12

OPENING MINDS
AN EVALUATIVE
LITERATURE REVIEW
DR SARAH AYNSLEY
DR CHRIS BROWN
PROFESSOR JUDY SEBBA
JULY 2012
www.thersa.org
O

Contents
Executive summary 2
What the review set out to do 5
1 Evidence to support a competency-based approach 10
2 Specic competency systems 18
3 Evidence to support a competency-based
approach to assessment 25
Concluding comments and recommendations 34
Appendix: Search terms 42
Opening Minds i
Executive summary
This document reports on an independent literature review aimed at
developing an evidence base related to the value of a competence-based
curriculum in secondary schools both generally, and with specic refer-
ence to the RSA Opening Minds competences. The review sought to
explore difering interpretations of competence and to ofer a working
denition. Comprehensive searching of the literature was undertaken and
included electronic databases, websites and citation tracking. Literature
identied included empirical studies, peer and non-peer reviewed research
papers, research syntheses, policy documents, unpublished literature and
theoretical papers.
Opening Minds covers a wide range of outcomes and embraces many
of the conceptual positions supported by the research reviewed in this
report. However, there are insumcient empirical studies and none except
the :oro evaluation commissioned by the RSA that specically address
the OM programme. The little empirical work that exists in this area
suggests that RSA should be encouraged: their competency framework
is more balanced than most others reviewed in this report. For example
the EUs competencies are heavily weighted to Learning; Hoskins and
Deakin-Cricks to Citizenship and Managing Situations; PISAs to
Learning and Managing Information. Jaros and Deakin-Crick (:oo;,
p. o) support these characteristics of Opening Minds in suggesting:
The RSA Curriculum Project Opening Minds (:oo) is another example
of an innovative approach to the curriculum for school-aged students that
aims at integration, rather than a subject-based and thus fragmented ap-
proach to knowledge. It lends itself to a more holistic and learner-centred
approach that encourages interdisciplinary enquiry, the stimulation of
learning power, and the acquisition of transferable skills.
Main recommendations
Recommendation 1: The Opening Minds curriculum resonates well with
both the economic and wider learning characteristics that emerge from
the review as important. As such the RSA should be promoting both the
versatility of its curriculum and how it appears to meet the diverse aims
or drivers underpinning competence based approaches.
Recommendation 2: If they are to lead to expertise and competence, CBE
must be grounded in the local and individual context and this is what OM
already does.
Recommendation 3: Since the evidence supports a view of competence as
embracing a diverse range or types of knowledge, tailoring OM must also
be realised by students being able to use standard knowledge in a local-
ised context as well as embracing other existing knowledge types.
Executive summary
Recommendation 4: The evidence on learning power implies that the CBE
should centre on learning as a skill rather than simply lead students to
acquire knowledge. As such, teachers using the OM curriculum should
ensure that OM is fully grounded in an understanding of a conception
of learning skills and, in particular how such skills can be developed
over time.
Recommendation 5: The RSA should consider its denition of competence
and choose one that has salience with the main stakeholders concerned
(i.e. teachers, learners and employers) whilst also reecting the myriad
and diverse outcomes that OM supports.
Recommendation 6: For schools involved in OM, ensure that those
teaching OM are themselves competent to do so (i.e. are comfortable
in their roles as coaches and experts and the balance required between
these roles and the need for self-responsibility and self-reection in their
students) and are able to demonstrate the competences that are required
of their pupils.
Recommendation 7:
Where competence development is the ultimate goal, educational pro-
grammes including the following eight aspects suggested by Wesselink
et al (:oo, p. ::) should be considered by those using OM.

Aspect 1: The competencies that are the basis for the study pro-
gramme are clearly dened;

Aspect 2: Core professional problems are the organising
unit for designing or redesigning the curriculum (learning
and assessment);

Aspect 3: Competence development of students is assessed be-
fore, during, and after the learning process;

Aspect 4: Learning activities take place in various
authentic situations;

Aspect 5: Knowledge, skills, and attitudes are integrated in
learning and assessment processes;

Aspect 6: Self-responsibility and (self-) reection of students
are stimulated;

Aspect 7: Teachers, both in school and in the workplace, balance
their roles as coaches and experts;

Aspect 8: A basis is established for a lifelong learning attitude
among students.
Recommendation 8: Teachers using OM should make explicit the links
between curricular subjects such that the interrelated nature of competen-
cies can be addressed.
Recommendation 9: The emphasis placed in the OM curriculum on
Managing emotions should be maintained given the evidence on the
importance of these competencies in and out of the workplace.
Opening Minds
Recommendation 10: As the OM programme aims to develop a wide
range of competences, assessment processes need to reect this and
ensure that the drive to gain a formal qualication does not inhibit wider
learning and that the assessment process is not divorced from the peda-
gogical approach.
Recommendation 11: If formal accreditation is brought into the OM pro-
gramme, diferent actors such as students and teachers can provide useful
input for the format and operation of competency based assessments.
Recommendation 12: An appropriate system of assessment of OM compe-
tencies should embrace the principles of Assessment for Learning through
a collaborative approach, in particular by sharing the criteria for learning
with the learners incorporating self and peer-assessment and ensuring
feedback informs future teaching and learning.
The RSA should consider re-evaluating the efectiveness of Opening
Minds looking at the impact at school, teacher and pupil level with a view
to strengthening existing arguments regarding its emcacy. Whilst ac-
knowledging that accreditation of the OM programme is at school level,
the overall accreditation process could draw on Hipkins et al (:oro) in
asking: how the competencies will be assessed and reported on, who will
be involved in the assessment and what kind of professional development
supports the efective use of the Opening Minds curriculum?
Bibliography
EU (:ooo) (Recommendation :ooo/,o:/EC of the European Parliament and of
the Council of r8 December :ooo [Omcial Journal L , of o.r:.:ooo]).
Hipkins, R., Reid, A. & Bull, A. (:oro) Some reections on the philosophical
and pedagogical challenges of transforming education Curriculum Journal
:r, r, ro,rr8.
Hoskins, B. and Deakin-Crick, R. (:oro) Competences for Learning to Learn
and Active Citizenship: diferent currencies or two sides of the same coin?
European Journal of Education, Special Issue: Knowledge, Globalisation
and Curriculum, , r, r:rr;.
Jaros, M., and Deakin-Crick, R. (:oo;) Personalised learning for the post-
mechanical age: Journal of Curriculum Studies, ,:, :o.
Wesselink, R., Jong, C. & Biemans, H.J.A. (:oo,) Aspects of competence-based
education as footholds to improve the connectivity between learning in school and
in the workplace vocations and learning. Vocations and Learning, , r, r,8.
Schleicher, A. (:oo;) PISA :ooo Science Competencies for Tomorrows World,
Paris: OECD.
What the review set out to do
What the review set out to do
The aim of the review was to develop an evidence base related to the
value of a competence-based curriculum in secondary schools both gener-
ally, and with specic reference to the RSA Opening Minds competences.
We sought to explore difering interpretations of competence and to
ofer a working denition. The review was organised around the follow-
ing three key questions:

What is the evidence to support a competence-based approach
to education generally-including the impact on both outcomes
and pedagogy?

What is the evidence base for the competences dened by Open-
ing Minds and how do these compare to other competences as
utilised by other approaches?

