MICROWAVE AND RADIO FREQUENCY ENGINEERING

INDEX
admittance .......................... 4 AM ....................................20 Ampere's law ...................... 8 an parameter.......................15 anisotropic .........................21 attenuation constant ............ 6 B magnetic flux density..... 8 B susceptance .................... 4 beta ..................................... 2 bn parameter.......................15 capacitance ......................... 4 carrier ................................. 7 CDMA...............................20 cellular...............................20 characteristic admittance .... 3 characteristic impedance..2, 3 circulator............................16 communications frequencies .........................................20 complex permittivity....12, 21 complex propagation constant........................6, 10 conductivity .......................12 conductor loss factor..........13 copper cladding .................13 cosmic rays ........................20 coupling factor...................16 D electric flux density........ 8 dB ......................................16 dBm ...................................18 del......................................18 dielectric ............................21 dielectric constant..............12 dielectric loss factor...........13 dielectric relaxation frequency .......................... 8 directional coupler .............16 directivity...........................16 div......................................18 divergence .........................18 E electric field.................... 8 effective permittivity .........13 EHF ...................................20 electric conductivity ..........12 electric permittivity ...........12 electromagnetic spectrum ..20 ELF....................................20 empirical............................21 envelope ............................. 7 evanescent ...................17, 21 excitation port..............14, 16 Faraday's law ...................... 8 Fourier series ...................... 3 frequency domain ............... 8 frequency spectrum ...........20 gamma rays .......................20 Gauss' law............................8 general math ......................18 glossary .............................21 grad operator .....................18 gradient..............................18 graphing.............................19 group velocity......................7 GSM ..................................20 H magnetic field .................8 HF......................................20 high frequency.....................9 high frequency resistance ..11 hybrid ring.........................15 hyperbolic functions ..........19 impedance ...........................6 intrinsic......................10 waves ........................10 incident wave amplitude....15 internally matched .............14 intrinsic impedance............10 isotropic.............................21 j 18 J current density .................8 k wave number .................10 k of a dielectric ..................12 lambda .................................6 Laplacian ...........................19 LF ......................................20 light ...................................20 linear..................................21 loss tangent..........................9 complex .....................12 lossless network.................15 low frequency......................8 magnetic permeability .......11 Maxwell's equations ............8 MF.....................................20 microstrip conductors ........13 mode number.....................17 modulated wave...................7 nabla operator....................18 network theory...................14 normalize.............................4 observation port...........14, 16 omega-beta graph ................7 overdamped .......................21 parallel plate capacitance.....4 PCS....................................20 permeability.......................11 permittivity ........................12 complex .....................12 effective .....................13 relative.......................12 phase constant .......2, 6, 8, 10 phase velocity................2, 10 phasor notation ..................18 plane waves .......................10 polar notation ....................18 power...........................12, 18 network .....................15 propagation constant complex .................6, 10 quarter-wave section ...........6 quasi-static ..........................9 radar ..................................20 rat race...............................15 reciprocity .........................15 reflected wave amplitude...15 reflection coefficient .....3, 10 relative permittivity ...........12 resistance high frequency ............11 resistivity...........................12 scattering matrix..........14, 16 scattering parameter ...14, 15, 16 self-matched ......................14 separation of variables.......17 series stub............................5 sheet resistance..................11 SHF ...................................20 shunt stub ............................5 signs ....................................2 Sij scattering parameter.....14 single-stub tuning ................5 skin depth ............................7 SLF....................................20 Smith chart ......................4, 5 space derivative.................18 spectrum ............................20 square root of j ..................18 stripline conductor.............13 stub length ...........................5 susceptance..........................4 tan .....................................9 Taylor series......................19 TE waves...........................17 telegrapher's equations ........2 TEM assumptions................9 TEM waves .........................9 thermal speed ....................12 time domain.........................8 time of flight........................3 time variable......................21 time-harmonic .....................8 TM waves..........................17 transmission coefficient.......3 transmission lines ................2 transverse ..........................21 transverse electromagnetic waves ................................ 9 transverse plane................. 17 TV ..................................... 20 UHF .................................. 20 ULF................................... 20 ultraviolet .......................... 20 underdamped..................... 21 uniform plane waves ........... 9 unitary matrix.................... 15 vector differential equation18 velocity of propagation . 2, 10 vg group velocity ................ 7 VHF .................................. 20 VLF................................... 20 vp velocity of propagation .. 2 wave analogies .................. 10 wave equation ............... 2, 17 wave impedance................ 10 wave input impedance....... 11 wave number............... 10, 21 wavelength .......................... 6 Wheeler's equation ............ 14 X-ray ................................. 20 Y admittance....................... 4 y0 characteristic admittance 3 Z0 characteristic impedance 3 attenuation constant ........ 6 c conductor loss factor.... 13 d dielectric loss factor .... 13 phase constant ................. 6 loss tangent...................... 9 skin depth ........................ 7 permittivity .................... 12 c complex permittivity .... 12 r relative permittivity ...... 12 complex propagation constant ............................. 6 intrinsic wave impedance ........................................ 10 wavelength...................... 6 /4 ....................................... 6 permeability .................. 11 reflection coefficient ....... 3 volume charge density ... 8 conductivity .................. 12 transmission coefficient... 3 del................................. 18 divergence .................... 18 gradient......................... 18 2 Laplacian..................... 19 2 Laplacian..................... 17

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MicrowaveEngineering.pdf 9/11/2004 Page 1 of 21

TRANSMISSION LINES
TELEGRAPHER'S EQUATIONS V I I V (1) (2) = L = C z t z t
By taking the partial derivative with respect to z of equation 1 and partial with respect to t of equation 2, we can get:

+/- WATCHING SIGNS

By convention z is the variable used to describe position along a transmission line with the origin z=0 set at the load so that all other points along the line are described by negative position values. RS

(i)

2V 2V = LC 2 z 2 t

(ii)

2 I 2 I = LC 2 z 2 t

+ VS -

z=-l l

z =0

RL

SOLVING THE EQUATIONS

To solve the equations (i) and (ii) above, we guess that F ( u ) = F ( z vt ) is a solution to the equations. It is found that the unknown constant v is the wave propagation velocity.

