AP NSL Chapter 11 Congress

CongressVersusParliament I. ApersonbecomesacandidateforrepresentativeorsenatorintheU.S.Congressbyrunningina primaryelection.Exceptinafewplaces,politicalpartiesexerciselittlecontroloverthechoiceover whoisnominatedtorunforcongressionaloffice. A. Votersselectcandidatesintheprimariesbecauseoftheirpersonalities,positionsonissues, oroverallreputation. B. Parliamenttendstobemadeupofpeopleloyaltothenationalpartyissues.Acongresstends tobemadeupofpeoplewhothinkofthemselvesasindependentrepresentativesoftheir districtswhoexpecttovoteastotheirownconstituents. II. ThefactthatmembersofCongressdonotselectthepresidentmakesthemmorepowerful. Representativescanvotewithoutworryingthattheirvoteswillcausethegovernmenttocollapseand withoutfearingthatafailuretosupporttheirpartywillleadtotheirremovalfromtheballotinthe nextelection. A. Congresshasindependentpowersthatitcanexercisewithoutregardtopresidential preferences.Politicalpartiesdonotcontrolnominationsforoffice,andthustheycannot disciplinemembersCongresswhofailtosupportthepartyleadership. III. MembersofCongresscaninitiate,modify,approve,orrejectlaws,andtheysharewiththepresident supervisionoftheadministrativeagenciesofthegovernment. A. Congresstendstobeadecentralizedinstitution,witheachmembermoreinterestedinhisor herownviewsandthoseofhisorhervotersthanwiththeprogramsproposedbythe president. TheEvolutionofCongress I. TheFramerschosetocreateabicamerallegislaturewithaHouseofRepresentatives,tobeelected directlybythepeople,andaSenate,consistingoftwomembersfromeachstate,tobechosenbythe legislaturesofeachstate.ThoughalllegislativepowersweretobevestedinCongress,thosepowers wouldbesharedwiththepresident,limitedtopowersexplicitlyconferredonthefederalgovernment, andsubjecttothepoweroftheSupremeCourttodeclareactsofCongressunconstitutional. II. IfCongressweretoactquicklyanddecisivelyasabody,thentherewouldhavetobestrongcentral leadership,restrictionsfordebates,fewopportunitiesforstallingtactics,andminimalcommittee interference.Iftheinterestsofindividualmembersweretobeprotectedorenhanced,thenthere wouldhavetobeweakleadership,rulesallowingfordelayanddiscussion,andmanyopportunitiesfor committeeactivity. A. Thegeneraltrendinthiscenturyhasbeentowarddecentralizingdecisionmakingand enhancingthepoweroftheindividualmemberattheexpenseofthecongressional leadership. III. TheHouseofRepresentativeshasoftenchangedthewayinwhichitisorganizedandled. A. TheHousefacesfundamentalproblems:itwantstobebothbigandpowerful,andits memberswanttobepowerfulbothasindividualsandasagroup.Butbeingbigmakesithard fortheHousetobepowerfulunlesssomesmallgroupisgivenauthoritytorunit. B. Ifagrouprunstheplace,however,theindividualmemberslackmuchpower.Individualscan gainpower,butonlyattheexpenseofmakingtheHousehardertorunandthusreducingthe collectivepoweringovernment. IV. TheSenatedoesnotfacetheseproblems.Itissmallenoughthatitcanberunwithoutgivingmuch authoritytoanysmallgroupofleaders. A. FromthefirsttheSenatewassmallenoughthatnotimelimitshadtoplacedonhowlonga senatorcouldspeak.ThismeantthatthereneverasanythingliketheRulesCommitteethat controlledtheamountofdebate. B. ThebigchangesintheSenatecamenotfromanyfightabouthowtorunit,butfroma disputeoverhowitsmembersshouldbechosen.Thenumberofwealthypartyleadersand businesspeopleintheSenateledtoademandfordirect,popularelectionofSenators.