How could the outcomes and impacts of Opening Minds be
measured and evaluated?
Background
Context
The current policy context with its focus on revising the curriculum,
employability skills and the links between schooling and work, pro-
vides an important justication for undertaking this review. There are
many policy initiatives which are particularly pertinent to the efective
operation of the Opening Minds curricular model. Policies which spe-
cically address schools include: curricular changes (eg to the National
Curriculum and the introduction of the EBacc); assessment modications
(eg an increasing emphasis on end-of-course assessment and the reduction
in opportunities to resit exams); institutional change (eg the prolifera-
tion of free schools, academies and University Technical Colleges); and
changes to the monitoring of schools performance (eg the new guidelines
for school performance tables). In addition, the Education and Skills Act
(DCSF :oo8) introduced legislation to ensure all young people in England
remain in education or training until they are r8.
The review of the National Curriculum commissioned by the
Coalition Government provides an important opportunity for debate
about the future of the curriculum. The expert panels report (DfE,
:orr) recommended that the revisions to the curriculum should encour-
age high expectations for all and reduce the amount of prescription. In
particular, they proposed that levels are abandoned and the purposes,
progression and inter-connections between the knowledge that pupils
are to be taught should be made more explicit. The panels report empha-
sised the importance of breadth suggesting it should be increased at Key
Stage . To maintain breadth whilst also reducing prescription, the panel
recommended reclassifying Design Technology, Citizenship and ICT to
the basic curriculum which would reduce requirements on schools whilst
preserving the statutory status of these subjects. This could open up
The Education and
Skills Act (DCSF
) introduced
legislation to ensure
all young people
in England remain
in education or
training until
they are
Opening Minds
opportunities for more cross-curricular activities that promote the type
of competencies included in the Opening Minds curriculum.
In Scotland, the Curriculum for Excellence introduced in :oo is
encapsulated in the four capacities to enable each child or young person
to be a successful learner, a condent individual, a responsible citizen
and an efective contributor. The curricular aims are to ensure that all
children and young people in Scotland develop the knowledge, skills
and attributes they will need if they are to ourish in life, learning and
work, now and in the future. Examinations and specialisation occur in
the fourth year of secondary school. The less prescriptive nature of the
curriculum (for example in comparison to England) was welcomed as a
means of recognising the professional judgement of teachers but contrast-
ingly is regarded as too vague. Its strength is in the relevance of content
that teachers have been able to select and in how the curricular areas
are addressed. The vagueness is however, leading to questions about the
viability of assessing it.
There are also relevant policy initiatives from employer and higher
education representative bodies. For example, a recent CBI report noted
that there is a big issue of a failure [for pupils] to grasp why learning
is important and for gaining a basic insight into the world of work
(CBI :orr p. ,). The CBI subsequently recommended the development
of a new standard which would enable selected institutions to achieve
Employability School status, one that has an engagement with business
and involves teamwork and problem-solving. This type of recommenda-
tion will have resonance for schools involved with the Opening Minds
programme. In addition, the recent Higher Education White Paper (BIS
:orr), reinforced government concerns regarding the development of
employability skills in graduates. The president elect of AGCAS (the
Association of Graduate Career Advisory Services) recently distinguished
between employability and employment and commented that to be
employable, you need a range of skills and attitudes. Creative thinking is
one of them (Redmond :orr n.p.).
The lack of literature addressing the questions raised by the RSA is
a further justication for this review. Bates (r,,8, p. :) points out that,
despite the plethora of publications relating to competence in recent
years, most of it was particularly insulated from critical academic
scrutiny. She writes further that, there remained a dearth of critique and
scholarship on the competence movement (p. ) and that this stands in
marked contrast to the strategic importance of competence to the current
reconstruction of education and training (p. ). This literature review is
an attempt to bridge this gap.
How the review was conducted
The focus and scope adopted for the review was broad and dened by
the following criteria for the inclusion of studies:

focus on publications after r,, (to contextualise the launch of
Opening Minds in r,,,);

engage with competence based curricula in secondary education;

include both national and international perspectives i.e. coun-
; What the review set out to do
tries where competence based curricula are found;

include outcomes and/or learners perspectives on outcomes and
impacts of diferent curricular models;

identify key issues relating to the assessment, both formative
and summative, of competence based qualications.
Comprehensive searching of the literature was undertaken and
included electronic databases, websites and citation tracking. Literature
identied included empirical studies, peer and non-peer reviewed
research papers, research syntheses, policy documents, unpublished
literature and theoretical papers (to inform the conceptual framework for
the synthesis of ndings). Sources included:

Electronic databases: AEI, BEI, ERIC, Google/Google Scholar,
JSTOR, SCOPUS;

Citations: in papers identied were screened for further
references;