Ohm's law for right- and left-traveling disturbances:

V+ = I + Z 0

V = I Z 0

Vtotal = V+ ( z vt ) + V ( v + vt )

vp VELOCITY OF PROPAGATION [cm/s]

The velocity of propagation is the speed at which a wave moves down a transmission line. The velocity approaches the speed of light but may not exceed the speed of light since this is the maximum speed at which information can be transmitted. But vp may exceed the speed of light mathematically in some calculations.

where:

z is the position along the transmission line, where the load

is at z=0 and the source is at z=-l, with l the length of the line. v is the velocity of propagation 1/ LC or / , the speed at which the waveform moves down the line; see p 2 t is time

vp =

THE COMPLEX WAVE EQUATION

The general solutions of equations (i) and (ii) above yield the complex wave equations for voltage and current. These are applicable when the excitation is sinusoidal and the circuit is under steady state conditions.

1 1 = = LC

where:

V ( z ) = V + e jz + V e + jz I ( z ) = I + e jz + I e + jz I ( z) = V + e j z + V e + j z Z0
where:

L = inductance per unit length [H/cm] C = capacitance per unit length [F/cm] = permittivity of the material [F/cm] = permeability of the material [H/cm] = frequency [radians/second] = phase constant Phase Velocity The velocity of propagation of a TEM wave may also be referred to as the phase velocity. The phase velocity of a TEM wave in conducting material may be described by:

e + jz represent wave propagation in the +z and z directions respectively, = LC = / v is the phase constant,
and

e j z

v p = =

2 1 =c =c k 0 r eff

where:

Z 0 = L / C is the characteristic impedance of the line.

These equations represent the voltage and current phasors.

= skin depth [m] c = speed of light 2.998 108 m/s 0 = wavelength in the material [m]

Tom Penick

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MicrowaveEngineering.pdf 9/11/2004 Page 2 of 21

Z0 CHARACTERISTIC IMPEDANCE []
The characteristic impedance is the resistance initially seen when a signal is applied to the line. It is a physical characteristic resulting from the materials and geometry of the line. Lossless line: Z 0 Lossy line: Z 0

TRANSMISSION COEFFICIENT
The transmission coefficient is the ratio of total voltage to the forward-traveling voltage, a value ranging from 0 to 2.

L V V = + = C I+ I

Vtotal = 1+ V+

R + j L = Z 0 e j z G + jC

TOF TIME OF FLIGHT [s]

The time of flight is how long it takes a signal to travel the length of the transmission line

L = inductance per unit length [H/cm] C = capacitance per unit length [F/cm] V+ = the forward-traveling (left to right) voltage [V] I+ = the forward-traveling (left to right) current [I] V- = the reverse-traveling (right to left) voltage [V] I- = the reverse-traveling (right to left) current [I] R = the line resistance per unit length [/cm] G = the conductance per unit length [-1/cm] = phase angle of the complex impedance [radians]

TOF

l = l LC = LTOT CTOT v

l = length of the transmission line [cm] v = the velocity of propagation 1/ LC , the speed at which
the waveform moves down the line

L = inductance per unit length [H/cm] C = capacitance per unit length [F/cm] LTOT = total inductance [H] CTOT = total capacitance [F]

y0 CHARACTERISTIC ADMITTANCE [1]

The characteristic admittance is the reciprocal of the characteristic impedance.

DERIVED EQUATIONS
V+ = z0 I + = (VTOT + ITOT z0 ) / 2

C I I y0 = + = L V+ V

V = z0 I = (VTOT I TOT z0 ) / 2
I + = y0V+ = ( ITOT + VTOT y0 ) / 2

REFLECTION COEFFICIENT
The reflection coefficient is the ratio of reflected voltage to the forward-traveling voltage, a value ranging from 1 to +1 which, when multiplied by the wave voltage, determines the amount of voltage reflected at one end of the transmission line.

I = y0V = ( ITOT VTOT y0 ) / 2

Cn FOURIER SERIES
The function x(t) must be periodic in order to employ the Fourier series. The following is the exponential Fourier series, which involves simpler calculations than other forms but is not as easy to visualize as the trigonometric forms.

V I = V+ I+ RL z0 RL + z0

A reflection coefficient is present at each end of the transmission line:

Cn =

source =

RS z0 RS + z0

1 t1 +T jn t t1 x ( t ) e 0 dt T

load =

Cn = amplitude n = the harmonic (an integer) T = period [s] 0 = frequency 2/T [radians] t = time [s] The function x(t) may be delayed in time. All this does in a Fourier series is to shift the phase. If you know the Cns for x(t), then the Cns for x(t-) are just Cne-jn0. (Here, Cns is just the plural of Cn.)

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MicrowaveEngineering.pdf 9/11/2004 Page 3 of 21

C CAPACITANCE [F]
v(t ) =

SMITH CHART

1 i d + v(0 ) C 0 v(t ) = v f + (v0 v f )e t /

t

dt i (t ) = i f + i0 i f e t /

I cap = C

dVcap

P (t ) = i0 R e 2t /
2

v(t) = voltage across the capacitor, at time t [V] vf = final voltage across the capacitor, steady-state voltage [V] v0 = initial voltage across the capacitor [V] t = time [s] = the time constant, RC [seconds] C = capacitance [F]
Natural log:

ln x = b eb = x

C PARALLEL PLATE CAPACITANCE

C=
= permittivity of the material [F/cm] A = area of one of the capacitor plates [cm2] h = plate separation [cm] w = plate width [cm] l = plate length [cm] C = capacitance [F]

A h

Cper unit length =

A wl w = = lh lh h

First normalize the load impedance by dividing by the characteristic impedance, and find this point on the chart. When working in terms of reactance X, an inductive load will be located on the top half of the chart, a capacitive load on the bottom half. It's the other way around when working in terms of susceptance B [Siemens]. Draw a straight line from the center of the chart through the normalized load impedance point to the edge of the chart. Anchor a compass at the center of the chart and draw a circle through the normalized load impedance point. Points along this circle represent the normalized impedance at various points along the transmission line. Clockwise movement along the circle represents movement from the load toward the source with one full revolution representing 1/2 wavelength as marked on the outer circle. The two points where the circle intersects the horizontal axis are the voltage maxima (right) and the voltage minima (left). The point opposite the impedance (180 around the circle) is the admittance Y [Siemens]. The reason admittance (or susceptibility) is useful is because admittances in parallel are simply added. (Admittance is the reciprocal of impedance; susceptance is the reciprocal of reactance.)