C. The17thAmendmentwasapprovedin1913,makingelectiondeterminedbyapopularvote. V. TheothermajorissueinthedevelopmentoftheSenatewasthefilibusteraprolongedspeech,or seriesofspeeches,madetothedelayactionofalegislativeassembly. A. FilibustershadbecomeacommonandunpopularfeatureofSenatelifebytheendofthe nineteenthcentury.Itwasusedbyliberalsandconservativesalike. B. Rule22wasadoptedbyaSenatefearfuloftyingapresidentshandsduringawartimecrisis. Theruleprovidedthatdebatecouldbecutoffif2/3ofthesenatorspresentandvoting agreedtoacloturemotion. WhoisinCongress? I. WiththepowersodecentralizedinCongress,thekindofpersonelectedtoitisespeciallyimportant. Sinceeachmemberexercisessomeinfluence,thebeliefsandinterestsofeachindividualaffectpolicy. SexandRace I. Congresshasgraduallybecomelessmaleandlesswhite. Incumbency I. ThemostimportantchangethathasoccurredinthecompositionofCongresshasbeensogradualthat mostpeoplehavenotnoticedit.Inthenineteenthcentury,alargerfractionofcongressmenserved onlyoneterm.Beingacongressmaninthosedayswasnotregardedasacareer. A. Thiswasinpartbecausethefederalgovernmentwasnotveryimportant,inpartbecause traveltoWashingtonwasdifficult,andinpartbecausebeingacongressmandidnotpaywell. Furthermore,manycongressionaldistrictswerehighlycompetitive,withthetwopartiesfairly balancedineach. B. Bythe1950s,servinginCongresshadbecomeacareer.Asthepublictooknoteofthisshift, peoplebegantocomplainaboutprofessionalpoliticiansbeingoutoftouchwiththe people.Amovementtoimposetermlimitswasstarted. II. Thearrivalofscoresofnewfacesinthe1990sshouldnotobscurethefactthatincumbentsstillenjoy enormousadvantages,andmostHousemembersstillwinbigintheirdistricts. A. Districtsthathavecloseelectionsarecalledmarginaldistrictsanddistrictswhereincumbents winbywidemarginsarecalledsafedistricts.MostHousedistrictsaresafe. Party I. DemocratstendtodominateCongress.ThisismostlybecauseDemocratstendtodobetterinlow turnoutdistricts,whiletheRepublicansdowellinhighturnoutdistricts. A. TheadvantagesofincumbencybecamemorepronouncedduringatimewhenDemocrats controlledtheCongress. B. Democratsgenerallyhavemoreexperiencedcongressionalcandidates,havemoreclosely reflecteddistrictlevelvotersrightspolicypreferences,andhavebeenabletofashion winning,districtlevelcoalitionsfromamongnationalDemocraticconstituencies. II. Bythe1990stheadvantagesofincumbencyhadturnedintodisadvantages:votersincreasinglycame todislikeprofessionalpoliticians,whomtheyheldresponsibleforthemessinWashington.The DemocratswerethemajoritypartyinCongresswhenthishappened. A. Theantiincumbentmood,coupledwiththeeffectsofredistrictingafterthe1990censusand theshiftoftheSouthtotheRepublicanparty,broughttheRepublicansintopowerinthe HouseandSenateinthe1994elections. III. InthepasttheDemocraticpartywasmoredeeplydividedthantheRepublicans,becauseofthe presenceinCongressofconservativeDemocratsfromtheSouth.OftenthesesouthernDemocrats wouldvotewithRepublicans,therebyformingaconservativecoalition. A. Sincethe1980s,theconservativecoalitionhasbecomemuchlessimportant.Congresshas sincebecomemoreideologicallypartisanandcreatedmorepartyunityinvoting. DoMembersRepresentTheirVoters I. Memberscaninfluencelegislationinmanywaysotherthanvoting:theycanconducthearings,help markupbillsincommitteemeetings,andofferamendmentstothebillsproposedbyothers. II. TherearethreetheoriesabouthowmembersofCongressbehave:representational,organizational, andattitudinal. A. Therepresentationalexplanationisbasedontheassumptionthatmemberswanttobe

