, higher operating temperatures are feasible.
The main components of a flat plate solar collector (Fig. 1.1) are:
• Absorber plate made of any material, which will rapidly absorb heat from sun's rays
and quickly transfer that heat to the tubes or fins attached in some manner, which
produces a good thermal bond.
• Tubes or fins for conducting or directing the heat transfer fluid from the inlet header or
duct to the outlet.
• Glazing, this may be one or more sheets of glass or a diathermanous (radiation
transmitting) plastic film or sheet.
• Thermal insulation, which minimizes downward heat loss from the plate.
• Cover strip, to hold the other components in position and make it all Watertight.
• Container or Casing, which surrounds the foregoing components and keeps them free
from dust, moisture, etc.

Flat plate solar collectors are classified into:

• Water-type (hydronic) collectors, using water as the heat-transfer fluid, and
146 P. Rhushi Prasad, H.V. Byregowda and P.B. Gangavati

• Air-type collectors, using air as the heat-transfer fluid.

Figure 1.1: Components of a flat plate solar collector

Fig. 1.2 (a) shows a few of the very large number of flat plate solar collectors (hydronic and air-
type), which are currently used. In this figure, diagrams A (1, 2) show conventional liquid heaters with
the tubes soldered or otherwise fastened to upper or lower surfaces of metal sheets. Clips, clamps,
twisted wires; thermal cements and many other devices have been tried with varying success.
Diagram A3 shows a bonded sheet design in which the tubes are integral with the sheet, thus
guaranteeing a good thermal connection between the absorber plate and the tubes. This process is
widely used commercially for producing radiators and other heat exchangers.
Diagrams B and D show different ways in which galvanized steel sheets have been fastened
together to make watertight containers with individual fluid passages.
Diagram C shows the concept of using parallel sheets of copper, aluminum or Galvanized steel,
which are dimpled and fastened together at intervals by spot welding or riveting. All of the non-tubular
types are limited in the pressure, which they can sustain, and in general they are not suited for use with
high line pressures
In diagram F, shown is the use of tubing with rectangular or circular cross-section bonded on
the plate; rectangular cross-section obtains more contact between the tube and the plate. Mechanical
pressure, thermal cement or brazing may be used to make the actual assembly.
Experiment Analysis of Flat Plate Collector and Comparison of Performance with
Tracking Collector 147

Figure 1.2.a: Types of flat plate solar collectors (absorber plate sections)

Figure 1.2.b: Types of air type solar collectors (absorber plate sections)

The heating of air or other gases can be done readily with the flat-plate collector, particularly if
some type of extended surface (G) can be used to overcome the low values of the heat transfer
coefficient between metal and air. Matrix-type material (H) and many other approaches have been used
to provide a means of trapping and absorbing the incoming solar radiation and providing a large
contact area between the absorber material and the air (Fig. 1.2 (b)).

3.0. Materials for Solar Energy Collectors

This section describes briefly some of the principal requirements for and the Properties of materials
employed in solar collectors used for the transformation of solar energy into thermal energy.
148 P. Rhushi Prasad, H.V. Byregowda and P.B. Gangavati

Diathermanous Materials (Glazing)

