Intro to Hydropower

Part 3: Power, Efficiency, Transmission

Dan New
©2005 Dan New
& Equipment Selection
Photo courtesy of Eugenio Garcia Lopez

C
ompared to solar- or wind-powered systems, small- are only rough estimates, and you should consult with
scale hydroelectric systems are almost always the your turbine manufacturer or equipment supplier for more
least expensive way to make your own electricity. accurate projections.
Most people don’t have a stream with adequate flow and Both head and flow have a linear effect on power.
vertical drop, but if you do, pat yourself on the back. You’re Double the head and power doubles. Double the flow and
the envy of your renewable energy neighborhood! power doubles. Keep in mind that total head will remain
In the first two articles in this series, I covered system constant once your system is installed—you can count
components and design, and ways of measuring head on it year-round. Increasing head is the least expensive
(vertical drop) and water flow at your site. This time, I’ll way to increase power generation because it has minimal
discuss calculating the power available from a given stream, effect on turbine size. You can increase head by going
system efficiency, options for transmitting electricity from higher up the creek to place the intake, or lower down
your hydro turbine to your home, and several other factors for the turbine. Don’t overlook the head that you have on
that make a good hydro system. your property.
In contrast, flow will likely change significantly over
Computing Water Power the course of a year, and it’s rarely cost effective to size
Net head is the vertical drop from your pipeline intake your hydro system for maximum, flood-level flow. Always
to your turbine, adjusted for pipe friction (losses caused maximize head, and work with your turbine supplier to
by water moving through a pipeline). Design flow is the determine the most practical design flow.
amount of water you have to work with. See “Intro to Accuracy is important! The design of your system
Hydropower, Part 2” in HP104 to learn how to measure revolves around your measurements of head and flow, and
these two important site variables. Once you’ve determined errors will directly affect the efficiency of your system. Take
net head and design flow, you can begin to estimate the the time to measure head and flow carefully before you
potential output of a hydro system. These computations begin to evaluate hydro system components.

30 home power 105 / february & march 2005

 hydro intro
Efficiency & Losses
In addition to pipeline losses, small amounts of energy will
be lost through friction within the turbine, drive system, Example DC system
generator, and transmission lines. Although some efficiency
losses are inevitable, don’t underestimate the importance Gross head: 135 feet (41 meters)
of good design. Efficient systems produce greater output, Measured flow: 25 to 100 gpm, (1.6 to 6.3 l/s)
often at a lower cost per watt. A system that is carefully
matched to your site’s head and flow usually won’t cost any Pipeline length: 900 feet (274 m)
more than a less suitable design. But it will be much more Gross power: 350 to 1,200 watts
efficient, producing more electricity from your available
resource. Other improvements, such as larger pipeline A DC, battery-based system with an inverter is
diameter or a better drive system may yield enough added the best choice for a hydro site with the above
power to justify their higher cost. parameters. If an AC turbine were used, peak
Because of the many variables in system design, it is usage would be limited to about 1,200 watts at
impossible to estimate efficiency without first knowing your peak flow. This peak power figure would not be
head and flow. As a general guideline, however, you can sufficient to run the combined electrical loads of
expect a home-sized system generating direct AC power to most households. Installation of a turbine with DC
operate at about 60 to 70 percent “water-to-wire” efficiency output would allow energy storage in a battery
(measured between turbine input and generator output). bank, and an inverter or inverters would be able
Smaller DC systems generally have lower efficiencies of 40 to provide as much instantaneous power as was
to 60 percent, though recent testing by Home Power shows required by the residence.
that some small turbines can achieve efficiencies in the low With a design flow of 100 gpm, using 3-inch
70 percent range, depending on the system and electronics. diameter PVC pipe would result in a head loss
If you have accurate measurements for your head and of 2.33 feet per 100 feet of pipe, for a net head of
flow, your turbine supplier will be able to provide some 114 feet (35 m), and a maximum power output
preliminary estimates of efficiency, as well as ideas for of about 1,200 watts at maximum flow. Over a
optimization. 24-hour period, this system would produce 28.8
KWH. As summer approached and the flow rate
A Rough Formula dropped off to the site’s minimum of 25 gpm, the
You can get pretty nerdy with power calculations for hydro same 3-inch pipe would result in a net head of 133
systems. For larger systems, this is certainly justified, and feet (41 m), and a power output of about 350 W, or
any supplier worth dealing with can crunch the numbers. 8.4 KWH per day. This would typically be enough
But when you’re just getting an idea of the potential of your energy to power all the electric appliances in an
site, what’s needed is a simple formula. efficient home, excluding cooking, space heating,
Net Head x Design Flow ÷ Adjustment Factor and water heating.
= Power in Watts