Websites: of charitable foundations were searched for rel-
evant reports.
Using bibliographic software, an EndNote database specic to this
review has been complied.
The descriptors, or keywords used for the literature review are
detailed in Appendix r and included: capability, competence* (to iden-
tify anything starting with this stem), core skills, employability skills,
expertise, competence-based assessment, learning outcomes, key com-
petences, key skills, learning power, transversal skills, prociency and
lifelong learning.
Structure of the report
In the rst section, the literature that provides evidence to support a
competency-based approach in general is reviewed. In the second section,
specic competency-based systems including Opening Minds are de-
scribed and compared. In the third and nal section, specic approaches
to assessment are reviewed with a view to assisting the Royal Society of
Arts in its consideration of how the outcomes and impact of Opening
Minds might be measured. First, the development in perspectives that
led to the current views of competency is set out in order to contextualise
what follows.
What does the literature tell us?
What is competence?
Although there is an extensive literature on competence-based curricula,
competence remains a contested concept. Understanding overall
competence as the integration of knowledge, skills and attitudes which
enable someone to perform competently rather than simply gaining
skills is a more recent perspective. Biemans, et al (:oo,) point out that
competence-based learning has a long history in the VET eld, both in
the Netherlands (where they are based), and in many other countries.
Competency models were highly debated in the r,;os, r,8os and r,,os and
Opening Minds 8
were criticised for being disintegrative and reductionist. In more traditional
approaches, competences were specied in detailed lists of fragmented
and assessable behavioural elements related to job performance. However,
competencies cannot be specied precisely in the same way as performance
outcomes can; and mistakenly equating learning outcomes (performance)
and competencies gives the latter a false objectivity (p. :o8). Moreover,
these detailed lists of competences cannot provide guidelines for curriculum
design because of the detailed level of description; they thus frustrate
learning and development more than they support (p. :o8). Competence
systems carry with them the promise of rendering learning processes and
outcomes that are measurable and manageable but as this review will
suggest, this promise has proved challenging to deliver.
Denition of Competence
The way in which competence is conceptualised inuences the choice of
outcomes assessed in order to demonstrate its benets. Hence, a narrow
vocational denition will lead to the assessment through qualications
alone whereas a broader conceptualisation of competence which encom-
passes afective outcomes and interconnectivity implies a much wider
set of benets, though inevitably more dimcult to measure. At the time
Wolfs (r,,) book was published, the competence movement was inextri-
cably linked to developments in vocational education and training. Wolf
noted that the concept of competence had been dened in a number of
ways, many of them quite unrelated to the idea of a competence-based
assessment system (p. r). She referred to the essentially vocational
denition of competence ofered by the (now defunct) Manpower Services
Commission (MSC): By competent we mean performing at the standards
expected of an employee doing the same job (p. r). While recognis-
ing that this denition of competence is highly workable at one level,
in practice, it seems to encourage narrow mechanistic denitions of
what performance involves (p. :). Furthermore, this denition raises
Biemans et als criticisms above of equating performance with compe-
tence and implying false objectivity.
A broader denition of competence is provided by the OECD
Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) as the ability
to successfully meet complex demands in varied contexts through the
mobilisation of psychosocial resources, including knowledge and skills,
motivation attitudes, emotions and other social and behavioural compo-
nents (Schleicher, :oo; p. r). This denition encompasses the afec-
tive dimensions of learning and as such is more aligned to the approach
taken by the Opening Minds curriculum.
The working denition of competence ofered by Biemans et al (:oo
p. o) is similar to that of OECD:
Competence is the capability of a person to reach specic achievements.
Personal competencies comprise integrated performance-oriented capabil-
ities, which consist of clusters of knowledge structures and also cognitive,
interactive, afective and where necessary psychomotor capabilities and
attitudes and values.
Competence systems
carry with them the
promise ofrendering
learning processes
and outcomes that
are measurable
andmanageable
What the review set out to do
This denition goes beyond that ofered by OECD in recognising
the interconnectivity and integration of skills that emerge in this review
as a key component of the evidence that supports a competency-based
system. Furthermore, it resonates with RSAs Opening Minds competence
framework which emphasises the integrating of teaching across subjects
in modules that can explore common themes.
Opening Minds 1o
1 Evidence to support
a competency-based
approach
Competence-based education
As noted with the denitions of competency, views of competency based
education range from purely vocational to substantially afective or
focused on learning to learn skills with many authors positioning them-
selves somewhere between by incorporating some of each approach.
Overall, the literature supports focusing Competence-Based Education
(CBE) on developing individual students competences and not merely on
enabling them to acquire qualications or diplomas. Reducing competen-
cy to assessment and the ability to successfully demonstrate skills creates
an imbalance: for example, as Wolf (:oor) argues, the search for uni-
formity and national standards is likely to move education away from a
concern with competence and capability; CBE should instead be a means
of enhancing student-led learning with individual students taking a cen-
tral position by being able to optimally develop their own competences
based upon their capabilities and preferences. Thus, it implies creating
opportunities for students in meaningful learning environments but,
simultaneously, accepting that the outcomes of these opportunities will be
problematic to dene and so likely to be regarded by critics as woolly.
One approach based on capabilities and preferences is the compre-
hensive approach in the Netherlands and France, which has a focus on
individual competence, based on the integration of diferent forms of
knowledge, skills and attitudes, as well as social and personal capabilities
(Brockmann et al :oo8, p. :o). Instead of a detailed list of competencies,
the comprehensive approach consists of integrated constructs of knowl-
edge, skills and attitudes that lead to competence performance (Biemans
et al :oo, p. :o8). More on integration and connectivity is reviewed in the
section below on the conditions under which CBE is most efective.
Competence-based education from a vocational perspective
The EU (:ooo) argues that key competences are essential in a knowledge
society and guarantee more exibility in the labour force, allowing it to
adapt more quickly to constant changes in an increasingly interconnected
world. It also suggests that competencies are a major factor in innovation,
productivity and competitiveness, and they contribute to the motivation
and satisfaction of workers and the quality of work. The recommenda-
tion concludes that key competences should be acquired by young people
Wolf () argues,
the search for
uniformity and
national standards
is likely to move
education away
from a concern
withcompetence
and capability
Evidence to support a competency-based approach 11
at the end of their compulsory education and training, equipping them for
adult life, particularly for working life, whilst forming a basis for further
learning (see Table r). Biemans et al (:oo,) examined the implementation
of competence-based education in the Netherlands which, they suggested,
was now a major trend. They argued that the goals of competence-
based education included: i) preparing future professionals so that they
are able to contribute to the advancement of a given economic sector; ii)
contributing to the development of students (professional) identity; iii)
preparing students, not only for working in professional practice, but also
for participating in society as a whole. Hence they reiterate the prepara-
tion for working life mentioned by many others but go beyond this by
identifying additionally, contribution to civic society. Whilst not empiri-
cally-based, that CBE is supported at a super national level and that it is
being implemented in other EU member states, provides an indicator of
the perceived compatibility of its aims with twenty rst century economic
and learning requirements.
In a similar vein, both Tchibozo (:orr) and Wesselink et al (:oo,)
take stock of the emergence of competence-based education in EU
counties and explore how both economic circumstance and educational
imperatives have led educational policy makers to shift their focus
towards competence-based education. Tchibozo argues that not only did
governments see the acquiring of basic competences as vital to increasing
employment, but that educators too have identied benet, in particular:

a competence-based approach replaces behaviourism (teaching
by objectives) with a constructivist vision of the learner develop-
ing their abilities in action situations consequently, the learner
begins to understand the world of which he/she is part, can act
appropriately in such situations and so can develop as an eman-
cipated individual;

competence-based education cannot be considered exclusive of
a construction by the learner in action situations. Setting this
construction in context creates meaning and therefore interest
and motivation for the learner.
Similarly, Hoskins and Deakin-Crick (:oro, p. r:) suggest that
prioritising certain competences and the identication and establishment
of key competences are necessary for economic success, social cohesion
and sustainable living for countries, regions and the world. As such One
of the challenges for education is to identify competences which are key
to social and economic success in the :rst century.
Competence-based education from a broader
learning perspective
Whilst economic and nancial factors are key drivers, the emergence
of CBE also had educational motivations. Halsz and Michel (:orr)
note an important factor of resistance amongst some intellectuals and
teachers against such an evolution is what they see as the increasing
importance of economic considerations in the context of economic and
nancial globalisation (p. :,o). They suggest that whilst the growing
importance of competitiveness in the global economy and the increasing
Opening Minds 1i
role of human capital and education in the knowledge society are im-
portant factors in the emergence and development of the new education
paradigm (ibid), there are other inuences on expectations in education
such as:

Coping with the rapid pace of change and obsolescence of
knowledge and skills, which imply lifelong learning for all and
preparing mindsets from an early age to accept change and
the continuous questioning of what was previously taken for
granted as normal constraints of everyday life;

Preparing students to question the consequences of change,
rather than considering it as an end in itself, and in particular
to analyse science ndings and technology innovations in terms
of their ethical and practical implications for the future. The
French author Rabelais warning in the roth century has never
been more apposite: knowledge without conscience is but the
ruin of the soul. Environment, sustainable development, bioeth-
ics and other crucial issues for the future of humanity require
cross-subject approaches and active learning in teams.

Preparing students to live in the digital era, using in a relevant
way the rapidly changing ICT, while being aware of the new
ethical challenges brought about by social networks, but
also adapting teaching/learning practices to young peoples
digital culture.
Making learners aware of the dangers of growing inequalities (and
new forms of social exclusion) for social cohesion, peace and democracy
among countries and within some countries, as well as of the resurgence
of xenophobia, racism and intolerance (:orr, p. :,o).
Recommendation 1: The Opening Minds curriculum seems to resonate
well with both the economic and wider learning characteristics that Ha-
lsz and Michel and others are suggesting are important. As such the RSA
should be promoting both the versatility of its curriculum and how it ap-
pears to meet the diverse aims or drivers underpinning competence based
approaches. At the same time, however, none of the studies listed above
are empirically based and, as such, the RSA should consider re-evaluating
the efectiveness of Opening Minds with a view to strengthening existing
arguments regarding its emcacy. Below we now consider the individual
elements that contribute to making CBE efective and the conditions re-
quired for its success.
The importance and role of context
Flyvberg (:ooo) argues that a major misunderstanding in relation to the
social sciences is that generalisable, theoretical (context-independent)
knowledge is of higher value than concrete, practical (context-dependent)
knowledge. Flyvberg goes on to suggest that it is context dependent
knowledge that research on learning shows to be necessary to allow
people to develop from rule-based beginners to virtuoso experts. He
cites phenomenological studies into human learning showing that learn-
ers pass through several stages as they move from novice to expert, each
Evidence to support a competency-based approach 1
of which correspond to recognisable ways of acting and performing in
relation to a given skill. What diferentiates between these levels is that
the novice will tend to rely on rules-based analysis for their choices and
action. Functional expertise corresponds to Flyvbergs (:oor) notion of
the procient performer; here situational intuition interacts with analyti-
cal decision making to provide an understanding of what should be done
and how this what corresponds to a given specic situation. Flyvbergs
concludes that if people were exclusively trained in context-independent
knowledge and rules, they would forever remain at beginner level in the
learning process.
Hodkinson and Issitt (r,,) believe that competence is not, and
cannot be, a xed concept, and argued that without a context, compe-
tences are too generic and have little meaning for the student (cited in
Biemans et al :oo, p. :o8). Competence is about framing an overall
performance that is appropriate to a particular context. It is not about
following simplistic recipes (Hager r,,8 p. ). In reviewing a number
of evaluation studies based on the views of teachers/ trainers and employ-
ers from the r,8os and r,,os, Bates (r,,8, p. :;) recounts that a major
concern in the evaluation studies was a narrowing of the curriculum
and a lack of focus on theoretical knowledge. Bates writes that CBET
[competency based education and training] reverses much of traditional
educational practice with its emphasis on outputs rather than inputs and
has been viewed as reducing the scope for teachers and students to act as
creative participants in learning. It will be important to examinethe
implications of competence models for the development of the creative
lifelong learner (p. ;).
Meijer et al (:oro) distinguish between two types of skill: (a) domain
specic eg students are capable of using compensating interpretation
strategies, such as inferring the meaning of words from the context in
which they occur and (b) domain exceeding (cross-curricular, general
skills), eg students can arrive at a personal stance on the basis of argu-
ments. Alexander, Graham and Harris (r,,8) speak of a continuum from
general to domain specic to task specic. While the term general skills
highlights that the skills have a broad sphere of application, the term
cross-curricular skills highlights that the skills need to be practised and
taught in an educational context.
Throughout the literature, the importance of integrating expertise
and competence is emphasised as critical to the success of CBE. Bereiter
(:oo:) identies six diferent types of knowledge that are necessary to
become a competent expert:

stable or declarative knowledge knowledge in an explicit form;

implicit or tacit knowledge understanding through experience;

episodic knowledge memories, episodes, events, or narratives
from the past;

impressionistic knowledge feelings and impressions that
inuence action;

skills or procedural knowledge knowing how;

regulative knowledge principles and ideas that professional
groups pursue in order to accomplish their work.
Opening Minds 1
He stresses that in high-level expertise these six types of knowledge
are not separate but tightly integrated in their use. It is not helpful
therefore to claim to develop one or more types of knowledge in school,
and the other knowledge types in the workplace. The entire range of
knowledge types should be developed in relation to each other, and across
all kinds of settings. This implies integrating the learning activities of
students in schools and workplaces to enable students to become compe-
tent professionals.
Recommendation 2: The above analysis therefore indicates that, if they
are to lead to expertise and competence, CBE must be grounded in the
local and individual context. OM should continue to ofer a curriculum
framework which enables schools to develop a localised curriculum
which is relevant to their own school.
Recommendation 3: Since the evidence supports a view of competence as
embracing a diverse range or types of knowledge, tailoring OM must also
be realised by students being able to use standard knowledge in a local-
ised context as well as embracing other existing knowledge types.
Learning Power
A number of the papers reviewed addressed issues related to learning
power dened by Jaros and Deakin-Crick (:oo; pp. :,o) as those
dispositions, values, attitudes, and skills that coalesce to form the nature
of an individuals engagement with a particular learning (or living) oppor-
tunity. These authors suggest that what is required is a shift in the focus
of curricula from knowledge acquisition to one of learning itself.
The authors identify the key benets of learning power as (p. ):
to engage critically in living in the world in relation to others over time.
It is about meaning-making as a central part of learning power; that
is, not only connecting items of information and putting them together
in new and creative ways, but also developing learning that is personally
meaningful to the learner, through the use of personal and cultural nar-
ratives and the dynamic excavation of meaning. It requires risk-taking,
lateral thinking, and imagination which constitutes creativity as part of
learning power.
James and Brewer (r,,8) identied good practice in the development
of key skills in academic and vocational programmes, with a particular
emphasis on learner experiences; teaching approaches and learning
strategies; and the day-to-day management of the relationship between
key skills and wider programme content. They suggested that those
responsible for curricular development should seek to establish better
understanding of the conceptions of key skills and especially, of their
successful development which are current and have currency amongst
teachers, students, trainers and trainees. Good key skills programmes are
those which develop a general can do attitude and are best developed
and assessed in a contextualised and fully integrated fashion, whether
they are undertaken alongside NVQs, GNVQs or A levels. Most of the
learners interviewed in their project seemed to be convinced of the value
Evidence to support a competency-based approach 1
and importance of key skills in present and future employment, and there
were some examples of direct linkage with work tasks for those in work.
There were also numerous occasions in which learners drew researchers
attention to the transfer of learning under key skills to new contexts.
A study (Hoskins and Deakin-Crick :oro) looking specically at
learning to learn considered whether, within the limited space of some
national curricula, key competences directed towards social outcomes
were competing against those aimed at employability. Two competences,
drawn from the European Education Council Framework were analysed:
learning to learn and civic competence.
The authors suggest that the idea that learning can lead to profound
change in individuals and communities is an important link between
these two core competences, because both the notion of competence and
the notion of personal and social change are historical, contextualised,
and value dependent: they imply a sense of direction leading towards a
desired end (p. r:,). The authors also draw on Hastes (:oor) concept
of an overarching metacompetence; of being able to manage the tension
between innovation and continuity. This, they suggest, is something
which schools need to nurture and develop in their learners and is also a
pre-requisite for both lifelong learning and active citizenship. The authors
cite Haste in suggesting that, in order to be able to manage this tension
between innovation and continuity, young people need the following
additional competences:

Adaptively assimilate changing technologies

Address ambiguity and diversity

Find and sustain community links

Manage motivation and emotion

Manage moral responsibility and citizenship
Further evidence of the link between learning to learn and civic
competence was reported in two systematic reviews of the impact of
citizenship education on the provision of schooling (Deakin-Crick et al.,
:oo; Deakin-Crick et al., :oo). The conclusions of these highlighted the
relationship between a learner-centred pedagogy, which stimulates the
development of a learning to learn competence and intentional learning
and the skills, values, attitudes and dispositions for active citizenship.
The quality of dialogue and discourse in the classroom is essential both
to learning to learn and to citizenship education and such discourse is
connected with learning about shared values, human rights and issues of
justice and equality. The reviews concluded that a facilitative, learner-cen-
tred pedagogy, characterised by trust and respect, integral, contextualised
values education and personal meaning making is crucial in developing
both learning to learn competence and civic competence. Central too are
problem-based thinking, and context-based, real life learning. They show
that developing civic competence can enhance students ability to make
meaning of and connections between their personal stories and society
and improve their higher order creative and critical thinking skills, their
communication skills and their overall academic achievement.
The quality of
dialogue and
discourse in the
classroom is
essential both to
learning to learn
and to citizenship
education and
such discourse is
connected with
learning about
shared values,
human rights and
issues of justice and
equality.
Opening Minds 1
Recommendation 4: The analysis above implies that the CBE should
centre on learning as a skill rather than simply lead students to acquire
knowledge. As such, teachers using the OM curriculum should ensure
that OM is fully grounded in an understanding of a conception of learn-
ing skills and, in particular how such skills can be developed over time.
Conditions for effective competence-based education
There is signicant literature on the conditions under which a compe-
tence-based curriculum is most efective. For example, Biemans et al
(:oo,) provide evidence from research into possible pitfalls in designing
and implementing competence-based education. The authors also provide
clues as to how the various pitfalls might be further addressed in the
future. The list of pitfalls includes:

Diferent stakeholders (eg teachers, learners, employers) having
diferent perceptions of competence. Biemans et al developed a
matrix for competence-based vocational education to use as
a validated conceptual framework for comprehensive CBE to
reduce diferences in perceptions.

Over-reliance on standardisation which may result in too much
insensitivity to context and in conservative training (see also
Hodkinson and Issitt r,,; Wolf r,,, :oor).

Developing and implementing appropriate competence-based
assessment is a crucial issue in the implementation of CBE: new
instruments have to be developed that meet quality criteria (eg
observation and a criterion-based interview).