reelected,andthereforetheyvotetopleaseconstituents. B. Theorganizationalexplanationisbasedontheassumptionthatsinceconstituentsdonot knowhowtheirlegislatorhasvoted,itisnotimportanttopleasethem.Butitisimportantto pleasefellowmembersofCongress,whosegoodwillisvaluableingettingthingsdoneandin acquiringstatusandpowerinCongress. C. Theattitudinalexplanationisbasedontheassumptionthattherearesomanyconflicting pressuresonmembersofCongressthattheycanceleachotherout,leavingthemvirtually freetovoteonthebasisoftheirownbeliefs. RepresentationalView I. Therepresentationalviewhasthemostmeritwhenconstituentshaveaclearviewonsomeissueand alegislatorsvoteonthatissueislikelytoattracttheirattention.Thistendstooccuroncivilrights bills. II. Theproblemwiththerepresentationalviewisthatpublicopinionisnotstrongorclearonmost measures. OrganizationalView I. Whenvotingonmatterwhereconstituencyinterestsoropinionsarenotvitallyatstake,membersof Congressrespondprimarilytocuesprovidedbytheircolleagues. A. CuescomefromtheopinionsofcolleagueswithwhomthememberofCongressfeelsaclose ideologicalaffinity. AttitudinalView I. OnmanyissuestheaveragememberoftheHousehasopinionsclosetothoseoftheaveragevoter. Senatorsareoftenlessintunewithpublicopinion. II. TheSenatehasgonethroughthreephases.Inthefirst,duringthe1950sandearly1960s,itwasa cautious,conservativeinstitutiondominatedbysouthernsenatorsanddisplayingmanyofthefeatures ofaclubthatwelcomedmembersintotheinnercircleonlyaftertheyhaddisplayedloyaltytoits customs. A. Thesecondperiodbeganinthemid1960sasliberalsenatorsrosesteadilyinnumber, seniority,andinfluence.ThedecentralizationoftheSenategavemorepowertoindividual senators,includingliberals. B. Thethirdperiodbeganinthelate1970sandbecamemostvisibleafterthe1980elections, whenmanyliberallosttheirseatstoconservativeRepublicans.Theconservatismofthe presentSenateisbasedmoreonideologythanontherulesofthesouthernclubthat characterizeditintheearly1950s. III. TheDemocraticpartyismoredeeplydividedthantheRepublicans.Thereareonlyafewliberal Republicans,buttherearemanyconservativeDemocrats. IdeologyandCivilityinCongress I. Congresshasbecomeanincreasinglyideologicalorganization.Ithasbecomemorepolarizedthan votersintermsofpoliticalbeliefs. A. OneresultofthispolarizationisthatmembersofCongress,especiallythoseintheHouse,do notgetalongaswellastheyoncedidwithmemberswhodisagreewiththem,andtheyare morelikelytochallengeoneanother. TheOrganizationofCongress:PartiesandCaucuses I. Congressisavastcollectionoforganizationsbywhichthebusinessofthelegislativebranchiscarried onandthroughwhichitsmembersformalliances. II. TheDemocratsandRepublicansintheHouseandtheSenateareorganizedbypartyleaders.Thekey leadersinturnareelectedbythefullpartymembershipwithintheHouseandSenate. PartyOrganizationoftheSenate I. Themajoritypartychoosesoneofitsmembersusuallythepersonwiththegreatestsenioritytobe presidentoftheSenate.Itislargelyanhonorificposition,requiredbytheConstitutionsothatthe SenatewillhaveapresidingofficerintheabsenceofthevicepresidentoftheUnitedStates. II. Therealleadershipisthehandsofthemajorityleader(chosenbythesenatorsofthemajorityparty) andtheminorityleader(chosenbythesenatorsoftheotherparty).Thesenatorsofeachpartyalso electawhip.