If you multiply the net head in feet by the flow in gallons

per minute and divide by an adjustment factor, you’ll get
the continuous potential power output of the turbine in
watts. Use a factor of 9 for AC systems, and a factor of 10 to
13 for DC systems. wires all contribute to energy losses. You can minimize these
So if you have 100 feet (30 m) of head and 200 gallons losses, but the electricity you can actually use will always be
(757 l) per minute, using 10 as the factor, you’ll get roughly somewhat less than what your system is generating.
2,000 watts, or 2 KW. Multiply that by 24 hours in a day and There are three ways to reduce or compensate for
you have 48 KWH per day (which is a lot). transmission line losses:
• Use a shorter transmission line
Transmission
• Use larger wires
The last important measurement is the distance between
• Increase the voltage on the transmission line
your generator and either your battery bank (for DC
systems) or where you’ll be using the electricity (for AC Shorter lines and larger wires will reduce line losses
systems). As with your pipeline, all you need to do is for any system, but voltage considerations are significantly
measure the distance along the route you plan to run your different between DC and AC systems. Transformers may
wiring. be used to reduce wire size in long transmission lines, and
Transmission lines are a lot like pipelines. Instead of step-down, MPPT controllers can allow your turbine to
moving water, they move electrical energy, but the same run at high voltage while charging your battery at a lower
fundamentals of friction losses apply. Longer transmission voltage. Your turbine supplier can help you determine the
lines, higher current, lower system voltage, and smaller best solution for your site.

www.homepower.com
31
hydro intro
Turbine Runner
The runner is the heart of the turbine. This is where water
Example AC System power is transformed into the rotational force that drives
the generator. Regardless of the runner type, its buckets
Gross head: 230 feet (70 meters) or blades are responsible for capturing the most possible
Measured flow: 220 gpm to 900 gpm (14–56 l/s) energy from the water. The curvature of each surface,
front and rear, determines how the water will push its way
Pipeline length: 1,700 feet (518 m) around until it falls away. Also keep in mind that any given
Gross power: 5 to 20 KW runner will perform most efficiently at a specific head and
flow. The type and size of your runner should be closely
Clearly, a direct-generating AC system could be matched to your site characteristics.
built at this site. The flow range could support Look for all-metal runners with smooth, polished
development of a 5, 10, or 20 KW system, surfaces to eliminate water and air turbulence. One-piece,
depending on the selection of pipe diameter. As carefully machined runners typically run more efficiently
an example, by choosing 6-inch diameter PVC and reliably than those that are bolted together. Bronze
pipe and planning on a design flow of 450 gpm manganese runners work well for small systems with clean
(28 l/s), head loss would be about 1.3 feet per 100 water and heads up to about 500 feet (152 m). High-tensile
feet of pipe, for a calculated net head of 208 feet stainless steel runners are excellent for larger systems or
(63 m), and an expected system output of 10.5 abrasive water conditions. All runners should be carefully
KW. This would be a very nice system to supply balanced to minimize vibration, a problem that not only
all the energy needs of a home/shop/greenhouse affects efficiency, but can also cause unnecessary wear on
complex. the turbine over time.

Turbine Housing
The turbine housing must be well built and sturdy, since
What Makes a Quality Hydro System? it manages forces of the incoming water as well as the
Think of a hydroelectric system in terms of efficiency and outgoing shaft power. In addition, its shape and dimensions
reliability. In a perfect world, efficiency would be 100 percent. have a significant effect on efficiency. For example, consider
All the energy within the water would be transformed to the
rotating shaft. There would be no air or water turbulence, no
mechanical resistance from the turbine’s bearings or drive
system, and the runner would be perfectly balanced. The
signs of energy loss—heat, vibration, and noise—would
be absent. Of course, the perfect turbine would also never
break down or require maintenance.
Obviously, no turbine system will ever achieve this
degree of perfection. But it’s good to keep these goals in
mind, because better efficiency and reliability translate into
more power and a lower cost per watt. Quality components
and careful machining make a big difference in turbine
efficiency and reliability. Here are just a few of the things to
consider when selecting a turbine.

A 3.75-inch pitch
diameter Pelton
runner from
Harris Hydro for
high head, low
flow sites.