( z ) = L e j 2z
e j 2z = 12 z Z( z ) 1 ( z ) = Z( z ) + 1 Z 1 Z= L ZL = L Z0 L + 1
CL

z = distance from load [m] j = 1

= magnitude of the
reflection coefficient

= phase constant
= reflection coefficient Z = normalized impedance []

CAPACITOR-TERMINATED LINE
RS + VS Where the incident voltage is

V+ = V0 1 e t / 0

),

2 0 t / 0 21 t / 1 Vcap = V+ + V = V0 2 + e e 0 1 0 1
V0 = final voltage across the capacitor [V] t = time [s] 0 = time constant of the incident wave, RC [s] 1 = time constant effect due to the load, Z0CL [s] C = capacitance [F]

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MicrowaveEngineering.pdf 9/11/2004 Page 4 of 21

SINGLE-STUB TUNING
The basic idea is to connect a line stub in parallel (shunt) or series a distance d from the load so that the imaginary part of the load impedance will be canceled.
Shunt-stub: Select d so that the admittance Y looking toward the load from a distance d is of the form Y0 + jB. Then the stub susceptance is chosen as jB, resulting in a matched condition. Series-stub: Select d so that the admittance Z looking toward the load from a distance d is of the form Z0 + jX. Then the stub susceptance is chosen as -jX, resulting in a matched condition.
d Y0
Open or short

FINDING A STUB LENGTH

Example: Find the lengths of open and shorted shunt stubs to match an admittance of 1-j0.5. The admittance of an open shunt (zero length) is Y=0; this point is located at the left end of the Smith Chart x-axis. We proceed clockwise around the Smith chart, i.e. away from the end of the stub, to the +j0.5 arc (the value needed to match j0.5). The difference in the starting point and the end point on the wavelength scale is the length of the stub in wavelengths. The length of a shorted-type stub is found in the same manner but with the starting point at Y=.
Open stub of length .074 matches an admittance of 1-j.5 j .5
.11 .12 .13 .14 .15 .16
Towa r d g ene r at or

Y0

YL

Y0 l

2. 0

.0

d
.05

07

.0 8

1.0

.09

.1

.1 7

.1 8
.1 9

Admittance (short) Y=
.2

0. 5

Z0

Z0

ZL

.04

.074

.21
.24 .25 .26 .27 .23 .28 .22 .29

.01 .0 2 . 03

5.0

Z0 l
Open or short

0.1

0.5

1.0

.49 .48 .47

Admittance (open) Y=0

5.

.4 5

.4 6

.324

.3

2.0

0. 5

.3

.4

1.0

In this example, all values were in units of admittance. If we were interested in finding a stub length for a series stub problem, the units would be in impedance. The problem would be worked in exactly the same way. Of course in impedance, an open shunt (zero length) would have the value Z=, representing a point at the right end of the x-axis.

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MicrowaveEngineering.pdf 9/11/2004 Page 5 of 21

.35

.36 .37 .38 .39

.4

Shorted stub of length .324 matches an admittance of 1-j.5

.3

.3 3

.34

.41

.4 2

.4 3

LINE IMPEDANCE []
The impedance seen at the source end of a lossless transmission line:

COMPLEX PROPAGATION CONSTANT

The propagation constant for lossy lines, taking into account the resistance and inductance along the line as well as the resistive and capacitive path between the conductors.

Z in = Z 0

Z + jZ 0 tan ( l ) 1+ = Z0 L 1 Z 0 + jZ L tan ( l ) Z L + Z 0 tanh ( l ) Z 0 + Z L tanh ( l )

For a lossy transmission line:

= + j = ZY =
L R

( R + jL )( G + jC )
G C

Z in = Z 0

Line impedance is periodic with spatial period /2.

Z0 = L / C , the characteristic impedance of the line. [] = the reflection coefficient ZL = the load impedance [] = 2/, phase constant = +j, complex propagation constant

= attenuation constant, the real part of the complex

propagation constant, describes the loss

= 2/, phase constant, the complex part of the complex

propagation constant

WAVELENGTH [cm]
The physical distance that a traveling wave moves during one period of its periodic cycle.

2 2 v p = = k f

Z = series impedance (complex, inductive) per unit length [/cm] Y = shunt admittance (complex, capacitive) per unit length [-1/cm] R = the resistance per unit length along the transmission line [/cm] G = the conductance between conductors per unit length [-1/cm] L = inductance per unit length [H/cm] C = capacitance per unit length [F/cm]

= LC = 2/, phase constant k = = 2/, wave number vp = velocity of propagation [m/s] see p 2. f = frequency [Hz]

/4 QUARTER-WAVE SECTION
A quarter-wave section of transmission line has the effect of inverting the normalized impedance of the load.

/4 Zin Z0 RL = Z0 2

To find Zin, we can normalize the load (by dividing by the characteristic impedance), invert the result, and "unnormalize" this value by multiplying by the characteristic impedance.

Z0 1 Z0 = 2 2 1 1 so the normalized input impedance is = 2 2 and the actual input impedance is Z in = 2 Z 0

In this case, the normalized load is

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MicrowaveEngineering.pdf 9/11/2004 Page 6 of 21

MODULATED WAVE
Suppose we have a disturbance composed of two frequencies:

OMEGA - BETA GRAPH

This representation is commonly used for modulated waves.

sin ( 0 ) t ( 0 ) z
and

sin ( 0 + ) t ( 0 + ) z

where 0 is the average frequency and 0 is the average phase. Using the identity 2 cos A B sin A + B = sin A + sin B 2 2 The combination (sum) of these two waves is

LC d slope is , group velocity d =

slope is phase velocity for a particular , .

2 cos ( t z ) sin ( 0t 0 z ) 14 244 14 244 4 3 4 3

envelope carrier

SKIN DEPTH [cm]

The depth into a material at which a wave is attenuated by 1/e (about 36.8%) of its original intensity. This isn't the same that appears in the loss tangent, tan .

The envelope moves at the group velocity, see p 7.

= "the difference in" 0 = carrier frequency [radians/second] = modulating frequency [radians/second] 0 = carrier frequency phase constant = phase constant
So the sum of two waves will be a modulated wave having a carrier frequency equal to the average frequency of the two waves, and an envelope with a frequency equal to half the difference between the two original wave frequencies.

1 2 =

where:

= attenuation constant, the real part of the complex

propagation constant, describes loss

= permeability of the material, dielectric constant [H/cm] = frequency [radians/second] = (sigma) conductivity [Siemens/meter] see p12.
Skin Depths of Selected Materials 60 Hz 1 MHz
silver copper gold aluminum iron 8.27 mm 8.53 mm 10.14 mm 10.92 mm 0.65 mm 0.064 mm 0.066 mm 0.079 mm 0.084 mm 0.005 mm

1 GHz

vg GROUP VELOCITY [cm/s]

The velocity at which the envelope of a modulated wave moves.