A. TheprincipaltaskofthemajorityleaderistoschedulethebusinessoftheSenate.Hehasthe righttoberecognizedfirstinanyfloordebate. B. Thewhipisasenatorwhohelpsthepartyleaderstayinformedaboutwhatpartymembers arethinking,roundsupmemberswhenimportantvotesaretobetaken,andattemptsto keepanosecountonhowthevotingonacontroversialissueislikelytogo. III. EachpartyalsochoosesaPolicyCommitteecomposedofadozensenatorswhohelpthepartyleader scheduleSenatebusiness,choosingwhatbillsaretobegivenattentionandinwhatorder. IV. Fromthepointofviewofindividualsenators,thekeypartyorganizationisthegroupthatassigns senatorstothestandingcommitteesoftheSenate. A. Theseassignmentsareveryimportanttonewlyelectedsenators. B. HavingatinymajorityintheSenatedoesnotaffectmostimportantvotessincetheotherside canfilibuster,buthavingyourownpartycontrolthechairmanshipsisveryimportantbecause ithelpsdeterminewhatissueswillgettothefloorforavote. V. Thekeyaspectofselectingpartyleaders,ofmakinguptheimportantpartycommittees,andof assigningfreshmensenatorstoSenatecommitteesisachievingideologicalandregionalbalance. PartyStructureintheHouse I. LeadershipcarriesmorepowerintheHousethanintheSenatebecauseoftheHouserules.Beingso large,theHousemustrestrictdebateandscheduleitsbusinesswithgreatcare;thusleaderswhodo theschedulingandwhodeterminehowtherulesshallbeappliedusuallyhavesubstantialinfluence. II. TheSpeakeristhemostimportantpersonintheHouse.Heiselectedbywhicheverpartyhasthe majority,andhepresidesoverallHousemeetings. A. Heistheprincipalleaderofthemajoritypartyaswellasthepresidingofficeroftheentire House. B. TheSpeakerdecideswhoshallberecognizedtospeakontheflooroftheHouse;herules whetheramotionisrelevant;andhedecidesthecommitteestowhichnewbillsshallbe assigned.Heinfluenceswhatbillsarebroughtupforavoteandappointsthemembersof specialandselectcommittees. III. Themajoritypartyelectsafloorleader,calledthemajorityleader.Theotherpartyalsoelectsa leadertheminorityleader.Eachpartyalsohasawhip,whichnumerousassistantwhipsinchargeof roundingupvotesfromvariousstatedelegations. TheStrengthofPartyStructures I. OneimportantmeasureofpartystrengthinCongressistheabilityofpartyleaderstogettheir memberstovotetogetherontherulesandstructureofCongress. PartyUnity I. ThestrengthofCongressselaboratepartymachinerycanbemeasuredbytheextenttowhich membersofonepartyvotetogetherintheHouseandSenate.Partypolarizationisdefinedasavotein whichamajorityofvotingDemocratsopposeamajorityofvotingRepublicans.Thiskindofvotingis nowthenorm. A. Akindredmeasureofpartystrengthisthecohesionofthepartiesonvotesthatelicitaparty split.Specificissuescantriggeranextraordinarydegreeofpartycohesion. B. Todayspartysplitreflectssharpideologicaldifferencesbetweentheparties. II. Votershavebecomemorepartisanoverthelast30years.Thismaybeduetotheredrawingofdistrict lines,whichencouragesmoreideologicalvoterstovote.Votersmayalsobemoreideologicalbecause Congressismoreideological.Athirdpossibilitymaybetheseniorityofcommitteechairmen. Caucuses I. Congressionalcaucusesareagrowingrivaltothepartiesasasourceofpolicyleadership.Acaucusis anassociationofmembersofCongresscreatedtoadvocateapoliticalideologyoraregionalor economicinterest. A. Memberscangaininformation,beidentifiedasaleader,ofshowthattheycareaboutan issuebybeinginvolvedincaucusactivities. II. Interpartycaucusesareformedbygroupswhosemembersshareasimilarideology.Personalinterest caucusesformaroundacommoninterestinanissue.Constituencycaucusesareestablishedto representcertaingroups,regions,orboth.