The term "diathermanous" is applied to materials capable of transmitting radiant energy, including
solar energy. From the standpoint of the utilization of solar energy, the important characteristics are
reflection (ρ), absorption (α), and transmission (τ). The first two should be as low as possible and the
latter as high as possible for maximum efficiency. According to the law of conservation of energy, the
relationship between the absorbed, reflected and transmitted energy is:
α+ρ+τ=1
Where, α is the solar absorptance, i.e. the fraction of the incident solar radiation absorbed by a
substance.
ρ is the solar reflectance, i.e. the fraction of the incident solar radiation reflected by a surface.
τ is the solar transmittance, i.e. the fraction of the incident solar radiation transmitted through a
non-opaque substance.
The relative magnitudes of α, ρ and τ not only vary with the temperature, the surface
characteristics, body geometry, and the material but also vary with wavelength. Solids and liquids are
usually opaque in most engineering applications, and transmittance τ for this type of matter is zero.
Gases, on the other hand, reflect very little, and ρ can therefore be neglected in a majority of problems.
The purpose of the glazing is to admit as much solar radiation as possible and to reduce the
upward loss of heat to the lowest attainable value. Glass has been the principal material used to glaze
solar collectors because it has the highly desirable property of transmitting as much as 90% of the
incoming short-wave radiation (solar), while virtually none of the long wave radiation emitted by the
flat plate can escape outward by transmission. Glass of low iron content has a relatively high
transmittance (0.85 - 0.90 at normal incidence) for the solar spectrum from 0.30 to 3.0μ, but its
transmittance is essentially surfaces (3.0 - 50μ).
Plastic films and sheets also posses high short wave transmittance, but, because most of the
usable varieties possess transmission bands in the middle of the thermal radiation spectrum, they may
have long wave transmittances as high as spectrum, they may have long wave transmittances as high as
0.40.
Plastics are also generally limited in the temperatures, which they can sustain without
undergoing dimensional changes. Only a few of the varieties now available can withstand the sun's
ultra-violet radiation for long periods of time. They possess the advantage of being able to withstand
hail and other stones, and in the form of thin films, they are completely flexible.
The glass that is generally used in solar collectors may be either single-strength (2.0 to 2.5 mm
thick) or double-strength (3.0 - 3.5 mm). The commercially available grades of window or greenhouse
will have normal incidence transmittances of about 0.87 and 0.85 respectively.
For clear glass such as that used for solar collectors the 4% reflectance from each glass-air
interface is the most important factor in reducing transmission, although a gain of about 3% in
transmittance can be obtained by the use of water-white glass. Antireflection coatings of the kind used
for camera and telescope lenses also can make significant improvement in transmission, but the cost of
the process presently available is prohibitively high.
The effect of dirt and dust on collector glazing is surprisingly small, and the cleansing effect of
occasional rain seems to be adequate to maintain the transmittance within 2 - 4% of its maximum
value. In addition to servicing as a heat trap by admitting short-wave solar radiation and retaining long
wave thermal radiation, the glazing also reduces heat loss by convection. The insulating effect of the
glazing is enhanced by the use of several sheets of glass or glass plus plastic.
Experiment Analysis of Flat Plate Collector and Comparison of Performance with
Tracking Collector 149

Table 1.1: Glazing Materials

Material Transmittance (τ)

• Crystal glass 0.91
• Window glass 0.85
• Polymethyl methacrylate (acrylic) (Acrylate, Lucite, Plexiglass) 0.89
• Polycarbonate (Lexan, Merlon) 0.84
• Polyethylene terephthalate (polyester) Mylar) 0.84
• Polyvinyl fluoride (Tedlar) 0.93
• Polyamide (Kapton) 0.80
• Fluorinated ethylene propylene (FEP Teflon) 0.96
• Fiberglass-reinforced polyester (Kalwall) 0.87

Table 1.1 gives transmittances for various glazing materials when the direct solar beam is
perpendicular to the glazing because the angle of the direct beam varies a somewhat lower value of τ
are usually used. Exact value depends also on the thickness of the glazing.

