Introduction to antennas

Michel Anciaux / APEX

November 2004
What is an antenna?
Region of transition between guided and free space propagation
Concentrates incoming wave onto a sensor (receiving case)
Launches waves from a guiding structure into space or air
(transmitting case)
Often part of a signal transmitting system over some distance
Not limited to electromagnetic waves (e.g. acoustic waves)
Free space electromagnetic wave
Magnetic
field
Electric
field
Direction of
propagation
Magnetic
Field [A/m]
Electric
Field [V/m]
Time [s]
Time [s]
Disturbance of EM field
Velocity of light (~300 000 000 m/s)
E and H fields are orthogonal
E and H fields are in phase
Impedance, Z
0
: 377 ohms
x
y z
EM wave in free space
) (
0
z t j
x
e E E
| e
=
2
2
0 0
2
2
1
z
E
t
E
x x
c
c
=
c
c
c
2
2
0 0
2
2
1
z
H
t
H
y y
c
c
=
c
c
c
) (
0
z t j
y
e H H
| e
=
t
e
2
= f

t
|
2
=
f
0 0
1
c
=
wavelength
Phase constant
frequency
0
0
0
c

= Z
0
0
0
H
E
Z =
Magnetic
field
Electric
field
Direction of
propagation
x
y z
Wave in lossy medium
t j z j z t j z
x
e e e E e e E E
e | o e
= =

0 0
| o j + =
Attenuation constant
Phase constant
o
|
Propagation constant
Attenuation
increases with z
Phase varies
with z
Periodic time
variation
Power flow
H E S

=
0
2
0
2
2
1 1
2
1
Z H
Z
E S
y x av
= =
Poynting vector
Average power density
Polarisation of EM wave
Electrical field, E
vertical
horizontal
circular
Reflection, refraction
i r
u u =
) sin( ) sin(
2
1
i t
u
q
q
u =
) sin( ) sin(
2 2
1 1
i t
u u
c
c
=
Reflection
Refraction
if both media are lossless
i
r
E
E
=
Reflection coefficient:
Depends on media, polarisation
of incident wave and angle of incidence.
Reflection and refraction affect polarisation
Guided electromagnetic wave
Cables
Used at frequencies below 35 GHz
Waveguides
Used between 0.4 GHz to 350 GHz
Quasi-optical system
Used above 30 GHz
Guided electromagnetic wave (2)
TEM wave in cables and quasi-optical systems (same as free space)
TH,TE and combinations in waveguides
E or H field component in the direction of propagation
Wave bounces on the inner walls of the guide
Lower and upper frequency limits
Cross section dimensions proportional to wavelength
Rectangular waveguide
Launching of EM wave
Open up the cable and
separate wires
Dipole antenna
Open and flare up
wave guide
Horn
antenna
Transition from guided wave to free space wave
Reciprocity
Transmission and reception antennas can be used interchangeably
Medium must be linear, passive and isotropic
Caveat: Antennas are usually optimised for reception or transmission
not both !
Basic antenna parameters
Radiation pattern
Beam area and beam efficiency
Effective aperture and aperture efficiency
Directivity and gain
Radiation resistance
Radiation pattern
Far field patterns
Field intensity decreases with increasing distance, as 1/r
Radiated power density decreases as 1/r
2
Pattern (shape) independent on distance
Usually shown only in principal planes

2
D
2 r : field Far >
D : largest dimension of the antenna
e.g. r > 220 km for APEX at 1.3 mm !
Radiation pattern (2)
) , ( | u
u
E
) , ( | u
|
E
2
0
2 2
) , ( ) , (
) , ( r
Z
E E
P
| u | u
| u
| u
+
=
Field patterns
max
) , (
) , (
) , (
| u
| u
| u
P
P
P
n
=
+ phase patterns
) , ( | u
u
) , ( | u
|
HPBW: half power beam width
Beam area and beam efficiency

}} } }
O = = O
t
t t
| u | u u | u
4
2
0 0
) , ( ) sin( ) , ( d P d d P
n n A
Main beam area
Minor lobes area
O = O
}}
d P
beam
Main
n M
) , ( | u
O = O
}}
d P
lobes
or
n m
min
) , ( | u
m M A
O + O = O
Beam area
A
M
M
O
O
= c
Main beam efficiency
Effective aperture and aperture efficiency
Receiving antenna extracts power from incident wave
e in rec
A S P =
For some antennas, there is a clear physical aperture
and an aperture efficiency can be defined
p
e
ap
A
A
= c
A
e
A
O
=
2

Aperture and beam area are linked:

Directivity and gain
average
P
P
D
) , (
) , (
max
| u
| u
=
A
n
d P
D
O
=
O
=
}}
t
| u
t
t
4
) , (
4
4
Isotropic antenna: t 4 = O
A
1 = D 2
4

t
e
A
D =
From pattern
From aperture
only losses ohmic to due lower than is
) 1 (0 factor efficiency
Gain
D G
k k
D k G
g g
g
< < =
=
Directivity
Radiation resistance
Antenna presents an impedance at its terminals
A A A
jX R Z + =
Resistive part is radiation resistance plus loss resistance
L R A
R R R + =
The radiation resistance does not correspond to a real resistor
present in the antenna but to the resistance of space coupled
via the beam to the antenna terminals.
Types of Antenna
Wire
Aperture
Arrays
Wire antenna
Dipole
Loop
Folded dipoles
Helical antenna
Yagi (array of dipoles)
Corner reflector
Many more types
Horizontal dipole
Wire antenna - resonance
Many wire antennas (but not all) are used at or near resonance
Some times it is not practical to built the whole resonant length
The physical length can be shortened using loading techniques
Inductive load: e.g. center, base or top coil (usually adjustable)
Capacitive load: e.g. capacitance hats (flat top at one or both ends)
Yagi-Uda
Elements Gain
dBi
Gain
dBd
3 7.5 5.5
4 8.5 6.5
5 10 8
6 11.5 9.5
7 12.5 10.5
8 13.5 11.5
Aperture antenna
Collect power over a well defined aperture
Large compared to wavelength
Various types:

Reflector antenna
Horn antenna
Lens

Reflector antenna
Shaped reflector: parabolic dish, cylindrical antenna
Reflector acts as a large collecting area and concentrates power onto
a focal region where the feed is located
Combined optical systems: Cassegrain, Nasmyth
Two (Cassegrain) or three (Nasmyth) mirrors are used to bring the focus
to a location where the feed including the transmitter/receiver can be
installed more easily.
Cassegrain antenna
Less prone to back scatter than simple parabolic antenna
Greater beam steering possibility: secondary mirror motion
amplified by optical system
Much more compact for a given f/D ratio
Cassegrain antenna (2)
Gain depends on diameter, wavelength, illumination
Effective aperture is limited by surface accuracy, blockage
Scale plate depends on equivalent focal length
Loss in aperture efficiency due to:
Tapered illumination
Spillover (illumination does not stop at the edge of the dish)
Blockage of secondary mirror, support legs
Surface irregularities (effect depends on wavelength)
deviation surface of rms 4 cos
2
=
|
.
|

\
|
= o

o
t
g
K
96 . 0 : efficiency blockage
94 . 0 : efficiency spillover
87 . 0 : efficiency taper
b
s
t
=
=
=
c
c
c At the SEST:
Horn antenna
Rectangular or circular waveguide flared up
Spherical wave fronts from phase centre
Flare angle and aperture determine gain
Short dipole
)
1 1
(
2
) cos(
3 2
0
) (
0
r j cr
le I
E
r t j
r
e tc
u
| e
+ =

)
1 1
(
4
) sin(
3 2 2
0
) (
0
r j cr r c
j le I
E
r t j
e
e
tc
u
| e
u
+ + =

)
1
(
4
) sin(
2
) (
0
r cr
j le I
H
r t j
+ =

e
t
u
| e
|
2
r
1
as varies P
r
1
as vary H E ,
2
| u
t

and r f or >>
Length much shorter than wavelength
Current constant along the length
Near dipole power is mostly reactive
As r increases E
r
vanishes, E and H gradually become in phase

u t
| e
u
l
r
e I j
E
r t j
) sin( 60
) (
0

=
Short dipole pattern
Short dipole power pat t ern
X Y , Z , ( )
.
0
30
60
90
120
150
180
210
240
270
300
330
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
PN
u
.
Short dipole power pat t ern
X Y , Z , ( )
.
3
8t
= O
A
5 . 1 = D
2
2
80
|
.
|

\
|
=

t
l
R
r
Thin wire antenna
Wire diameter is small compared to wavelength
Current distribution along the wire is no longer constant
dipole fed - centre

2
2
sin ) ( e.g.
0
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
= y
L
I y I

t
Using field equation for short dipole,
replace the constant current with actual distribution
( )
( )
point feed at current I dipole, fed - centre
sin
2
cos
2
cos
cos
60
0
) (
0
=
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|

|
.
|

\
|
=

u
| u |
| e
u
L L
r
e I j
E
r t j
Thin wire pattern
t hin wire cent re fed dipole power pat tern
X Y , Z , ( )
l 1

2
=
O
A
7.735 = D 1.625 =
t hin wire cent re fed dipole power pat tern
X Y , Z , ( )
l 1.395 =
O
A
5.097 = D 2.466 =
t hin wire cent re fed dipole power pat tern
X Y , Z , ( )
l 10 =
O
A
1.958 = D 6.417 =
0
30
60
90
120
150
180
210
240
270
300
330
Power patt ern of 2 isotropic sources
P
n
|
d 1

2
= o 0deg =
0
30
60
90
120
150
180
210
240
270
300
330
1.5
1
0.5
0
Field Patt ern of 2 isotropic sources
E |
i
( )
|
i
0
30
60
90
120
150
180
210
240
270
300
330
Power patt ern of 2 isotropic sources
P
n
|
d 1

2
= o 90 deg =
0
30
60
90
120
150
180
210
240
270
300
330
1.5
1
0.5
0
Field Patt ern of 2 isotropic sources
E |
i
( )
|
i
0
30
60
90
120
150
180
210
240
270
300
330
Power patt ern of 2 isotropic sources
P
n
|
d 1