0.0020 mm 0.0021 mm 0.0025 mm 0.0027 mm 0.00016 mm

vg =

1 1 c2 LCP

where:

L = inductance per unit length [H/cm] CP = capacitance per unit length [F/cm] = permittivity of the material [F/cm] = permeability of the material, dielectric constant [H/cm] c = carrier frequency [radians/second] = modulating frequency [radians/second] = phase constant
Also, since may be given as a function of , remember

d vg = d

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MicrowaveEngineering.pdf 9/11/2004 Page 7 of 21

MAXWELL'S EQUATIONS Maxwell's equations govern the principles of guiding and propagation of electromagnetic energy and provide the foundations of all electromagnetic phenomena and their applications. The time-harmonic expressions can be used only when the wave is sinusoidal.
STANDARD FORM (Time Domain)
Faraday's Law

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
MODELING MAXWELL'S EQUATIONS
This is a model of a wave, analogous to a transmission line model.

L = [H/m] G= [-1/m] C= [F/m]

TIME-HARMONIC (Frequency Domain)

v v B E = t
v v v D H = J + t v D = v

v v E = -jB v v v H = j D + J

Ampere's Law* Gauss' Law no name law

v B = 0

v D = v v B= 0

L = inductance per unit length [H/cm] = permeability of the material, dielectric constant [H/cm] G = the conductance per unit length [-1/cm] = (sigma) conductivity [Siemens/meter] C = capacitance per unit length [F/cm] = permittivity of the material [F/cm]
propagation constant:

( j )( j + )

E = electric field [V/m] B = magnetic flux density [W/m2 or T] B = 0H t = time [s] D = electric flux density [C/m2] D = 0E = volume charge density [C/m3] H = magnetic field intensity [A/m] J = current density [A/m2]
*Maxwell added the D term to Ampere's Law. t

LOW FREQUENCY
At low frequencies, more materials behave as conductors. A wave is considered low frequency when

is the dielectric relaxation frequency

1 (1 + j )
=

intrinsic wave impedance, see p 12.

What happens to the complex propagation constant at low frequency? From the wave model above, gamma is

( j )( j + ) =

j 1 +

Since both and / are small

=
Since
j=

1 j 1 + j = 2

j (1)

1 1 +j 2 2

1 1 = +j +j = 2 2 2 2 So that, with = + j
we get

or

1 (1 + j )

= attenuation constant, the real part of the complex

propagation constant, describes the loss

= phase constant, the complex part of the complex

propagation constant

= (sigma) conductivity [Siemens/cm] = skin depth [cm]

So the wave is attenuating at the same rate that it is propagating.

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MicrowaveEngineering.pdf 9/11/2004 Page 8 of 21

HIGH FREQUENCY
At high frequencies, more materials behave as dielectrics, i.e. copper is a dielectric in the gamma ray range. A wave is considered high frequency when

TEM WAVES
Transverse Electromagnetic Waves Electromagnetic waves that have single, orthogonal vector electric and magnetic field components (e.g., Ex and Hy ), both varying with a single coordinate of space (e.g., z), are known as uniform plane waves or transverse electromagnetic (TEM) waves. TEM calculations may be made using formulas from electrostatics; this is referred to as quasi-static solution.
Characteristics of TEM Waves The velocity of propagation (always in the z direction) is v p = 1 / , which is the speed of light in the material There is no electric or magnetic field in the direction of propagation. Since this means there is no voltage drop in the direction of propagation, it suggests that no current flows in that direction. The electric field is normal to the magnetic field The value of the electric field is times that of the magnetic field at any instant.

is the dielectric relaxation frequency

intrinsic wave impedance, see p 12.

What happens to the complex propagation constant at high frequency?

( j )( j + ) =

j j 1 + j

Since both 1/ and / are small

1 = j 1 + 2 j
With

+ j 2

= + j

we get

= ,

The direction of propagation is given by the direction of E H. The energy stored in the electric field per unit volume at any instant and any point is equal to the energy stored in the magnetic field.

tan LOSS TANGENT

The loss tangent, a value between 0 and 1, is the loss coefficient of a wave after it has traveled one wavelength. This is the way data is usually presented in texts. This is not the same that is used for skin depth.

TEM ASSUMPTIONS
Some assumptions are made for TEM waves.

tan =
Graphical representation of loss tangent: For a dielectric, tan 1 .

E =0 z =0

Hz = 0
time dependence e
jt

Imag. ( I )

Re ( I )

1 ( tan ) = tan 2

is proportional to the amount of current going through the capacitance C. is proportional to the amount current going through the conductance G.

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MicrowaveEngineering.pdf 9/11/2004 Page 9 of 21

WAVE ANALOGIES
Plane waves have many characteristics analogous to transmission line problems.
Transmission Lines Phase constant Plane Waves Wave number

k WAVE NUMBER [rad./cm]

The phase constant for the uniform plane wave; the change in phase per unit length. It can be considered a constant for the medium at a particular frequency.

= LC =

2 = vp

k = =

2 = vp

k=

2 = = v

k appears in the phasor forms of the uniform plane wave

Complex propagation const.

= + j =

Complex propagation constant

E x ( z ) = E1e jkz + E 2 e jkz , etc.

k has also been used as in the "k of a dielectric" meaning r.

( R + jL )( G + jC )
vp = 1 = LC

( j )( j + )
Phase velocity

Velocity of propagation

(eta) INTRINSIC WAVE IMPEDANCE []

The ratio of electric to magnetic field components. Can be considered a constant of the medium. For free space, = 376.73. The units of are in ohms.

vp =

1 2 = = = c k
Intrinsic impedance

Characteristic impedance

L V+ Z0 = = C I+
Voltage

Ex + = = H y+
Electric Field

E y+ E x+ = H y+ H x+
1 (1 + j )

E y E x = H y H x

at low frequencies

at high frequencies

V ( z ) = V+ e jz + V e jz
Current

Ex ( z ) = E+ e jkz + E e jkz
Magnetic Field

=
H E

1 V+ e jz V e jz I (z) = Z0
Line input impedance

1 H y ( z ) = E+ e jkz E e jkz
Wave input impedance

Z in = Z 0 Z in = Z 0

Z L + jZ 0 tan ( l ) Z 0 + jZ L tan ( l ) Z L + Z 0 tanh ( l ) Z 0 + Z L tanh ( l )

in = 0 in = 0

L + j0 tan ( kl ) 0 + jL tan ( kl ) L + 0 tanh ( l ) 0 + L tanh ( l )

When an electromagnetic wave encounters a sheet of conductive material it sees an impedance. K is the direction of the wave, H is the magnetic component and E is the electrical field. E H gives the direction of propagation K.