TheOrganizationofCongress:Committees I. ThemostimportantorganizationalfeatureofCongressisthesetoflegislativecommitteesofthe HouseandSenate.ItistherethattherealworkofCongressisdone,anditisthechairmanshipsof thesecommitteesthattheirsubcommitteesthatmostofthepowerinCongressisfound. A. Thenumberandjurisdictionofthesecommitteesareofthegreatestinteresttomembersin Congress,sincedecisionsonthesesubjectsdeterminewhatgroupofmembers,withwhat politicalviews,willpassonlegislativeproposals,overseetheworkingsofagenciesinthe executivebranch,andconductinvestigations. II. Therearethreetypesofcommittees:standingcommittees(moreorlesspermanentbodieswith specifiedlegislativeresponsibilities),selectcommittees(groupsappointedforalimitedpurposeand usuallylastingonlyafewcongresses),andjointcommittees(thoseonwhichbothrepresentativesand senatorsserve). A. Anespeciallyimportantkindofjointcommitteeistheconferencecommittee,madeupof representativesandsenatorsappointedtoresolvedifferencesintheSenateandHouse versionsofthesamepieceoflegislationbeforeitsfinalpassage. B. Standingcommitteesaretheimportantonesbecausetheyaretheonlyonesthatcan proposelegislationbyreportingabillouttothefullHouseorSenate. III. Whilemembersofthemajoritypartycouldoccupyalloftheseatsonallofthecommittees,they usuallytakethemajorityofseatsoneachcommittee,namethechairman,andallowtheminority partytohavetheotherseats. A. Eachsenatormayserveontwomajorcommitteesandoneminorcommittee,unlessone ofthosecommitteesisexclusive. IV. Whenthepartyleaderswerestrong,committeechairmenwerepickedonthebasisofloyaltytothe leader.Nowthatthisleadershiphasweakened,seniorityonthecommitteegovernstheselectionof chairmen.However,thattooischanging. A. TraditionallythecommitteesofCongressweredominatedbythechairmen.Theyoftendid themostimportantworkbehindcloseddoors.However,someofthesetraditionschangedin 1970s,whenCongressdecentralizedanddemocratizeditsoperations. B. HouseRules: 1. Committeechairmenaretobeelectedbysecretballotinpartycaucus 2. Nomembertochairmorethanonecommittee 3. Allcommitteeswithmorethan20memberstohaveatleast4subcommittees 4. Committeeandpersonalstaffstobeincreasedinsize 5. Committeemeetingstobepublicunlessmembersvotetoclosethem C. SenateRules: 1. Committeemeetingstobepublicunlessmembersvotetoclosethem 2. Committeechairmentobeselectedbysecretballotattherequestof1/5oftheparty caucus 3. Committeestohavelargerstaffs 4. Nosenatortochairmorethanonecommittee. D. Theeffectofthesechangeswastogivegreaterpowertoindividualmembersandlessenthe powerofpartyleadersandcommitteechairmen.ThedecentralizationoftheHousemeant thatitwasmuchharderforchairmentoblocklegislationtheydidnotlikeortodiscourage juniormembersfromplayingalargerole.WhenRepublicansregainedcontroloftheHouse, theymadeseveralchangesoftheirown: 1. Bannedproxyvoting 2. Limitedcommitteeandsubcommitteechairmenstenurestothreetermsandthe Speakerstofourterms 3. Allowedmorefrequentfloordebateunderopenrules 4. Reducedthenumberofcommitteesandsubcommittees 5. Authorizedcommitteechairmentohiresubcommitteestaffs. V. IntheSenatetherehavebeenfewerchanges,inpartbecauseindividualmembersoftheSenatehave alwayshadmorepowerthantheircounterpartsintheHouse.Twoimportantchangesweremadeby

theRepublicansin1995: 1. Asixyeartermlimitonallcommitteechairmen 2. Arequirementthatcommitteemembersselecttheirchairmenbysecretballot A. Despitethesenewrules,thecommitteesremaintheplacewheretherealworkofCongressis done. TheOrganizationofCongress:StaffsandSpecializedOffices TasksofStaffMembers I. Staffmembersassignedtoasenatororrepresentativespendmostoftheirtimeservicingrequests fromconstituents.AmajorfunctionofamemberofCongresssstaffistohelpconstituentssolve problemsandtherebyhelpthatmembergetreelected. II. Thelegislativefunctionofcongressionalstaffmembersisalsoimportant.Theroleofstaffmembersin