Changing roles and the identity of teachers. Biemans et al (:oo,)
found that it was dimcult for many teachers to adopt their new
coaching role: according to the students, teachers should not
rely too heavily on their students independent learning at an
early stage and support them in their learning process until they
are competent enough themselves. Teachers need to balance
their roles as coaches and experts, and self-responsibility and
self-reection of the students should be stimulated to establish a
sound basis for lifelong learning. Not only students should de-
velop their competencies; teachers need to develop their teaching
competencies to t with competence-based curricula and to be
able to full their new roles.
Lord and Jones (:ooo) reviewed pupils experiences and perspectives
of the curriculum over r,8, :ooo. Despite seeing the curriculum as
relevant to passing exams, getting grades, and as a passport to their next
steps, real-life connections are important in creating relevance for pupils
and vocational relevance for all is a value espoused by pupils. Pupils enjoy
subjects and activities in which teaching and learning is active, participa-
tory and has practical application. They also noted that learners appreci-
ate supportive and collaborative approaches, with preferences for increas-
ing responsibility and autonomy as they get older. Explaining clearly is
amongst the most consistently valued quality in a teacher. In addition,
pupils appreciate teachers wide subject knowledge, and welcome sessions
Evidence to support a competency-based approach 1;
with professionals from within the eld (eg health professionals, visitors
from colleges, the workplace and so on).
Wesselink et al (:oo,) suggest that, where competence development
is the ultimate goal, educational programs should include the following
eight aspects of competence-based education:

Aspect 1: The competencies that are the basis for the study
programme are clearly dened;

Aspect 2: Core professional problems are the organising unit
for designing or redesigning the curriculum (learning and
assessment);

Aspect 3: Competence development of students is assessed
before, during, and after the learning process;

Aspect 4: Learning activities take place in various authentic
situations;

Aspect 5: Knowledge, skills, and attitudes are integrated in
learning and assessment processes;

Aspect 6: Self-responsibility and (self-) reection of students
are stimulated;

Aspect 7: Teachers, both in school and in the workplace, balance
their roles as coaches and experts;

Aspect 8: A basis is established for a lifelong learning attitude
among students.
In addition to the recommendations listed above:
Recommendation 5: The RSA should consider its denition of competence
and choose one that has salience with the main stakeholders concerned
(i.e. teachers, learners and employers) whilst also reecting the myriad
and diverse outcomes that OM supports (as noted above).
Recommendation 6: Ensure that those teaching OM are themselves com-
petent to do so (i.e. are comfortable in their roles as coaches and experts
and the balance required between these roles and the need for self-respon-
sibility and self-reection in their students) and are able to demonstrate
the competences that are required of their pupils.
Recommendation 7: The eight aspects suggested by Wesselink et al (:oo,)
should also be considered by those using OM.
Opening Minds 18
2 Specic competency
systems
A number of competency systems were reviewed that specify areas of
individual competences. In the table at the end of this section, we have
attempted to map these for comparison against the Opening Minds
framework. It is somewhat arbitrary how specic competences are clas-
sied and few if any evaluations appear to exist that test out whether the
competences being taught and learned in schools or colleges using these
systems are in fact the same as those intended or what outcomes they
achieve. Broadly, the competency systems can be distinguished between
those that focus primarily on skills for employment (eg CBI, :orr) and
those that include mainly competencies for learning to learn. (eg Deakin
Crick et al, :oo), though some (EU, :ooo; Dbrowski and Winiewski,
:orr) explicitly include both.
The CBI equate competence to preparedness for employment and, in
particular to showing the skills and attitudes essential for work (CBI,
:orr: 8). The CBI argue that the mindset of schools as regards leavers
at ro and r8 has to be driven by employability and that this should be
driven by successful participation in work experience placements, careers
advice, curriculum content and training in areas such as project working
and presentation skills (CBI, :orr: ,). The CBI also argued that employ-
ers are concerned with the basic skills levels of school and college leavers.
In particular, in :orr the CBI/EDI annual Education & Skills survey of
oo employers suggested that :% were not satised with the basic use of
English by school and college leavers, while more than a third (%) were
concerned with the basic numeracy skills of that age group.
r
Some individual employers also set out the competencies they require
of school leavers. For example, professional services organisation
KPMGs applicants to the school leavers programme must demonstrate
their competence in nine key areas,
:
which KPMG describe as encompass-
ing the skills and behaviours needed to be successful in their organisation.
These include career motivation, delivering quality, building relation-
ships for collaboration internally and externally, a positive approach to
self-development, exercising professional judgement, making an Impact,
seizing business opportunities, demonstrating innovation and curiosity
r. See: www.cbi.org.uk/media-centre/press-releases/:orr/o/poor-standards-of-english-
and-maths-among-school-leavers-could-hinder-growth-cbi-edi/
:. See: www.kpmgcareers.co.uk/SchoolLeaverProgrammes/HowtoApply--KeyCompeten-
cies_(r,).aspx?pg=r,
i%
were not satised
with the basic use of
English by school and
college leavers
Specic competency system 1
and displaying resilience (under challenging circumstances). A smaller but
almost identical set of competencies are also set out by Deloitte.

Hipkins et el (:oro) are critical of the instrumental and work-related

purposes attributed to competences in these models:
Competencies have become a ubiquitous feature of contemporary omcial
curriculum documents, albeit variously named. However, despite their
widespread use, they have been largely under-theorised in curriculum
terms. Rather, they are usually named in curriculum documents without
reference to the reason for their selection, and are left to take on a life of
their own (p. rr). Haste (:oo,) has made an important contribution to
theorising the content of competencies by carefully building a case for
new forms of civic engagement. Importantly, she has given competencies
a social justice and democratic purpose, eschewing the instrumental and
solely work-related form that they have assumed in many countries.
Predictably, systems which place greater emphasis on the social justice
and democratic purposes of competencies tend to stress learning skills
rather than employability and have often emerged from educational sources.
Deakin Crick et al (:oo) identied the elements of an individuals capacity
for lifelong learning. They dened learning as a process carried out by indi-
viduals and groups. What is learned counts as knowledge or skills, which
can take the form of the ability to do something which could not be done
before (p. :8). Based on extensive literature searches, the authors suggested
that there is a strong link between the intellectual and emotional compo-
nents of learning, that is the afective, cognitive and conative dimensions are
deeply interrelated (p. :,). They trialled the Evaluating Lifelong Learning
Inventory (ELLI) with pupils across a range of ages and subjected the data
to factor analysis. Seven dimensions of learning power emerged. These
dimensions appear to be capable of diferentiating between emcacious,
engaged and energised learners and passive, dependent and fragile learners.
Although the authors recognise the need for larger scale eld trials and no
further evaluations of their typology have been undertaken, they suggest
that the ndings have signicant implications for conventional models
of curriculum design and classroom practice (p. :;). Further empirical
evidence might make this suggestion possible to operationalise.
The competency systems drawn up by governments and international
agencies tend to include both employability and learning to learn compe-
tencies. The EU (:ooo) argued that key competences for lifelong learning
are a combination of knowledge, skills and attitudes appropriate to the
context and that they are particularly necessary for personal fullment
and development, social inclusion, active citizenship and employment.
Their reference framework denes eight key competences and describes
the essential knowledge, skills and attitudes related to each of these.
These key competences are:

Communication in the mother tongue: the ability to express and
interpret concepts, thoughts, feelings, facts and opinions in both
. See: http://careers.deloitte.com/united-kingdom/students/csc_general.
aspx?CountryContentID=r:o
Opening Minds io
oral and written form (listening, speaking, reading and writing)
and to interact linguistically in an appropriate and creative way
in a full range of societal and cultural contexts;