Reflection coefficient

Reflection coefficient

Z L Z0 Z L + Z0

L 0 L + 0

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MicrowaveEngineering.pdf 9/11/2004 Page 10 of 21

SHEET RESISTANCE []
Consider a block of material with conductivity .
l
w

in WAVE INPUT IMPEDANCE []

The impedance seen by a wave in a medium.
For example, the impedance of a metal sheet in a vacuum:
metal vacuum

t
in
It's resistance is

R=

l wt

Note that a transmission line model is used here because it is analogous to a wave traveling in a medium. The "load" is the element most remote in the direction of propagation. The input impedance is .

If the length is equal to the width, this reduces to

R=
And this is sheet resistance.

1 t

in = 0

L + 0 tanh (l ) 0 + L tanh (l )

In this example, l is the thickness of a metal sheet. If the metal thickness is much greater than the skin depth, then

HIGH FREQUENCY RESISTANCE []

When a conductor carries current at high frequency, the electric field penetrates the outer surface only about 1 skin depth so that current travels near the surface of the conductor. Since the entire crosssection is not utilized, this affects the resistance of the conductor.

1 tanh (l ) = tanh (1 + j )l = tanh[(big number )(1 + j )] 1

If l is much less than the skin depth , then

1 tanh (l ) = tanh (1 + j )l = tanh[(small number )(1 + j )] l = (same small number )(1 + j ) = (1 + j )

w
Cross-section of a conductor showing current flow near the surface:

MAGNETIC PERMEABILITY [H/m]

The relative increase or decrease in the resultant magnetic field inside a material compared with the magnetizing field in which the given material is located. The product of the permeability constant and the relative permeability of the material.

0 1 1 = ( perimeter ) 2 2w + 2t

= 0 r where = 410-7 H/m 0

Relative Permeabilities of Selected Materials Air Aluminum Copper Gold Iron (99.96% pure) Iron (motor grade) Lead Manganese 1.00000037 1.000021 0.9999833 0.99996 280,000 5000 0.9999831 1.001 Mercury Nickel Oxygen Platinum Silver Titanium Tungsten Water 0.999968 600 1.000002 1.0003 0.9999736 1.00018 1.00008 0.9999912

= (sigma) conductivity (5.8105 S/cm for copper) [Siemens/meter] = frequency [radians/second] = skin depth [cm] 0 = permeability of free space 0 = 410-9 [H/cm] w = width of the conductor [cm] t = thickness of the conductor [cm]

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MicrowaveEngineering.pdf 9/11/2004 Page 11 of 21

 ELECTRIC PERMITTIVITY [F/m]

The property of a dielectric material that determines how much electrostatic energy can be stored per unit of volume when unit voltage is applied, also called the dielectric constant. The product of the constant of permittivity and the relative permittivity of a material.

CONDUCTIVITY [S/m] or [1/(m)]

A measure of the ability of a material to conduct electricity, the higher the value the better the material conducts. The reciprocal is resistivity. Values for common materials vary over about 24 orders of magnitude. Conductivity may often be determined from skin depth or the loss tangent.

= 0 r

where 0 = 8.8510-14 F/cm

c COMPLEX PERMITTIVITY
c = j
where

nc qe l S/m me vth

where

= tan c

nc = density of conduction electrons (for copper this is 8.451028) [m-3] qe = electron charge? 1.60210-23 [C] l = vthtc the product of the thermal speed and the mean
free time between collisions of electrons, the average distance an electron travels between collisions [m] me = the effective electron mass? [kg] vth = thermal speed, usually much larger than the drift velocity vd. [m/s]

In general, both and depend on frequency in complicated ways. will typically have a constant maximum value at low frequencies, tapering off at higher frequencies with several peaks along the way. will typically have a peak at the frequency at which begins to decline in magnitude as well as at frequencies where has peaks, and will be zero at low frequencies and between peaks.

Conductivities of Selected Materials [1/(m)]

Aluminum Carbon Copper (annealed) Copper (in class) Fresh water Germanium Glass Gold Iron Lead 3.82107 7.14104 5.80107 6.80107 ~10-2 ~2.13 ~10-12 4.10107 1.03107 4.5710 Mercury Nicrome Nickel Seawater Silicon Silver Sodium Stainless steel Tin Titanium Zinc 1.04106 1.00106 1.45107 4 ~4.3510-4 6.17107 2.17107 1.11106 8.77106 2.09106 1.67107

r RELATIVE PERMITTIVITY
The permittivity of a material is the relative permittivity multiplied by the permittivity of free space

= r 0
In old terminology, r is called the "k of a dielectric". Glass (SiO2) at r = 4.5 is considered the division between low k and high k dielectrics.

Relative Permittivities of Selected Materials

Air (sea level) Ammonia Bakelite Glass Ice Mica most metals Plexiglass Porcelain Paper Oil 1.0006 22 5 4.5-10 3.2 5.4-6 ~1 3.4 5.7 2-4 2.1-2.3 Polystyrene Polyethylene Rubber Silicon Soil, dry Styrofoam Teflon Vacuum Water, distilled Water, seawater 2.6 2.25 2.2-4.1 11.9 2.5-3.5 1.03 2.1 1 81 72-80

P POWER [W]
Power is the time rate of change of energy.
Power reflected at a discontinuity:

% power = 100
2

Power transmitted at a discontinuity: % power = 1 2 100

NOTE: Relative permittivity data is given for materials at low or static frequency conditions. The permittivity for most materials varies with frequency. The relative permittivities of most materials lie in the range of 1-25. At high frequencies, the permittivity of a material can be quite different (usually less), but will have resonant peaks.

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MicrowaveEngineering.pdf 9/11/2004 Page 12 of 21

MICROSTRIP CONDUCTORS
How fast does a wave travel in a microstrip? The question is complicated by the fact that the dielectric on one side of the strip may be different from the dielectric on the other side and a wave may travel at different speeds in different dielectrics. The solution is to find an effective relative permittivity r eff for the combination.

