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Summer Assignment Part II Notes: CIA World Factbook 2007 Russ Rowlett's UNC Guide

1) All scientific understanding comes from careful measurement of phenomena in the universe. However, all measurements have uncertainty due to limitations of measurement devices. 2) It is important to track uncertainties through calculations by propagating errors. This allows reporting results with the correct number of significant figures determined by the original measurements. 3) Students are expected to consider measurement uncertainties and propagate errors in appropriate calculations, such as when analyzing lab data, but not for simple homework problems unless directed to do so.

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138 views6 pages

Summer Assignment Part II Notes: CIA World Factbook 2007 Russ Rowlett's UNC Guide

1) All scientific understanding comes from careful measurement of phenomena in the universe. However, all measurements have uncertainty due to limitations of measurement devices. 2) It is important to track uncertainties through calculations by propagating errors. This allows reporting results with the correct number of significant figures determined by the original measurements. 3) Students are expected to consider measurement uncertainties and propagate errors in appropriate calculations, such as when analyzing lab data, but not for simple homework problems unless directed to do so.

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Jingyi Zhou
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Summer Assignment Part II Notes

[Produced by D. Forbes, any and all errors in this document are owned by him.] The practitioners of science (we call them scientists) produce advances in science i.e., get closer to an accurate description and understanding of the workings of the universe by making careful observations of the behavior of the universe, and then thinking deeply about the implications of that behavior. Often, those observation involve careful measurements of one or more parameters of some subset of the universe; electric field, particle energy, temperature, mass, velocity, momentum In fact, it is not hyperbole to state that all our understanding of the physical universe is ultimately based on measurement, even if that measurement is nothing more than counting. This assignment is primarily to carefully read these notes, work through the several examples and exercises, and think about the central importance of measurement in science.

Section 1 Dimensions & Units


All of the numerous physical quantities you will learn to use in our AP physics course are combinations of only four fundamental physical dimensions; the amount of stuff (mass), length, time, and (for the second semester) amount of electric current. We could call these many other quantities, derived quantities, since they are derives from the fundamental quantities. EXAMPLE 1. Area is proportional to a length times a length, L2; volume proportional to a length cubed, L3, and the magnitude of velocity (we must be careful about calling this speed) is a length divided by a time, L/T. The mass density of a three-dimensional object (there are many types of density, I need to be specific) has dimensions of mass divided by volume, M/L3. To be internally consistent, and to be able to effectively communicate our observations to others, we must pick some system of units that we will use to measure our fundamental and derived dimensions. Historically, there have been many such systems, now there is only one the Systme International d'Units, or SI system (commonly, but erroneously, known of the metric system). 1 A PREREQUISITE FOR THIS COURSE IS FOR YOU TO BE COMPETENT IN THE USE OF THE SI SYSTEM. 2 In the SI system our three base dimensions for mechanics are measured in kilograms (careful chemistry students!) meters, and seconds. Now, we need to discuss the nature of measurements.
In some quarters of the U.S. engineering community, this statement might get an argument. However, only three countries on our planet have not adopted the SI system of units; Burma (Myanmar), Liberia, and the U.S. CIA World Factbook 2007
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Guidance is everywhere. Here is a reasonable discussion: Russ Rowlett's UNC Guide

Section 2 All Measurements Are Uncertain


There are no perfect or ideal measurement devices. In classical physics, we might try to imagine such perfect instruments, but all physicists recognize that no such piece of equipment could ever be constructed. [The modern, quantum mechanical view requires we remove ourselves even further from the notion of exact measurements; but we leave that discussion to Dr. Dell.] As a result of this inherent imperfection, all given physical values have an associated uncertainty. Does this mean that all the values in a formula are uncertain? No. The statement that there are 100 centimeters in 1 meter is a definition, the conversion factor is exact. In the formula for the volume of a sphere, V = 4 3 R 3 , the 4/3 and come from the geometry of the object (the integration of the volume element) and are exact, however, the radius is a measured quantity with associated uncertainty. The square root of 2 may be an exact value, or, it could be that the 2.00 seconds is a measured value. You must determine what to do in the situation under consideration. EXAMPLE 2. Lets find the surface area of this sheet of paper. Well be twenty-first century humans and use SI units. Printer paper needs to be fairly uniform so as not to jam printers. I get 27.95 cm for the length, and 21.70 cm for the width. The usual rule of thumb is to assign a variance of one in the last given digit, which by definition is uncertain (unless you know better). That seems to be appropriate in this case; when I move the ruler back-and-forth along the height and width of the paper I get about one 10th of a millimeter variance. So, my calculation for the area would be A = (27.95 cm .01 cm)( 21.70 cm .01 cm). I get 606.5 cm2 0.5 cm2. How did I get that? [Please excuse my handwritten solution nearly all the details of my solutions in this course will be handwritten, so you will have to get used to my handwriting.]