devisingproposals,negotiatingagreements,organizinghearings,writingquestions,draftingreports, andmeetingwithlobbyistsandadministratorshasgrownascongresshasexpanded. A. Theadvocacyroleofstaffmembershasledthemtofindandpromotelegislationforwhicha representativeorsenatorcantakecredit. III. Oneofthereasonsfortherapidgrowthinthesizeandimportanceofcongressionalstaffsisthata largestaffcreatesconditionsthatseemtorequireanevenlargerstaff. A. TheincreasedrelianceonstaffhaschangedCongressbecausethestaffhasalteredthe environmentwithinwhichcongressworks. B. MembersofCongressaremorelikelytodealwithoneanotherthroughstaffintermediaries thanpersonally.Congresshastherebybecomelesscollegial,moreindividualistic,andlessof adeliberativebody. StaffAgencies I. CongresshasalsocreatedasetofstaffagenciesthatworkforCongressasawhole.Thesestaff agencieshavecomeintobeinginlargeparttogiveCongressspecializedknowledge. CongressionalResearchService I. PartoftheLibraryofCongress.Respondstocongressionalrequestsforinformation.Asapolitically neutralbody,itdoesnotrecommendpolicy,butitwilllookupfactsandindicatetheargumentsfor andagainstaproposedpolicy. II. KeepstrackofthestatusofeverymajorbillbeforeCongressandproducesasummaryofeachbill introduced. GeneralAccountingOffice I. Investigatesagenciesandpoliciesandmakesrecommendationsonalmosteveryaspectof government. OfficeofTechnologyAssessment I. Evaluatesandstudiespoliciesandprogramswithasignificantuseoforimpactontechnology. CongressionalBudgetOffice I. AdvisesCongressonthelikelyeconomiceffectsofdifferentspendingprogramsandprovides informationonthecostsofproposedpolicies.Preparesanalysesofthepresidentsbudgetand economicprojectionsthatoftencometoconclusionsdifferentfromthoseoftheadministration. HowaBillBecomesLaw I. Billstospendalotofmoneymovemoreslowly,especiallywhenthegovernmentisrunningupbig deficits.Billstotaxorregulatebusinessesmoveslowlybecausemanydifferentinterestshavetobe heardandaccommodated.Billsthatseemtoembodyaclear,appealingideagathermomentum quickly,especiallyifthegovernmentdoesnthavetospendalotofmoney. II. Togetsomethingdone,amemberofCongressmusteitherassembleamajoritycoalitionslowlyand painstakinglyortakeadvantageoftemporaryenthusiasmforsomenewcausethatsweepsawaythe normalobstacles. IntroducingaBill I. AnymemberofCongressmayintroduceabillintheHousebyhandingittoaclerkordroppingitina box,intheSenatebybeingrecognizedbythepresidingofficerandannouncingthebillsintroduction. A. Abillcanbeeitherapublicbill(pertainingtopublicaffairsgenerally)oraprivatebill (pertainingtoaparticularindividual).

B. Ifabillisnotpassedbybothhousesandsignedbythepresidentwithinthelifeofone Congress,itisdeadandmustbereintroducedduringthenextCongress. II. Congressfrequentlyinitiateslegislation.Evenwhenthepresidentistheprincipalauthorofabill,he usuallysubmitsitonlyafterconsultationwithcongressionalleaders.Thepresidenthimselfcannot introducelegislation,heneedsamemberofCongresstodoitforhim. III. Congresscanalsopassresolutions.Asimpleresolution(passedbyeithertheHouseortheSenate)is usedformatterssuchasestablishingtherulesunderwhicheachbodywilloperate.Aconcurrent resolutionsettleshousekeepingandproceduralmattersthataffectbothhouses. A. Simpleandconcurrentresolutionsarenotsignedbythepresidentanddonothavetheforce oflaw. B. Ajointresolutionrequirestheapprovalofbothhousesandthesignatureofthepresident;it isessentiallythesameasalaw.Ajointresolutionisalsousedtoproposeaconstitutional amendment;inthiscaseitmustbeapprovedbya2/3voteofbothhouses,butitdoesnot requirethesignatureofthepresident. StudybyCommittees I. AbillisreferredtoacommitteeforconsiderationbyeithertheSpeakeroftheHouseorthepresiding officeroftheSenate.Rulesgovernwhichcommitteewillgeteachbill,butsometimesachoiceis possible. II. AccordingtotheConstitution,billsforraisingrevenuemustoriginateintheHouse.TheHousealso