STRIPLINE CONDUCTOR
Also called shielded microstrip. The effective relative permittivity is used in calculations.
t w h2 h1

t w h
Some Microstrip Relations assuming w 10 h ,

r eff =

r1h1 + r 2 h2 where h1 + h2

r1 = the relative permittivity of the dielectric of thickness h1. r2 = the relative permittivity of the dielectric of thickness h2.
air

Z 0 = Z 0 r eff
air

C air Z 0 = 0 0
2

L = Z0
Z0 =

air

0 0 = C total ( Z 0 )
L

L C air = 0 0
Z0
air

COPPER CLADDING
The thickness of copper on a circuit board is measured in ounces. 1-ounce cladding means that 1 square foot of the copper weighs 1 ounce. 1-ounce copper is 0.0014" or 35.6 m thick.

C total

= j = j 0 0 r eff vp =
1 = 0 0 r eff 1

r eff

L = C air C total = air C

d DIELECTRIC LOSS FACTOR [dB/cm]

d = 8.68
2 r eff ( r 1)

L C total

0 r ( r eff 1)

It's difficult to get more than 200 for Z0 in a microstrip. Microstrip Approximations

tan

r eff

+1 r 1 = r + 2 2 1 + 12h / w

c CONDUCTOR LOSS FACTOR [dB/cm]

c = 8.68 R 2Z 0
,
R= 0 1 1 = (perimeter) 2 (perimeter)

60 w 8h w + ln , for 1 h r eff w 4h Z0 = 120 w , for > 1 h w w r eff h + 1.393 + 0.667 ln h + 1.444

8e A e2 A 2 , w = r 1 h 2 0.61 B 1 ln ( 2 B 1) + ln ( B 1) + 0.39 , 2 r r w <2 h w >2 h

where A = Z 0

60

r + 1 r 1 0.11 , 377 + 0.23 + B= 2 r + 1 r 2Z 0 r

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MicrowaveEngineering.pdf 9/11/2004 Page 13 of 21

WHEELER'S EQUATION
Another approximation for microstrip calculations is Wheeler's equation.
2 8 1 14 + 8 14 + 1+ 42.4 4h r 4h r 4h r 2 + + Z0 = ln 1+ w 11 w 2 1+r w 11

NETWORK THEORY
Sij SCATTERING PARAMETER
Si j
observation port excitation port

7+ 8h
where

w =

4 1 1+ r r Z0 r + 1 1 + exp 11 42.4 0.81 Z exp 0 r + 1 1 42.4

A scattering parameter, represented by Sij, is a dimensionless value representing the fraction of wave amplitude transmitted from port j into port i, provided that all other ports are terminated with matched loads and only port j is receiving a signal. Under these same conditions, Sii is the reflection coefficient at port i. To experimentally determine the scattering parameters, attach an impedance-matched generator to one of the ports (excitation port), attach impedance-matched loads to the remaining ports, and observe the signal received at each of the ports (observation ports). The fractional amounts of signal amplitude received at each port i will make up one column j of the scattering matrix. Repeating the process for each column would require n2 measurements to determine the scattering matrix for an n-port network.

Sij SCATTERING MATRIX

S11 S 21 M S N1 S12 S 22 M SN 2 L S1N L S2N O M L S NN

The scattering matrix is an nn matrix composed of scattering parameters that describes an n-port network. The elements of the diagonal of the scattering matrix are reflection coefficients of each port. The elements of the off-diagonal are transmission coefficients, under the conditions outlined in "SCATTERING PARAMETER".
If the network is internally matched or self-matched, then S11 = S22 = L = S NN = 0 , that is, the diagonal is all zeros. The sum of the squares of each column of a scattering matrix is equal to one, provided the network is lossless.

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MicrowaveEngineering.pdf 9/11/2004 Page 14 of 21

an, bn INCIDENT/REFLECTED WAVE

AMPLITUDES
The parameters an and bn describe the incident and reflected waves respectively at each port n. These parameters are used for power and scattering matrix calculations.
The amplitude of the wave incident to port n is equal to the amplitude of the incident voltage at the port divided by the square root of the port impedance. Amplitude of the wave reflected at port n is equal to the amplitude of the reflected voltage at the port divided by the square root of the port impedance.

LOSSLESS NETWORK
A network is lossless when

S S =/

means to take the complex conjugate and transpose the

matrix. If the network is reciprocal, then the transpose is the same as the original matrix. / = a unitary matrix. A unitary matrix has the properties:

an =

Vn+ Z0n V Z0n Sij = bi aj

n

S
k =1

* ki S ki = 1

S
k =1

ki

* Skj = 0

bn =

In other words, a column of a unitary matrix multiplied by its complex conjugate equals one, and a column of a unitary matrix multiplied by the complex conjugate of a different column equals zero.

The scattering parameter is equal to the wave amplitude output at port i divided by the wave amplitude input at port j provided the only source is a matched source at port j and all other ports are connected to matched loads. The relationship between the S-parameters and the a- and b-parameters can be written in matrix form where S is the scattering matrix and a and b are column vectors. Power flow into any port is shown as a function of a- and b-parameters. The ratio of the input power at port j to the output power at port I can be written as a function of a- and b-parameters or the S-parameter.

RAT RACE OR HYBRID RING NETWORK

The rat race or hybrid ring network is lossless, reciprocal, and internally matched.
3 4

1
4 4 4

b = Sa

1 2 2 P= a b 2
Pin j Pout i = aj bj
2 2

1 Sij
2

RECIPROCITY
A network is reciprocal when Sij = Sji in the scattering matrix, i.e. the matrix is symmetric across the diagonal. Also, Zij = Zji and Yij = Yji. Networks constructed of normal materials exhibit reciprocity.
Reciprocity Theorem:

The signal splits upon entering the network and half travels around each side. A signal entering at port 1 and exiting at port 4 travels of a wavelength along each side, so the signals are in phase and additive. From port 1 to port 3 the signal travels one wavelength along one side and wavelength along the other, arriving a port 3 out of phase and thus canceling. From port 1 to port 2 the paths are and 5/4 wavelengths respectively, thus they are in phase and additive.

E
S

v v v H b ds = Eb H a ds
S

Ea and Hb are fields from two different sources.

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MicrowaveEngineering.pdf 9/11/2004 Page 15 of 21

DIRECTIONAL COUPLER
The directional coupler is a 4port network similar to the rat race. It can be used to measure reflected and transmitted power to an antenna.