Communication in foreign languages: this involves, in addition
to the main skill dimensions of communication in the mother
tongue, mediation and intercultural understanding. The level
of prociency depends on several factors and the capacity for
listening, speaking, reading and writing;

Mathematical competence and basic competences in science and
technology: mathematical competence is the ability to develop
and apply mathematical thinking in order to solve a range
of problems in everyday situations, with the emphasis being
placed on process, activity and knowledge. Basic competences
in science and technology refer to the mastery, use and applica-
tion of knowledge and methodologies that explain the natural
world. These involve an understanding of the changes caused
by human activity and the responsibility of each individual as
a citizen;

Digital competence involves the condent and critical use of
information society technology (IST) and thus basic skills in
information and communication technology (ICT);

Learning to learn is related to learning, the ability to pursue and
organise ones own learning, either individually or in groups,
in accordance with ones own needs, and awareness of methods
and opportunities;

Social and civic competences: social competence refers to per-
sonal, interpersonal and intercultural competence and all forms
of behaviour that equip individuals to participate in an efective
and constructive way in social and working life. It is linked to
personal and social well-being. An understanding of codes of
conduct and customs in the diferent environments in which
individuals operate is essential. Civic competence, and particu-
larly knowledge of social and political concepts and structures
(democracy, justice, equality, citizenship and civil rights), equips
individuals to engage in active and democratic participation;

Sense of initiative and entrepreneurship: the ability to turn ideas
into action. It involves creativity, innovation and risk-taking,
as well as the ability to plan and manage projects in order to
achieve objectives. The individual is aware of the context of his/
her work and is able to seize opportunities that arise. It is the
foundation for acquiring more specic skills and knowledge
needed by those establishing or contributing to social or com-
mercial activity. This should include awareness of ethical values
and promote good governance;

Cultural awareness and expression: this involves appreciation of
the importance of the creative expression of ideas, experiences
and emotions in a range of media (music, performing arts, litera-
ture and the visual arts).
These key competences are regarded as interdependent, and the
emphasis in each case is on critical thinking, creativity, initiative,
Specic competency system i1
problem solving, risk assessment, decision taking and constructive
management of feelings.
Halsz and Michel (:orr) commenting on the EU competencies
observed that they interlock and overlap, each can contribute to a
successful life in the knowledge society and that some themes such as
critical thinking, creativity, initiative, problem solving, risk assessment,
decision taking and constructive management of emotions should apply
throughout as they play a role. These authors note that this set of key
competences represents a consensus at a given moment in time and that
many other basic qualities or attributes could also have been mentioned,
for example, the capacity to set priorities, to be aware of ones limits
or ignorance and to respect time-schedules and deadlines this latter
competence matching time management within the Opening Minds
competency area of Managing Situations. One challenge for schools
noted by these authors is to make explicit the links between curricular
subjects such that the interrelated nature of the EU competencies can
be addressed, which has to be the responsibility of all teachers. It was
noted that the rst three are more commonly interpreted across Member
States whereas the other ve are transversal and have been perceived and
interpreted in diferent ways in each of the European countries.
Recommendation 8: Teachers using OM should make explicit the links
between curricular subjects such that the interrelated nature of competen-
cies can be addressed.
In seeking to assess competence, PISA (Schleicher, :oo;) focused its
rst three assessments on literacy skills: the capacity of young adults
to access, manage, integrate and evaluate information, to think imagina-
tively, to hypothesise and discover, and to communicate their thoughts
and ideas efectively (ibid); and did so in relation to reading (in :ooo
PISA examined the capacity of students to use, interpret and reect on
written material), mathematics (in :oo, PISA focussed on the capacity
of students to put mathematical knowledge into real world functional
use) and science (in :ooo PISA focussed on students scientic knowledge
and use of that knowledge; their understanding of science as a form
of enquiry; their awareness of how science and technology shape our
material, intellectual and cultural environments; and their willingness
to engage with science-related issues, and with the ideas of science, as
a reective citizen). Given the political and economic emphasis placed
on PISA in comparisons of the efectiveness of the educational systems
of diferent countries, this relatively narrow focus has been the target of
much criticism. Responding to this, PISA has begun to look at students
dispositions to learning, their approaches to learning, their self-concept
and their engagement with school more generally.
In r,,;, a regulation in the Polish Government resulted in the for-
mulation of the rst list of key competences to be included in the Polish
legislation on education (Dbrowski and Winiewski, :orr). The empha-
sis of the regulation was on shaping skills and preparing students for
responsible life in a democratic society and free market economy. The
competences which addressed both learning and employability included:
Opening Minds ii

Learning: solving problems related to cognition and carrying out
projects. Organising the learning process and assuming respon-
sibility for your own education. Using experiences and combin-
ing various elements of knowledge;

Thinking: identifying connections between the past and present,
as well as cause and efect and functional relationships. Cop-
ing with lack of self-condence and complexity of phenomena;
perceiving them as a whole and in context;

Searching: searching, putting in order and using information
coming from various sources, also prudent and competent use
of the media;

Self-improvement: assessment of individual attitudes and con-
duct and these of others in line with generally accepted stand-
ards and universal values. Assuming responsibility for yourself
and for others. Flexible approach to changes, looking for new
solutions, facing adversities. Keeping t and caring for men-
tal health;

Communication: successful communication. Presenting individu-
al point of view, arguing for and defending opinions. Readiness
to listen to and take into consideration opinions of other people.
Using the latest information and communication technology;

Cooperation: group work; negotiating and reaching the consen-
sus; taking group decisions, applying democratic procedures.
Establishing and maintaining relationships;

Action: organising your own and others work; learning
to use work techniques and tools. Designing actions and
taking responsibility for their course and results. Emcient
time management.
Cheetham and Chivers (r,,o; r,,8) holistic model of professional
competence has a set of ve interrelated competences:

Cognitive competence: including underpinning theory and
concepts as well as informal tacit knowledge gained experien-
tially. Knowledge (know that) is underpinned by understanding
(know why)

Functional competences (skills or know how): things that a per-
son should be able to do, and to demonstrate

Personal competency (behavioural competencies or knowing how
to behave): those relatively enduring characteristics of a person
that relate to efective or superior performance

Ethical competences: possessing the appropriate personal and
professional values as well as the abilities to make sound judge-
ments in work related and other situations

Meta-competences: the ability to cope with uncertainty, as well
as with learning, learning to learn and reection.
Hoskins and Deakin-Crick (:oro) reported that a number of OECD
countries were asked to list which competences they considered to be key.
Four groups were frequently mentioned:
Specic competency system i

Social Competences/Cooperation;

Literacies/Intelligent and applicable knowledge:

Learning Competences/Lifelong Learning;

Communication Competences.
These would seem to relate to the Opening Minds (OM) Framework
in the following ways:

Social Competences/Cooperation OMs Competences for Relat-
ing to People;

Literacies/Intelligent and applicable knowledge & Learning Com-
petences/Lifelong Learning OMs Competences for Learning;