originatesappropriationsbills. A. BecauseoftheHousesspecialpositioninrelationtorevenuelegislation,thecommitteethat handlesthosebillstheWaysandMeansCommitteeisparticularlypowerful. III. Mostbillsdieincommittee.TheyareintroducedonlytogetpublicityforthememberofCongressor toenablethemembertosaytoconstituentsthathedidsomethingonamatterconcerningthem. A. Billsofgeneralinterestareassignedtoasubcommitteeforahearing.Thesehearingsare usedtoinformmembersofCongress,topermitinterestgroupstospeakout,andtobuild publicsupportforameasurefavoredbyamajorityofthecommittee. B. Thoughcommitteehearingsarenecessaryandvaluable,theyalsofragmenttheprocessof consideringbillsdealingwithcomplexmatters.Bothpowerandinformationaredispersedin Congress,andthusitisdifficulttotakeacomprehensiveviewofmatterscuttingacross committeeboundaries. IV. TodealwiththisproblemCongresshasestablishedaprocesswherebyabillmaynowbereferredto severalcommitteesthatsimultaneouslyconsideritinwholeorinpart.Thisprocessiscalledmultiple referral. A. Theadvantageofthisprocedureisthatallviewshaveachanceofbeingheard;the disadvantageisthatittakesalotoftimeandgivesopponentsagreaterchancetokillor modifythebill. B. Ifthedifferentcommitteesdisagreeaboutthebill,theirmembershavetocometogetherina largejointmeetingtosortoutthedifferences.Inthesecasestheadvantagesofthe committeesystemareoftenlost. C. Underthecurrentrules,theSpeakerisallowedtosendabilltoasecondcommitteeafterthe firstisfinishedacting,orhemayreferpartsofabilltoseparatecommittees.Thisprocessis calledsequentialreferral. V. Afterthehearings,thecommitteeorsubcommitteewillmarkupthebill,ormakerevisionsand additions.Thesechangesdonotbecomepartofthebillunlesstheyareapprovedbythehouseof whichthecommitteeisapart. A. Ifthecommitteedoesnotreportthebillourfavorably,thatusuallykillsit. B. IntheHouseadischargepositionmustbesignedby218members;ifthepetitionisapproved byavoteoftheHouse,thebillcomesbeforeitdirectly.IntheSenateamembercanmoveto dischargeacommitteeofanybill,andifthemotionpassesthebillcomesbeforetheSenate. C. DischargeisrarelytriedintheSenate,inpartbecauseSenaterulespermitalmostany proposaltogettothefloorasanamendmenttoanotherbill. VI. Forabilltocomebeforeeitherhouse,itmustfirstbeplacedonacalendar.Thereare5calendarsin

theHouseand2intheSenate. A. Thoughthebillgoesontoacalendar,itisnotnecessarilyconsideredinchronologicalorderor evenconsideredatall. B. IntheHousetheRulesCommitteereviewsmostbillsandadoptsarulethatgovernsthe proceduresunderwhichtheywillbeconsideredintheHouse.Aclosedrulesetsastricttime limitondebateandforbidstheintroductionofanyamendmentsfromthefloor,orforbids amendmentsexceptthoseofferedbythesponsoringcommittee. C. Anopenrulepermitsamendmentsfromthefloor.Arestrictiverulepermitssome amendments. VII. TheHousehasatleast3waysofbypassingtheRulesCommittee:1)amembercanmovethattherules besuspended,whichrequiresa2/3vote;2)adischargepetition;3)theHousecanusetheCalendar Wednesdayprocedure.Thesemethodsarenotusedveryoften. VIII. FewbarrierstofloorconsiderationexistintheSenate.Thesebillsmaybeconsideredinanyorderat anytime. FloorDebateTheHouse I. Onceonthefloor,thebillsaredebated.IntheHouseallrevenueandmostotherbillsarediscussedby theCommitteeoftheWhole,whichiswhoeverhappenstobeontheflooratthetime. A. Thequorum,orminimumnumberofmemberswhomustbepresentforbusinesstobe conducted,isonly100membersfortheCommitteeoftheWhole. B. TheCommitteeoftheWholegraduallydebatesandamendsthebill,buttechnicallycannot passit.todothattheCommitteeoftheWholereportsthebillbacktotheHouse,whichtakes finalaction. C. DuringthedebateintheCommitteeoftheWhole,thecommitteesponsoringthebillguides thediscussion,dividesthetimeequallybetweenproponentsandopponents,anddecides howlongeachmemberwillbepermittedtospeak. D. Duringthisprocess,peoplewishingtaketimeouttohuddleaboutstrategycandemanda quorumcallacallingoftherolltofindoutwhetherthenecessaryminimumnumberof