MAXWELL'S EQUATIONS, TIME HARMONIC FORM

E = - jH H = - jE

"curl on E" "curl on H"

An input at one port is divided between two of the remaining ports. The coupling factor, measured in dB, describes the division of signal strength at the two ports. For example if the coupler has a coupling factor of 10 dB, then a signal input at port 1 would appear at port 4 attenuated by 10 dB with the majority of the signal passing to port 2. In other words, 90% of the signal would appear at port 2 and 10% at port 4. (-10 dB means "10 dB down" or 0.1 power, -6 dB means 0.25 power, and 3 dB means 0.5 power.) A reflection from port 2 would appear at port 3 attenuated by the same amount. Meters attached to ports 3 and 4 could be used to measure reflected and transmitted power for a system with a transmitter connected to port 1 and an antenna at port 2. The directivity of a coupler is a measurement of how well the coupler transfers the signal to the appropriate output without reflection due to the coupler itself; the directivity approaches infinity for a perfect coupler. directivity = 10 log ( p3 / p1 ) , where the source is at port 1 and the load is at port 2. The directional coupler is lossless and reciprocal. The scattering matrix looks like this. In a real coupler, the off-diagonal zeros would be near zero due to leakage.

E = Ex ( x, y ) x + E y ( x, y ) y + Ez ( x, y ) z e jt z H = H x ( x, y ) x + H y ( x, y ) y + H z ( x, y ) z e jt z
From the curl equations we can derive: (1)

Ez + E y = jH x y

(4)

Hz + H y = jEx y

(2)

Ez Hz Ex = jH y (5) H x = jE y x x

(3)

Ey x

Ex = jH z y

(6)

Hy x

Hx = jEz y

From the above equations we can obtain: (1) & (5) H x = (2) & (4) H y =

1 Ez Hz j 2 + y x
2

0 p 0 q

p 0 q 0

0 q 0

q 0 p p 0

1 Ez Hz j 2 + x y
2

(2) & (4) Ex = (1) & (5) E y =

Ez 1 Hz + j 2 + x y
2

CIRCULATOR
The circulator is a 3-port network that can be used to prevent reflection at the antenna from returning to the source.
1
l

Ez 1 Hz + j 2 + y x
2

This makes it look like if Ez and Hz are zero, then Hx, Hy, Ex, and Ey are all zero. But since 0 0 , we could have non-zero result for the TEM wave if 2 = 2 = j . This should look familiar.

Port 3 is terminated internally by a matched load. With a source at 1 and a load at 2, any power reflected at the load is absorbed by the load resistance at port 3. A 3-port network cannot be both lossless and reciprocal, so the circulator is not reciprocal. The circulator is lossless Schematically, the but is not reciprocal. The circulator may be depicted like this: scattering matrix looks like this:

0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0

Tom Penick

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MicrowaveEngineering.pdf 9/11/2004 Page 16 of 21

WAVE EQUATIONS
From Maxwell's equations and a vector identity on curl, we can get the following wave equations:

TM, TE WAVES IN PARALLEL PLATES

TM, or transverse magnetic, means that magnetic waves x are confined to the transverse d y plane. Similarly, TE (transverse electric) means that electrical waves are confined to the transverse (z direction is into page) plane. Transverse plane means the plane that is transverse to (perpendicular to) the direction of propagation. The direction of propagation is taken to be in the z direction, so the transverse plane is the x-y plane. So for a TM wave, there is no Hz component (magnetic component in the z direction) but there is an Ez component.

2 E = -2E 2 H = 2H 2 Ez =

"del squared on E" "del squared on H"

The z part or "del squared on Ez" is:

2 Ez 2 Ez 2 Ez + + = 2Ez 2 2 2 x y z
Ez = X ( x ) Y ( y ) Z ( z )

Using the separation of variables, we can let:

We substitute this into the previous equation and divide by XYZ to get:

Ez = A sin ( k x x ) e z
A = amplitude [V]

1 d 2 X 1 d 2Y 1 d 2 Z + + = 2 2 2 2 1 3 2 X dx Z dz 124 1 dy 4 3 Y2 3 123 a constant 2 2

kx k y2 kz

kx =

m d

The magnetic field must be zero at the plate

boundaries. This value provides that characteristic.

Since X, Y, and Z are independent variables, the only way the sum of these 3 expressions can equal a constant is if all 3 expressions are constants. So we are letting

[cm-1]

1 d 2Z d 2Z 2 2 = kz = Zk z Z dz 2 dz 2 Z = e z
2 z

x = position; perpendicular distance from one plate. [cm] d = plate separation [cm] = propagation constant z = position along the direction of propagation [cm] m = mode number; an integer greater than or equal to 1

A solution could be so that

2 z

= kz e

and

k z =
2

= 2 + ( kx )

Solutions for X and Y are found

Notice than when ( kx ) 2 2 , the quantity under the square root sign will be positive and will be purely real. In this circumstance, the wave is said to be evanescent. The wavelength goes to infinity; there is no oscillation or propagation. On the other hand, when ( kx )2 < 2 , is purely imaginary. The magnitude of Ez is related to its position between the plates and the mode number m. Note that for m = 2 that d = .
x m =1 d
-max +max

1 X 1 Y

d2X 2 = k x X = A sin ( k x x ) + B cos ( k x x ) dx 2 d 2Y 2 = k y Y = C sin ( k y y ) + D cos ( k y y ) dy 2

giving us the general solution

k x + k y =
2 2 2 2

For a particular solution we need to specify initial conditions and boundary conditions. For some reason, initial conditions are not an issue. The unknowns are kx, ky, A, B, C, D. The boundary conditions are

m =2 Ez

Etan = 0

H tan =0 n

Etan = the electric field tangential to a conducting surface Htan = the magnetic field tangential to a conducting surface n = I don't know

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MicrowaveEngineering.pdf 9/11/2004 Page 17 of 21

GENERAL MATHEMATICAL
COMPLEX TO POLAR NOTATION
j in polar notation:
j
j 2

NABLA, DEL OR GRAD OPERATOR

Compare the operation to taking the time derivative. Where /t means to take the derivative with respect to time and introduces a s-1 component to the units of the result, the operation means to take the derivative with respect to distance (in 3 dimensions) and introduces a m-1 component to the units of the result. terms may be called space derivatives and an equation which contains the operator may be called a vector differential equation. In other words A is how fast A changes as you move through space. A A A in rectangular A = x +y +z coordinates: x y z in cylindrical A 1 A A A = r + +z coordinates: in spherical coordinates:

j=e
2 4

Imag. Re

So we can find the square root of j:

j= e

=e

1 1 +j 2 2

unit circle

dBm DECIBELS RELATIVE TO 1 mW

The decibel expression for power. The logarithmic nature of decibel units translates the multiplication and division associated with gains and losses into addition and subtraction. 0 dBm = 1 mW 20 dBm = 100 mW -20 dBm = 0.01 mW

r r z A 1 A 1 A A = r + + r r r sin

P ( dBm ) = 10 log P ( mW ) P ( mW ) = 10
P ( dBm ) /10

GRADIENT
v = E
"The gradient of the vector " or "del " is equal to the negative of the electric field vector.