The author
inspects a 990-
pound, 22-inch
pitch diameter
Turgo-style
runner for an 880
KW turbine.

32 home power 105 / february & march 2005

 hydro intro
a Pelton-type turbine. As an impulse turbine, it is driven
by one or more jets of water, but spins in air. This means
that both hydrodynamic and aerodynamic forces must be
considered in the design of the housing. It must minimize
the resistance from splash and spray, and smoothly exhaust
tail waters, yet also be sized and shaped properly to
minimize losses due to air turbulence. Similarly, housings
for high-flow designs like crossflow and Francis turbines
must be precisely engineered to smoothly channel large
volumes of water through the turbine without causing
pockets of turbulence.
Look for a smoothly welded housing that is carefully
matched to the proper runner for your site. Keep in mind
that both the water forces and the runner will be producing
considerable torque, so the housing material and all fittings
should be heavy duty. Mating surfaces, such as pipe flanges
and access covers, should be machined flat and leak free.
Like this Energy Systems & Design alternator from a Stream
Since water promotes rust and corrosion, make sure all Engine turbine, many small, DC, hydroelectric units now use
vulnerable surfaces are protected with high-quality powder more efficient, brushless, permanent magnet alternators.
coating or epoxy paint. All bolts should be stainless steel.

Other Turbine Considerations run at a specific frequency. Larger AC-direct turbines are
All surfaces that carry water can impact efficiency, from the designed to run at a specific speed (and therefore a fixed
intake to your pipeline to the raceway that carries the tail frequency), with governors to regulate the speed. The AC
waters away from your turbine. Look for smooth surfaces output of smaller, battery charging units is always rectified
with no sharp bends. Jets and flow control vanes should be to DC, so the energy generated by the turbine can be stored
finely machined with no discernable ripples or pits. in batteries. The system’s inverter converts this DC to AC at
Efficiency is important, but so are durability and a fixed frequency.
dependability. Your hydroelectric project should deliver Alternative Power and Machine, Energy Systems and
clean electricity without interruption. The quality of Design, and Harris Hydroelectric all manufacture turbines
components and their installation can make a big difference with brushless PM alternators. These alternators are very
on the quality of your life in the years to come. Look for flexible in terms of their output voltage. The AC output of
quality workmanship in the design and construction of the turbine can be rectified to DC at the turbine for short
seal systems, shaft material and machining, and all related transmission runs. High-voltage units operating at 120 VAC
components. Pay particular attention to the selection and or higher can transmit the AC output of the turbine over
mounting of bearings; they should spin smoothly, without longer distances. This AC output is then stepped down
grating or binding. at the batteries to match the nominal battery voltage, and
rectified to DC. In addition, transformers can be used to
Alternator further step up the output voltage for transmission. Finally,
In the past, most small, battery-charging, hydroelectric the specific wiring configuration (delta, wye, etc.) of the
turbines relied on off-the-shelf alternators with brushes. alternator is flexible, allowing the output to be optimized
These alternators work well, especially when a specific for a specific hydro site.
stator is chosen, based on the parameters of a given hydro For larger, AC-direct turbines, good quality alternators
site. Swapping out the stator optimizes the alternator’s are available from a number of sources, and the reputation
rpm, and increases the turbine’s output. While these types of the generator manufacturer is an excellent place to begin
of alternators are still used due to their low cost, they your selection process. Marathon Electric, Kato Engineering,
are not ideal. The major drawback is that the alternator’s and Stamford Newage, are all well known and respected
brushes need regular replacement. These days, brushless small generator builders serving an international market.
permanent magnet (PM) alternators are available, and are For a household- or ranch-sized AC-direct turbine under
a better choice, since they eliminate the need for brush 50 KW, you would normally choose a single-phase output,
replacement. In addition, brushless permanent magnet two bearing alternator. Quality alternators are available in a
alternators perform at higher efficiencies, increasing your variety of voltages, phases, and output frequencies to match
hydro system’s output. your local utility electricity. Three-phase units are selected
Regardless of type, an alternator’s output is always for larger projects, for large motor loads, or complex
AC. The frequency of the AC will vary depending on the distribution schemes.
rotational speed of the alternator, which is a direct function If you are able to match your turbine speed to a common
of the pressure available at the turbine. This AC output is generator synchronous speed, then use a direct-drive
not usable as is, because AC appliances are designed to coupling between the turbine shaft and generator shaft if