This example also serves to justify the use of significant figures in calculations. [Forever more, sig figs.] Sig figs are simply a statement about what happens when you carry your uncertainties through your calculations. In our example above, the lengths were only known to four sig figs, so the answer could only be given to four sig figs. FOLLOW THE RULES FOR REPORTING SIGNIFICANT FIGURES IN ALL CALCULATIONS! 3 EXERCISE 1. You examine a piece of wood that appears to be a precisely-cut cube. Using a meter stick graduated in millimeters, you carefully measure the length of each face, finding it to be 22.6 cm. The distance between the millimeter marks is very small, but you can see (barely!) that the measurement of each face is not exactly 22.6 cm, but a little more or less. So, 22.6 cm is not an exact measurement for at least two reasons; one, you can see that the block of wood, though produced very carefully, was not perfectly cut, and two, you have no reason to believe that the 22.6 cm mark on the meter stick is exactly at 22.6 cm. What is the volume of the wooden cube in standard SI units? [You must make, AND CLEARLY STATE, your assumptions about the magnitude of the measurement error.] What we have been doing in the above examples is propagating error. The word propagation means to move through. [Sound propagates through air (or water, or rock )] So, the error in our measurements moves through, or propagates, through our calculations. There are entire texts devoted to the analysis of experimental (or measurement, or observational) errors. Here is a useful one with a cute cover:

See the Wikipedia article Significant Figures PAY ATTENTION TO THE ROUNDING RULE FOR INTERMEDIATE CALCULATIONS UNDER THE HEADING ARITHMETIC.

You are not required to purchase or study this text. [However, I did use it to good effect in my lab courses at UCLA ] It is full of material like the following [please, dont memorize this!]:

What does all this stuff mean? Well, first, note that Taylor proves these assertions in ensuing chapters. Second, these formulas from Taylor are approximations, while the method of Example 2 is not. Third, I will also use the delta notation, , to indicate small values of a quantity. Lets use this notation to examine the general case of finding rectangular area: EXAMPLE 3.

[The method of Example 2 will always work to propagate experimental errors through a calculation.] EXERCISE 2. Find the volume mass density, and its associated uncertainty, of a coiled length of copper wire with a mass of 11.620 g 0.001g (found on an analytical balance in good condition) that displaces 1.3 ml 0.1 ml of water when placed in a graduated cylinder. Note that the so-called exact value is not centered between the min and max values. What should you do?
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We will discuss the proper analysis of repeated measurements is the course of our lab work.

Under what circumstances should you propagate error through your calculations? In other words, when do the preceding five pages of discussion apply to your work in this course? Propagate error any time you take a measurement(s) in the lab and need to use that measurement(s) in a calculation. Not when you are working problems for homework or on a test or quiz (unless directed to do so). Use the concepts of sig figs when reporting ANY numerical results of calculations in this course; never tell me the mass of a baseball is 0.354269784320 kg! I will ask you to produce your magical 23rd-century analytical balance.

In summary, all the information that we have about the universe comes to use through some sort of measurement. You will be required to think about and report the sources of experimental error (measurement uncertainty) in your laboratory work. You will often be required to propagate those errors into your final result(s). WARNING! Experimental errors are NOT mistakes. Experimental errors ARE limitations in the apparatus and/or experimental methodology that produce quantifiable limits on the accuracy and/or precision of your measurements. NEVER EVER USE THE PHRASE HUMAN ERROR in any work you turn in! If a human made an error (a mistake), what was it, and why was it not corrected? [Please, dont embarrass yourself by using this sloppy, bogus phrase from middle school.]

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