PHASOR NOTATION

with j . For example, the t V I = L Telegrapher's equation z t V = LjI . becomes z

To express a derivative in phasor notation, replace

is a vector giving the direction and magnitude of the maximum spatial variation of the scalar function at a point in space.

v = x +y +z x y z
DIVERGENCE

is also a vector operator, combining the "del" or "grad" operator with the dot product operator and is read as "the divergence of". In this form of Gauss' law, where D is a density per unit area, with the operators applied, D becomes a density per unit volume.

div D = D =

Dx Dy Dz + + = x y z

D = electric flux density vector D = E [C/m2] = source charge density [C/m3]

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MicrowaveEngineering.pdf 9/11/2004 Page 18 of 21

2 THE LAPLACIAN
2 is a combination of the divergence and del operations, i.e. div(grad ) = = 2 . It is read as "the LaPlacian of" or "del squared".

2 =

2 2 2 + + x2 y2 z 2

= electric potential [V]

GRAPHING TERMINOLOGY
With x being the horizontal axis and y the vertical, we have a graph of y versus x or y as a function of x. The x-axis represents the independent variable and the y-axis represents the dependent variable, so that when a graph is used to illustrate data, the data of regular interval (often this is time) is plotted on the x-axis and the corresponding data is dependent on those values and is plotted on the yaxis.

HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS j sin = sinh ( j )

j cos = cosh ( j ) j tan = tanh ( j )

TAYLOR SERIES 1 1+ x 1+ x , x 1 2

1 1 + x2 + x4 + x6 + L , x < 1 2 1 x 1 1m x , x 1 1 x

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MicrowaveEngineering.pdf 9/11/2004 Page 19 of 21

ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
FREQUENCY WAVELENGTH (free space) DESIGNATION APPLICATIONS

< 3 Hz 3-30 Hz 30-300 Hz 0.3-3 kHz 3-30 kHz 30-300 kHz 0.3-3 MHz 3-30 MHz 30-300 MHz 54-72 76-88 88-108 174-216 0.3-3 GHz 470-890 MHz 915 MHz 800-2500 MHz 1-2 2.45 2-4 3-30 GHz 4-8 8-12 12-18 18-27 30-300 GHz 27-40 40-60 60-80 80-100 0.3-1 THz 10 -10 Hz 3.9510 7.71014 Hz
14 12 14

> 100 Mm 10-100 Mm 1-10 Mm 0.1-1 Mm 10-100 km 1-10 km 0.1-1 km 10-100 m 1-10 m ELF SLF ULF VLF LF MF HF VHF

Geophysical prospecting Detection of buried metals Power transmission, submarine communications Telephone, audio Navigation, positioning, naval communications Navigation, radio beacons AM broadcasting Short wave, citizens' band TV, FM, police TV channels 2-4 TV channels 5-6 FM radio TV channels 7-13 Radar, TV, GPS, cellular phone TV channels 14-83 Microwave ovens (Europe) PCS cellular phones, analog at 900 MHz, GSM/CDMA at 1900 L-band, GPS system Microwave ovens (U.S.) S-band Radar, satellite communications C-band X-band (Police radar at 11 GHz) Ku-band (dBS Primestar at 14 GHz) K-band (Police radar at 22 GHz) Radar, remote sensing Ka-band (Police radar at 35 GHz) U-band V-band W-band Astromony, meteorology Heating, night vision, optical communications Vision, astronomy, optical communications Red Orange Yellow Green Blue Violet Sterilization Medical diagnosis Cancer therapy, astrophysics
Astrophysics

10-100 cm

UHF

"money band"

1-10 cm

SHF

0.1-1 cm

EHF

0.3-1 mm 3-300 m 390-760 nm 625-760 600-625 577-600 492-577 455-492 390-455 0.3-300 nm

Millimeter Infrared Visible light

1015-1018 Hz 10 -10 Hz 10 -10 Hz > 10 Hz

22 18 22 16 21

Ultraviolet X-rays
-rays

Cosmic rays

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MicrowaveEngineering.pdf 9/11/2004 Page 20 of 21

GLOSSARY
anisotropic materials materials in which the electric polarization vector is not in the same direction as the electric field. The values of , , and are dependent on the field direction. Examples are crystal structures and ionized gases. complex permittivity The imaginary part accounts for heat loss in the medium due to damping of the vibrating dipole moments. dielectric An insulator. When the presence of an applied field displaces electrons within a molecule away from their average positions, the material is said to be polarized. When we consider the polarizations of insulators, we refer to them as dielectrics. empirical A result based on observation or experience rather than theory, e.g. empirical data, empirical formulas. Capable of being verified or disproved by observation or experiment, e.g. empirical laws. evanescent wave A wave for which =0. will be negative. That is, is purely real. The wave has infinite wavelength there is no oscillation. isotropic materials materials in which the electric polarization vector is in the same direction as the electric field. The material responds in the same way for all directions of an electric field vector, i.e. the values of , , and are constant regardless of the field direction. linear materials materials which respond proportionally to increased field levels. The value of is not related to H and the value of is not related to E. Glass is linear, iron is nonlinear. overdamped system in the case of a transmission line, this means that when the source voltage is applied the line voltage rises to the final voltage without exceeding it. time variable materials materials whose response to an electric field changes over time, e.g. when a sound wave passes through them. transverse plane perpendicular, e.g. the x-y plane is transverse to z. underdamped system in the case of a transmission line, this means that after the source voltage is applied the line voltage periodically exceeds the final voltage. wave number k The phase constant for the uniform plane wave. k may be considered a constant of the medium at a particular frequency.

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