Communication Competences OMs Competences for Relating
to People.
The OMs Framework has a major emphasis on Competences for
Citizenship that includes morals, ethics, diversity and self-reliance which
while not listed in the OECD priorities, are included in the EU (:ooo) rec-
ommendations for Lifelong Learning and in Hoskin and Deakin-Cricks
(:oro) own work. Furthermore, the emphasis placed on Managing
Information in the OM competences, which includes research and
reection is not well addressed in other systems though is often identied
in surveys on the employability skills sought by employers (eg Forbes et al
:oo; Morley et al :ooo)
However, Winter (:orr) regards OM as lacking in both ethics and
political concerns:
The r,,, OM curriculum text overlooks the politics and ethics of knowl-
edge through the dominance of a technical, economistic, outcomes-driven
competency framework (p. ;). The OM competency curriculum pays
scant attention to developing students critical capacities and the word
political is absent. Competency knowledge of critical judgement ap-
pears only once, under the heading managing information (Bayliss/RSA
r,,,, r,), conferring a particular orientation towards evaluative judge-
ments of a technical kind, instead of towards those founded on ethico-
political concerns. Similarly, the term ethics and values occurs only once
in the competences, under the category of citizenship (p. ).
The OMs Competences for Managing Situations includes time
management, management of change, creative thinking and risk-
taking which are addressed in a number of other systems (eg EU :ooo).
However, this competency group also includes feelings and reactions
such as celebrating success and managing disappointment which do not
seem to be specically mentioned in other systems. Halasz and Michel
(:orr) in commenting on the EU (:ooo) framework note that one of the
many themes that should apply throughout this framework is construc-
tive management of emotions.
Recommendation 9: The emphasis placed in the OM curriculum on
Managing emotions should be maintained given the evidence on the
importance of these competencies in and out of the workplace.
The OMs
Competences
for Managing
Situations includes
time management,
management of
change, creative
thinking and risk-
taking which are
addressed in a
number of
other systems
Opening Minds i
Table 1: A comparison between the competencies included in
Opening Minds and those inother specic competency systems
RSA Opening Minds Hoskins and
Deakin-Crick
(2010)
Dbrowski and
Winiewski (2011)
European Union PISA CBI
Citizenship
Morals & ethics,
Making a difference,
diversity, technological
impact, self reliance
Find and sustain
community links
Social and civic
Moral responsibility
and citizenship
Learning
Learning styles,
reasoning, creativity,
positive motivation,
key skills, ICT skills
Learning to learn Attitudes and
skills in relation
to employability
Entrepreneurship Work ready
literacy and
numeracy skills
Digital competence
Cultural awareness and
expression
Learning: solving
problems related
to cognition and
carrying out projects
Communication in the
mother tongue
Communication in foreign
languages
Mathematical competence
and basic competences in
science and technology
Managing
Information
Research, reection
Thinking: identifying
connections
between the past
and present, as
well as cause and
effect and functional
relationships
Mathematical competence
and basic competences in
science and technology
Literacy
skills in
maths,
science
and
reading
Work ready
literacy and
numeracy skills
Searching: putting
in order and using
information coming
from various sources
Relating to people
Leadership,
teamwork, coaching,
communication,
emotional intelligence,
stress management
Successful
communication
Action: organising
own and others
work
Social competence
including personal,
interpersonal and
intercultural competence
Attitudes and
skills in relation
to employability
Cooperation: group
work; negotiating
and reaching the
consensus
Managing Situations
Time management,
coping with change,
feelings and reactions,
creative thinking, risk
taking
Adaptively
assimilate changing
technologies
Efcient time
management,
exible approach
to changes, facing
adversities
Creativity, innovation &
risk-taking, constructive
management of feelings
Deal with ambiguity
and diversity
Manage motivation/
emotion
Evidence to support a competency-based approach to assesment i
3 Evidence to support
a competency-
based approach
to assessment
The growth in assessment of competences
Competency based approaches to assessment difer in ways similar to the
distinction drawn out in relation to approaches to Competency Based
Education more generally, between those focusing on employability and
those giving greater emphasis to the skills of learning to learn. There has
been a signicant growth in the use of competency/prociency tests by
British employers for selection purposes with 8 per cent of all workplac-
es making use of them according to Jenkins and Wolf (:oo:) who noted
that the reasons why some employers use tests while others persist in not
making use of them are not well understood (executive summary). These
authors went on to suggest that this implies that new recruits are ex-
pected to have many relevant skills already and so may require little in the
way of training (p. rr) which seems to contradict the view of CBE as a
means of promoting lifelong learning. There is some evidence of learners
preferring assessment that focuses on their possible future employment
although this instrumental approach seems to contradict some of the
aims of the OM programme. Wesselink et al (:oo,, p. :r) conclude that
studies on authentic assessments suggest that when students perceive that
assessment tasks resemble their future professional practice (i.e., perceive
the tasks as authentic), they are motivated to study more intensively and
develop more generic competencies (Gulikers :oo;).
Competency-based education and training models assume that
outcomes can be dened and assessed as observable and discrete units
of competency. Wheelahan (:ooo) in Australia argues that skills can be
added up in diferent ways to make diferent qualications. This author
expresses concern that qualications are aggregations of skills dened as
units of competency, rather than relational and holistic in which the rela-
tionships between diferent elements matter, and where the whole is more
than the sum of its parts, a relevant point in relation to the OM outcomes.
Wheelahan argues Qualication outcomes should be based on broad
process-oriented learning outcomes, rather than precise specication of
skill. This makes more sense for societies and economies experiencing
perpetual change (p. ,). She further suggests that the problem with the
idea of generic skills is that they are based on an assumption that they
There has been a
signicant growth in
the use of competency/
prociency tests by
British employers for
selection purposes with
8%
of all workplaces
making use of them
Opening Minds i
can be dened in isolation from the context that gives them their mean-
ing, and unproblematically applied to other contexts. (p. ,)
In summary, in this section we indicate that competency based
approaches to assessment difer in ways similar to the distinction drawn
out in relation to approaches to Competency Based Education (CBE) more
generally, between those focusing on employability and those giving greater
emphasis to the skills of learning to learn. As the OM programme aims to
develop a wide range of competences, assessment processes need to reect
this. The following sections analyse this approach in more detail.
The danger of limiting teaching to what is assessed
With the introduction of the National Council for Vocational
Qualications (NCVQ) in the mid r,8os, the competence movement in
the UK became wedded to a national system of qualicationsuniform
in its manifestations and most deeply entrenched (Bates, r,,8 p. r). Bates
reminds us of the importance of competence-based education and train-
ing (CBET) within the UK governments r,8os/early r,,os education
policy agenda and its application to vocational and technical education
(as opposed to general/academic education). Because of this, Bates argues
that what is emerging is a dominant denition which has narrowed and
reied the meaning of the term [competence] (p. ;). This understanding
of competence hinges upon tight pre-specication and subsequent meas-
urement of the intended consequences of learning (p. r) which leads, in
Batess view, to the removal of what is learnt from the orbit of inuence
of practising teachers who instead become deliverers and assessors
of learning outcomes (p. r). Similarly, Ecclestone (:ooo, p. o) warns
that Narrow instrumentalism can make assessment not merely
for learning or of learning: instead it was learning. She suggests that
using detailed grade descriptors and exemplars can encourage supercial
compliance with atomized tasks derived from the assessment criteria.
A similar argument has been put forward by Wheelahan (:ooo) who
suggests that education and training policy in Australia is based on the
assumption that it is possible to separate qualication outcomes from
the processes of learning. She writes that Policy determines outcomes,
pedagogy teaches to those outcomes. This is a destructive dichotomy that
impoverishes learning and results in simplistic notions of skill (p. 8). The
separation of means (teaching and learning) from ends (qualication out-
comes) is supposed to allow industry to specify the skills needed for the
workplace, and teachers to develop creative delivery strategies to teach
these skills. Conrming this view, Watson and Robbins make the point
that learning and assessment have become divorced from one another,
assessment methods have not been sumciently responsive to change in
pedagogy and curriculum, particularly with regard to summative judge-
ments of practice or performance. They recognise the substantial body of
work which addresses assessment for learning (eg Gardner :or:). Here
the focus is on the purposes of assessment, that is, whether one engages in
an assessment of learning, for grading and reporting or an assessment
for learning, where the explicit purpose is to use assessment as part of the
teaching to promote learning (James and Pedder :ooo, p. ro,).
Similarly, on the theme of separating qualications from wider learn-
ing, Gibbs and Armsby (:orr) noted in the context of higher education
Evidence to support a competency-based approach to assesment i;
that the purpose of accrediting, rather than evaluating knowledge, seems
to owe its origins to the argument that prosperity is based on economic
success, facilitated by educational attainment (p. 88). This view has
been actualised in a more servile notion of education as one of obtaining
qualications (Guile :oo). Further support is provided by Watson and
Robbins (:oo8) who confront what they see as the assessment problem,
that is, the tradition of individualistic and competitive approaches
to qualications.
As the primary purpose of most summative assessment remains that
of rank ordering candidates for competitive entry into further and higher
education, any problems with reliability of results afect the credibility of
the assessment, which is usually at high public and political cost (p. r;).
When assessments of learning are over-emphasised, and when the focus
of the assessment is heavily concerned with producing reliable results then
if the subject of the assessment is highly complex it may be that only
the more easily and reliably assessed parts of a construct are assessed
(Stobart :ooo, p. ro). The assumption that results are reliable has been
challenged, Biemans et al (:oo,) noting for example that diferent schools
interpret national standards and ideas on summative assessments dif-
ferently. This issue of reliability was also raised by Ecclestone (:oo;) in
the context of formative assessment where apparently agreed meanings
and principles can conceal very diferent learning goals. Students and
employers can provide useful input for the improvement of competency
based assessments.
In a comprehensive analysis of how :rst century skills can be assessed,
Binkley et al (:oro) noted that teachers tend to model the pedagogical
approach reected in high-visibility tests p. :. The authors point out that
when tests were composed of multiple-choice items, there was a tendency
for teachers to become over-reliant on multiple-choice worksheets in
their classroom, resulting in an emphasis on lower level cognitive skills.
In contrast, when the assessments drew on extended writing and/or
performance assessments, many teachers included similar activities in
their teaching.
It is acknowledged by Schleicher (:oo;) that PISA only assesses a small
element of the competencies that might make young people successful;
it does not capture; for example, inter and intra personal dimensions of
competencies (eg the capacity of students to manage and resolve conicts
or to adjust to an increasingly complex environment). This is due to
a number of factors, including methodological issues associated with
testing competence and the lack of international consensus as to what
fundamental competencies, r year olds should possess. Nonetheless,
Schleicher argues that the competencies that are assessed, do successfully
predict the future outcomes of students. For example, PISA data has been
linked to data from the Canadian Youth in Transition Survey (students
took part in both) to show that the odds of students participating in post
secondary education, are directly related to their performance on PISA.
The challenge of assessing or measuring the degree of attainment of
competences was one of the concerns expressed by many Member States
about the EU Competency Framework: this is a real issue, as experience
has shown that what can be efectively assessed in a curriculum is taken
more seriously by learners and teachers and is therefore more likely to be
Opening Minds i8
learned and taught (Halsz and Michel :orr, p. :,). Hence, the ten-
dency to limit teaching to what is assessed is a fear expressed in relation
to competency-based education.
Recommendation 10: As the OM programme aims to develop a wide
range of competences, assessment processes need to reect this and
ensure that the drive to gain a formal qualication does not inhibit wider
learning and that the assessment process is not divorced from the peda-
gogical approach. Careful attention needs to be given to the development
of both formative and summative assessment processes to ensure that
gaining a qualication is not privileged over wider learning.