4.0. Absorber Plates

The primary function of the absorber plate is to absorb as much as possible of the radiation reaching
through the glazing, to loose as little heat as possible upward to the atmosphere and downward through
the back of the container, and to transfer the retained heat to the circulating fluid. In general, absorption
of solar energy impinging on an absorber plate should be as high as possible, but re-emission (loss)
outward from the collector should be minimized.
In hydronic collectors the absorber is usually made of copper, aluminum or steel. Factors that
determine the choice of absorber material are its thermal conductivity, its durability and ease of
handling, its availability and cost, and the energy required to produce it.
Absorber plates are usually given a surface coating (which may be a black paint) that increases
the fraction of available solar radiation absorbed by the plate (its absorptance α). Black paints, for
which α = 0.92 to 0.98, are usually applied by spraying and are then heat-treated to evaporate solvents
and improve adherence. These surfaces must be able to withstand repeated and prolonged exposure to
high temperatures without appreciable deterioration or out gassing.
It is well known that a black body is a perfect absorber of radiant energy and is a perfect
radiator; that is, it has an absorptance α and an emittance ε, each equal to unity (emittance is the ratio
of the amount of radiation emitted by the surface to the amount of "blackbody" or perfect radiator
would emit at the same temperature). Actual surfaces do not behave like perfect absorbers or perfect
radiators and have absorptance and emittance less than unity. Parenthetically, it may be pointed out
that a black body is not necessarily non-luminous but may be as bright as the sun (which is not quite a
black body). The term merely indicates a surface that is a perfect radiator and a perfect absorber.
According to Kirchoff's law, at thermal equilibrium the absorptance and emittance of a body are the
same.
The emittance of a surface varies with its temperature and its roughness. If it is a metal, it
depends also on its degree of oxidation. Highly polished metals have low emittance, provided
oxidation and surface imperfections are kept to a minimum. The absorptance of a surface depends on
the same factors as the emittance and, strictly speaking, on the distribution of wavelengths in the
spectrum of incident radiation. If the character of the absorbing surface is such that its absorptance is
independent of the distribution of incident wavelengths, it is called grey, and its absorptance and
emittance are the same even though thermal equilibrium does not exist - that is, even though the
temperatures of the radiator and the receiver are not the same. Evidently, if the difference in
temperature between an emitting and an absorbing surface is small, grey body conditions can be
150 P. Rhushi Prasad, H.V. Byregowda and P.B. Gangavati

assumed with little error. For example, room temperatures and the temperatures attained by solar
collectors or by ordinary radiators are nearly enough alike to permit each to be considered "grey".
Table 1.2 gives values of absorptance and infrared (IR) emittance for various Materials; it also
gives values of reflectance. It is noteworthy that many common building materials have excellent
emitting surfaces for long wave radiation.

Table 1.2: Solar absorptance, Infrared emittance and Reflectance for various surfaces.

Material α ρ ε α/ε
White plaster 0.07 0.93 0.91 0.08
Fresh snow 0.13 0.87 0.82 0.16
White paint 0.20 0.80 0.91 0.22
White enamel 0.35 0.65 0.90 0.39
Green paint 0.50 0.50 0.90 0.56
Red brick 0.55 0.45 0.90 0.60
Concrete 0.60 0.40 0.92 0.68
Grey paint 0.75 0.25 0.88 0.79
Black tar paper 0.93 0.07 0.93 1.00
Flat black paint 0.96 0.04 0.88 1.09
3M Velvet black paint 0.98 0.02 0.90 1.09
Granite 0.55 0.45 0.44 1.25
Graphite 0.78 0.22 0.41 1.90
Aluminum foil 0.15 0.85 0.05 3.00
Galvanized steel 0.65 0.35 0.13 5.00

5.0. Selective Absorber

A surface that has a high absorptance and is a good absorber of solar radiation usually has a high
infrared emittance as well and is a good radiator of heat. A flat-black paint that absorbs 96% of the
incoming solar energy will also reradiate much of the energy as heat, the exact amount depending on
the temperature of the absorber plate and the glazing. Ideally, one would like a surface to be selective,
absorbing all the solar wavelengths and emitting none of the heat wavelengths, so that more heat could
be transferred to the working fluid; for such a surface, α = 1 and ε = 0. Selective absorbers can be
manufactured that approach this ideal, and several are available commercially (Table 1.3).
Selective absorbers often consist of a very thin black metallic oxide on a bright metal base. The
oxide coating is thick enough to act as a good absorber, with α = 0.95, but it is essentially transparent
to longer wavelength heat radiation, neither absorbing nor emitting much of the 3 to 30 micron
radiation. On the other hand, the bright metal base of the absorber surface has a low infrared emittance
and radiates very little heat. The combination, in effect, gives a surface that is a good absorber but a
poor radiator. As a result, the efficiency of the collector is greater when this type of surface is used.
To date, the most successful and stable selective absorber is made by electroplating a layer of
nickel onto the absorber plate and then electrodepositing an extremely thin layer of chromium oxide
onto the nickel. This combination is more resistant to water damage than the commonly used nickel-
oxide coating. The manufacturing processes by which selective coatings are applied tend to make
selective absorbers expensive. Eventually, innovations in methods and materials may bring the cost
down.
Experiment Analysis of Flat Plate Collector and Comparison of Performance with
Tracking Collector 151