membersarepresent.Ifaquorumisnotpresent,theHousemustadjournordispatchthe sergeantatarmstoroundupmissingmembers. FloorDebatesTheSenate I. Therearefewruleslimitingdebate,andmemberscanspeakforaslongastheywant.Anyonecan offeranamendmentatanytime.Amendmentsneednotbegermanetothepurposeofthebill. A. Theopportunitytooffernongermaneamendmentsgivethesenatorachancetogetabill ontothefloorwithoutregardtothecalendarorthescheduleofthemajorityleader. II. ASenatefilibusterisdifficulttobreak.Thecurrentcloturerulerequiresthat16senatorssigna petitiontomovecloture.Themotionisvotedontwodaysafterthepetitionisintroduced;topass,3/5 oftheentireSenatemembershipmustvoteforit. A. Thetotaldebatecannotexceedmorethan100hours. B. OnewaytokeeptheSenategoingduringafilibusteristhroughdoubletracking,wherebythe disputedbillisshelvedtemporarilysothattheSenatecangetonwithotherbusiness. BecausedoubletrackingpermitstheSenatetodiscussandvoteonmattersotherthanthe billbeingfilibustered,itislesscostlytoindividualsenatorstostageafilibuster. C. ThethreatofthefilibustermeansthatneitherpoliticalpartycancontroltheSenateunlessis hasatleast60votes. MethodsofVoting I. OftenamemberofCongresswillvoteforfinalpassageofabillafterhavingsupportedamendments that,iftheypassed,wouldhavemadethebilltotallydifferent.Therefore,itismoreimportantto knowhowpeoplevotedonamendmentsthanonthebillitself. II. TherearefourproceduresforvotingintheHouse.Avoicevoteconsistsofmembersshouting;a divisionvoteinvolvesthemembersstandingandbeingcounted. A. Inneitheravoicenorastandingvotearethenamesofmembersrecorded. III. Tolearnhowanindividualvotestheremustbeeitherarecordedtellervoteorrollcall.Inatellervote thememberspassbetweentwotellers.Theuseofarecordedtellervoteenablesobserverstofindout

howmembersvoted. IV. Arollcallvoteconsistsofpeoplerespondingtotheirnames.Itcanbedoneattherequestof1/5of therepresentativespresentintheHouse. ReducingPowerandPerks I. Porkbarrellegislationisbillsthatgivetangiblebenefitstoconstituentsinthehopeofwinningtheir votesinreturn. II. MembersofCongressareallowedtosendmaterialthroughthemailfree.Butratherthanusingthis frankingprivilegetokeeptheirconstituentsinformed,mostmembersusedfrankednewslettersas campaignliterature. A. Thefrankamountstoataxpayersubsidyofmemberscampaigns. III. ForyearsCongressroutinelyexempteditselffrommanyofthelawsitpassed.Memberssaidthatif membersofCongressweresubjecttotheselaws,theexecutivebranch,chargedwithenforcingthese laws,wouldacquireexcessivepoweroverCongressviolatingtheseparationofpowers. A. AspubliccriticismofCongressgrew,thispolicygraduallychanged. B. TheCongressionalAccountabilityActof1995createdtheOfficeofComplianceandan employeegrievanceproceduretodealwithimplementation. EthicsandCongress I. Whenbitsandpiecesofpowerareplacedinmanydifferenthands,therearemanyopportunitiesto exerciseinfluence. II. Ethicscodesfrom1978,1989,and1995haveplacedmembersofCongressundertightrulesgoverning financialdisclosure,acceptinggifts,andotherpractices. ThischapterisaboutCongress.ItdiscusseshowCongresshasevolved,andhowitcomparestosimilar situationsindifferentcountries.ThischapteralsodiscusseshowdifferentpeopleenterCongress,andthe influencethatpartyplaysintheelectionprocess.Thischapteralsodiscussestheseveraltheoriesofhow congressmenmaketheirdecisionsandhowtheydecidetorepresentthemselvesandtheirdistricts.Thereis alsoalargesectionhowCongressisorganizedandhowitconductsitsbusiness;againthepartyplaysan importantifnotalwayslargerole.Whatisperhapsmoreimportant,however,isthecommittees, subcommittees,andcaucusesthatmembersofCongressformtohelppasslegislation.Thischapteralso highlightstherolesofseveralimportantstaffpeopleandorganizationsthatworkinconjunctionwithCongress. Alargeportionofthischapterisdedicatedtohowbillsarecreated,edited,andpassedateachlevelof Congress,andthespecificrulesthatgoverndebatingprocedures.