www.homepower.com
33
hydro intro
Turbine Supplier
When it comes to suppliers, there is no substitute for
experience. While the principles of hydropower can be
mastered indoors, it is real world experience that teaches
both the highlights and pitfalls of diverting water from a
stream, pressurizing it, and forcing it through a turbine. A
turbine supplier with many years of field experience will be
invaluable as you design and build your hydro system.
Look for an experienced supplier that specializes in
the size and type of hydro system you intend to build.
A good supplier will work with you, beginning with
your measurements of head and flow, to help you
determine the right pipeline size, net head, design flow,
turbine specifications, drive system, generator, and load
management system. You should be able to count on your
supplier to make suggestions for optimizing efficiency
The balance of system components for a DC hydro system and dependability, including their effects on cost and
are very much like a photovoltaic system, except the charge performance. A good turbine supplier is your partner, and
controller shunts to a diversion load. should take a personal interest in your success. After all, a
satisfied customer is very good for business.

possible. It may be worth the investment in a slower speed Next Steps

generator to make this possible. If it is necessary to use a belt Armed with four essential measurements—head, flow,
drive between the major components, then avoid two-pole pipeline length, and transmission line length—you’re ready
generators, and pay the extra money to install a four-pole to begin evaluating your site for a hydroelectric system. As
generator. Four-pole units have a 60-Hertz synchronous we discussed in Part 1 of this series, there are many choices
speed of 1,800 rpm, half the speed of the two-pole units, four to make about DC vs. AC, intake designs, turbine types, etc.
times the weight, and six times the life. A standard feature Many of these decisions will become obvious once your four
in most industrial-quality generators will be an automatic measurements are complete.
voltage regulator (AVR). The AVR will maintain steady Advice from turbine suppliers can be invaluable
voltage over a broad range of generator loads. during your design process. If you provide them with your
measurements, most suppliers will propose a system that
is tailored to your site characteristics. You may find that
a given supplier will specialize in certain types of systems
(like DC or AC), but most are happy to refer you to someone
In an AC hydro system, an electronic load governor
automatically adjusts the load on the generator
else when appropriate.
to maintain constant voltage. Emphasize efficiency. Your head and flow determine
how much raw water power is available, but efficiency
determines how much of it you’ll be able to transform into
usable electricity. There are cost trade-offs, of course, but in
many cases, a more efficient system will result in a lower
cost per watt. This is especially important if you’re thinking
of connecting to the grid, where higher efficiency means
more dollars in your pocket.
I hope you have found this series of articles on
hydropower helpful. I’ve only scratched the surface of this
substantial topic, but I hope I’ve whetted your appetite. As
you’ve seen, the concepts behind hydropower are simple.
Water turns a turbine, the turbine spins a generator, and
electricity comes out the other side. Even a novice with little
or no experience could produce some hydroelectricity—
given enough water power.
Do you have a stream? Of the three most popular
renewable energy technologies, hydropower delivers the
most watts for the investment, and can be most accurately
assessed. A few quick measurements will tell you if you
have hydro potential. In any event, you’ll have a great time
playing in the water.

34 home power 105 / february & march 2005

 hydro intro
Access
Dan New, Canyon Hydro, 5500 Blue Heron Ln., Deming,
WA 98244 • 360-592-5552 • Fax: 360-592-2235 •
dan.new@canyonhydro.com • www.canyonhydro.com

Energy Systems & Design, PO Box 4557, Sussex, NB,

E4E 5L7, Canada • 506-433-3151 • Fax: 506-433-6151 •
hydropow@nbnet.nb.ca • www.microhydropower.com

Harris Hydroelectric, 632 Swanton Rd., Davenport, CA

95017 • 831-425-7652 • www.harrishydro.com

Alternative Power & Machine, 4040 Highland Ave., Grants

Pass, OR 97526 • 541-476-8916 • altpower@grantspass.com •
www.apmhydro.com

User Friendly Hydro Power

Three Men and a Baby!
Introducing the “Water Baby”...
Another breakthrough in water powered generators.

Now Featuring Permanent Magnet Alternators

Alternative Power & Machine

4040 Highland Ave. Unit #H • Grants Pass, OR 97526 • 541-476-8916
altpower@grantspass.com

www.apmhydro.com

• Brushless permanent magnet design

• Adjustable while running
• Operates with as little as 3 gpm
• 12, 24, 48 volts and higher available

Energy Systems & Design, ltd.

www.microhydropower.com 506-433-3151

www.homepower.com
35