Table 1.3: Properties of Selective Coatings

Selective Coatings α ε α/ε

Black Chrome 0.93 0.10 9.3
Black Nickel on polished nickel 0.92 0.11 8.4
Black Nickel on galvanized iron 0.89 0.12 7.4
CuO on nickel 0.81 0.17 4.7
Co3O4 on silver 0.90 0.27 3.3
CuO on aluminum 0.93 0.11 8.5
CuO on anodized aluminum 0.85 0.11 7.7

6.0. Thermal Insulation

Flat-plate collectors must be insulated to reduce conduction and convection losses through the back
and sides of the collector box. The insulation material should be dimensionally and chemically stable at
high temperatures, and resistant to weathering and dampness from condensation. Usually, glass-wool
insulation 10 cm thick is recommended. it would be between if the insulation also could contribute to
the structural rigidity of the collector, but more rigid insulating materials are often less stable than
glass-wool. Temperatures in flat-plate solar collectors can be high enough to melt some foam
insulations, such as Styrofoam. And some foam give off corrosive frames at high temperatures, which
could damage the absorber plate.

7.0. Experimental Setup

Experimental setup for the above said task is as shown in figure 1.3. It contains hot water storage tank,
flat plate collector. Cold water from the overhead tank enters the hot water storage tank. Water from
the hot water storage tank enters the flat plate collector. Water gets heated in the risers of the flat plate
collector and its density will decrease the lighter density water move up and stored in the hot water
storage tank. Higher density water from the bottom of the tank again enters the flat plate collector and
gets heated and moves up and stored in the hot water storage tank and vice-versa. Hot water can be
drawn from the hot water storage tank for further application. The flat plate collector has been placed
on the shaft with two ball bearings an either side of the shaft for tracking purpose.
Increase in percentage of efficiency is equal to (19.93 – 23.92) / 19.93*100 = 21%

7.1. Test Procedure

Two identical single cover flat plate collector were placed with an angle at 28º to the horizontal
towards south facing. One collector is fixed and other one is tilted manually for every two hours with
an angle of 30º for improving collector efficiency.
Inlet temperature of the water and temperature of the hot water in the storage tank were
tabulated on hourly basis, both the collector efficiency of the collectors were calculated.
152 P. Rhushi Prasad, H.V. Byregowda and P.B. Gangavati
Figure 1.3: Experimental Set up

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF FLAT PLATE COLLECTOR

COLD WATER INLET

HOT WATER
STORAGE TANK HOT WATER
OUTLET

FLAT PLATE
COLLECTOR
STAND

7.2. Specification of Flat Plate Collector

1. Length of the collector = 2m
2. Width of the collector = 1m
3. Length of the absorber plate = 1.95m
4. Width of the absorber plate = 0.95m
5. Material of the absorber plate = Copper
6. Thermal conductivity of the plate material = 386 W/mK
7. Density of the plate material = 8954 kg/m3
8. Plate thickness = 34 gauge
9. Diameter of the tube = 6.35m
10. Tube center to center distance = 100mm
11. Number of tubes used = 9
12. Glass cover emissivity/absorptivity = 0.85
13. Refractive index of glass relative to air = 1.5
14. Diameter of header pipes = 12.7mm
15. Insulating material used = Glass-wool
16. Thermal conductivity of insulating material = 32.2*10.3 W/mK
17. Density of insulating material = 200 kg/m3
18. Material of collector tray = Mild steel
19. Thermal conductivity of collector tray = 53.6 W/mK
20. Density of collector tray = 7833 kg/m3
21. Location of collector tray = Chickballapur (12º)