2
= o 45 deg =
0
30
60
90
120
150
180
210
240
270
300
330
1.5
1
0.5
0
Field Patt ern of 2 isotropic sources
E |
i
( )
|
i
0
30
60
90
120
150
180
210
240
270
300
330
Power patt ern of 2 isotropic sources
P
n
|
d 1

2
= o 135 deg =
Array of isotropic point sources beam shaping
|
x
y
d
Array of isotropic point sources centre-fed array
0
30
60
90
120
150
180
210
240
270
300
330
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
Field Patt ern of n isot ropic sources
Ef
i
|
i
n 8 = o 0deg = d 0.5 =
0
30
60
90
120
150
180
210
240
270
300
330
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
Field Patt ern of n isot ropic sources
Ef
i
|
i
n 3 = o 67.5 deg = d 0.5 =
o |

t
| + = ) cos(
2
) (
d
( ) 2 / sin
2
sin
1
) (

|
.
|

\
|
=
n
n
E
n
|
x
y
d
o o 2o 2o 0
Array of isotropic point sources end-fired
0
30
60
90
120
150
180
210
240
270
300
330
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
Field End-fired, n isot ropic sources
Ef
i
|
i
n 10 = o 108 deg = d 1

4
=
end-fired array,n element s power pat tern
X Y , Z , ( )
n 10 = d 0.25 =
O
A
0.713 = D 17.627 =
( ) ( )
n
d t
|

t
| = 1 cos
2
) (
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
2
sin
2
sin
2
sin ) (

n
n
E
n
|
x
y
d
3o o 4o
2o 0
Pattern multiplication
The total field pattern of an array of non-isotropic but similar point sources
is the product of the individual source pattern and the pattern of an array of
isotropic point sources having the same locations,relative amplitudes and
phases as the non-isotropic point sources.
0
30
60
90
120
150
180
210
240
270
300
330
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
Primary field pat t ern
Ef1
i
|
i
n 2 = o1 104 deg = d1 0.3 =
0
30
60
90
120
150
180
210
240
270
300
330
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
Secondary field pat t ern
Ef2
i
|
i
n 2 = o2 180deg = d2 0.6 =
0
30
60
90
120
150
180
210
240
270
300
330
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
Total field pat t ern
Ef
i
|
i
Total pattern of two primary sources
(each an array of two isotropic sources)
replacing two isotropic sources (4
sources in total).
Patterns from line and area distributions
When the number of discrete elements in an array becomes large,
it may be easier to consider the line or the aperture distribution as
continuous.
line source:
line to normal anglefrom length, l , ) sin( u ) (
2
) (
1
1
= = = =
}
+

| |

tl
dx e x f
l
u E
jux
2-D aperture source:
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
on distributi field aperture ) , (
) , ( ,
sin cos sin
=
=
}}
+
y x f
dy dx e y x f E
aperture
y x j | | u |
| u
Fourier transform of aperture illumination
Diffraction limit
only estimate rough
D
HPBW

=
10 5 0 5 10
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
Ep
xp
300 240 180 120 60 0 60 120 180 240 300
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Far field
angular distance [arcsec]
P
o
w
e
r

p
a
t
t
e
r
n

[
d
B
]
3
10 5 0 5 10
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
Ep
xp
300 240 180 120 60 0 60 120 180 240 300
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Far field
angular distance [arcsec]
P
o
w
e
r

p
a
t
t
e
r
n

[
d
B
]
3
Predict ed power pat tern - SEST 1.3 mm - off axis 130 mm
EFN
.
Far field pattern from FFT of Aperture field distribution
Predict ed power pat tern - flat illuminat ion
EFN
.
Predict ed power pat tern - SEST 1.3 mm - on axis
EFN
.
Effect of edge taper
Predict ed power pat tern -16dB t aper
EFN
.
Predict ed power pat tern -8dB t aper
EFN
.
dBi versus dBd
dBi indicates gain vs. isotropic antenna
Isotropic antenna radiates equally well in all directions,
spherical pattern

dBd indicates gain vs. reference half-wavelength dipole
Dipole has a doughnut shaped pattern with a gain of 2.15 dBi
dB dBd dBi 15 . 2 + =
Feed and line matching
The antenna impedance must be matched by the line feeding
it if maximum power transfer is to be achieved
The line impedance should then be the complex conjugate of
that of the antenna
Most feed line are essentially resistive
Signal transmission, radar echo
, , ,
t t et
G P A
Receiving antenna
Transmitting antenna
r r er
G P A , ,
t r t
r t t
r
P G G
r
G
r
P G
P
2
2
2
4 4 4
|
.
|

\
|

=
t

t
( )
o
t

t
o
t
4
3
2 2
2 2
4
4 4 4
r
G G P
G
r r
P G
P
r t t
r t t
r
=

=
Radar return
S, power density Effective receiving area
S, power density
Effective receiving area Reflected
power density
(area) section cross radar = o
Antenna temperature
Power received from antenna as from a black body or the radiation
resitance at temperature Ta
The end