7.3. Efficiency Calculation

Average Solar radiation received by earth in terms of energy R = 900 W/m2/Hr.
Solar radiation received by earth in 7 hours in terms of energy R = 900*7 W/m2/day
R = 6300 Wh/m2
R = 22680000 W Sec/m2, where
A = Area of Flat plate collector in m2
T1 = Temperature of water at inlet in ºC
Experiment Analysis of Flat Plate Collector and Comparison of Performance with
Tracking Collector 153

T2 = Temperature of water at outlet in ºC

Mass of water taken in the storage tank = 100 kg
Specific heat of water = 4.182 KJ/KG ºK
Area of the flat plate collector,
A = L*W m2
= 1.95*0.95
= 1.8525 m2
Radiation receive by collector,
R1 = R*A
= 22680000*1.8525
= 43014700 Joules
Output of the Stationary Collector
Q = M*Cp*(T2 – T1)
= 100*4.187*103*(42 – 22)
= 8374000 Joules
Output of the partially rotating Collector
Q = M*Cp*(T2 – T1)
= 100*4.187*103*(46 – 22)
= 10048800 Joules
Efficiency of fixed flat plate collector
η = Output of the collector / Input Radiation
η = M*Cp*(T2 – T1) / R*A
= 8374000 Joules / 43014700 Joules
= 19.93%
Efficiency of the partially rotating Collector
η = Output of the collector / Input Radiation
η = M*Cp*(T2 – T1) / R*A
= 10048800 Joules / 43014700 Joules
= 23.92%

Comparison of Efficiencies of Fixed and Partially Rotating Flat Plate Collectors

Efficiency of fixed flat plate Efficiency of the partially rotating Increase in Percentage of efficiency
collector Collector due to tracking
19.93% 23.92% 21%

From the above calculation, we can conclude that by providing the manual tracking system to
the collector with respect to solar beam we can improve the efficiency of the system and it can also be
concluded that if we provide the continuous automatic tracking system to the collector, in terms of
azimuth angle and altitude, we can still improve the efficiency of the system.
154 P. Rhushi Prasad, H.V. Byregowda and P.B. Gangavati

8.0. Result and Discussions

DATE: 05 – 06 – 2007

Outlet temperature of stationary Outlet temperature of tracking

Time in Hours
collector (T2ºC) collector (T2ºC)
9:30 30 30
10:30 33 34
11:30 37 37
12:30 41 42
13:30 44 46
14:30 47 50
15:30 48 52
16:30 48 51
Average Temperature 42.5 47.8

Average global Radiation 878 WH/m2

Average Wind Speed = 5.1 Km/hr

DATE: 07– 06 – 2007

Time in Hours Outlet temperature of stationary Outlet temperature of tracking

collector (T2ºC) collector (T2ºC)
9:30 30 30
10:30 33 34
11:30 37 37
12:30 42 42
13:30 46 46
14:30 48 50
15:30 50 52
16:30 51 55
Average Temperature 42.12 43.25

Average global Radiation 1089 WH/m2

Average Wind Speed = 5.3 Km/hr
Experiment Analysis of Flat Plate Collector and Comparison of Performance with
Tracking Collector 155

Acknowledgement
We thank the Principal Dr. H.S. Ningappa for encouraging and providing facilities in pursuing the
Work at BGS R and D center, Department of Mechanical Engineering, SJCIT, Chickaballapura.

9.0. Conclusion
From the above results, it has been found that the system provided with manually tracking has got
higher efficiency than the fixed flat plate collector by 21%. Hence Flat plate collector with tracking
method utilizes maximum beam radiation and gives high efficiency when compared to fixed flat plate
collector.

References
[1] Rumala.S.N. 1986, A shadow method of automatic Tracking.
[2] Patil.J.V.1996. Design and fabrication of the two axes tracking system.
[3] Neville.R.C solar energy,1978
[4] Drago.P Solar energy
[5] ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals, New York (1981).
[6] ASHRAE, 1986
[7] Carg H. P. Treatise on solar energy; Volume 1: Fundamentals of solar energy. John Wiley,
New York (1982).
[8] Duffie J. A. and Beckman W. A. Solar Engineering of Thermal Processes. John Wiley, New
York (1991).