Recommendation 11: If formal accreditation is brought into the OM pro-
gramme, diferent actors such as students and teachers can provide useful
input for the format and operation of competency-based assessments.
Student-led assessment
Gibbs and Armsby (:orr, p. ,) stress the complexities of assessment
and state that nding concepts which reveal the unique character-
istics of achievements is no simple task and the complex assessment
process for this, which involves understanding claims from the
claimants perspective.
The Assessment Reform Group (ARG) has developed principles
of formative assessment that encourage teachers to develop the links
between information about students progress towards learning goals,
adaptations to planning and teaching based on feedback and dialogue,
and attention to the ways in which students learn. This requires
encouragement of autonomy, some choice about activities and students
understanding of goals, criteria and the purpose of feedback (ARG :oo:
p r;). To be considered formative, Binkley et al (:oro, p. 8) noted that
assessment evidence must be acted upon to inform subsequent instruc-
tion. Rather than focusing backward on what has been learned, formative
assessment helps to chart the learning road forward, by identifying and
providing information to ll any gaps between the learners current status
and goals for learning
Within the Teaching and Learning Research Programme (TLRP),
James (reported in James and Pollard :or:) worked with staf in o
infants, primary and secondary schools using large-scale questionnaires,
interviews and classroom observations in an attempt to answer the ques-
tion of whether Assessment for Learning (AfL) could help pupils learn
how to learn. They found that implementing the spirit, the underlying
principles, of AfL was hard to achieve with most teachers adopting the
letter of AfL, in the shape of its procedures or techniques, for example
by sharing the criteria with learners and implementing peer and self-
assessment but few did so in a way which enabled the pupils to become
more independent as learners. The teachers who did capture that spirit
shared key characteristics. That is, they all had a strong belief in pupil
autonomy and constructed activities that provided scafolding for learn-
ing opportunities.
This perspective was reinforced by Ecclestone (:oo;) whose approach
is based on a socio-cultural understanding of assessment. Ecclestone
Careful attention
needs to be given
to the development
of both formative
and summative
assessment
processes to ensure
that gaining a
qualication is
not privileged over
wider learning.
Evidence to support a competency-based approach to assesment i
acknowledges that research on formative assessment has been developed
in the context of the UKs highly prescriptive summative assessment
testing systems in schools (p. r). As a result of an increasing emphasis
on raising levels of participation and achievement there has been a blur-
ring in the distinction between summative and formative assessment. She
makes the point that there is a marked diference in whether teachers
understand the spirit or letter of formative assessment (p. r8). A
commitment to the spirit of formative assessment might enable students
to go beyond extrinsic success in meeting targets and, instead, to combine
better performance with engagement and good learning habits in order
to develop learning autonomy. This view was reinforced by Binkley et
el (:oro) who found that testing has become dominated by routine, and
highly predictable items, which are also often short and highly scafolded,
thus reducing the expectation that students should apply knowledge,
skills and broader capabilities demanded by todays world.
Ecclestone (:oo;, p. :) cites Black and Wiliam (r,,8) to suggest that
specic assessment activities such as grading, feedback and questioning
can explicitly or implicitly reinforce ego or a sense of self as an unsuccess-
ful or successful learner, or focus solely on performance and achievement
in the form of a good or poor grade. Teachers tend to use formative and
summative assessment to reinforce these two goals rather than ofering
good advice about improvements to tasks and activities.
In this section we have highlighted the complexities of competence-
based assessment and would like to warn against attempts to over-sim-
plify the process. In particular, we believe that in developing an appropri-
ate assessment system of the OM competences, which encompasses both
formative and summative assessment, account should be taken of the
comprehensive research conducted by the Assessment Reform Group
(ARG). Specically, the embracing of principles of formative assessment
which implement the spirit rather than the letter of Assessment for
Learning. This would have the underlying aim of enabling pupils to
become more independent as learners through constructing activities that
provide scafolding for learning opportunities.
How might competences be assessed?
Watson and Emery (:oo,) note that the rst challenge is to adequately
describe what should be valued in young people, recognising that there
is little consensus on what wider achievements or capabilities constitute
and how they can be assessed or measured. Drawing on research funded
by the Welsh Assembly, they discuss a range of curricular initiatives and
programmes which have included a focus on social and emotional dis-
positions and skills (SEDS). Some have been centrally driven such as the
Social and Emotional Aspects of Learning (SEAL

) and Healthy Schools

.
Secondary SEAL is a loose framework on social and emotional learning
that schools can use as they wish. Humphrey et al (:oro) comparing ::
SEAL schools with r, others concluded that there was a mixed picture
due to difering patterns of implementation. There are also curricular
. http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/:orro8o,o,r8:/http:/www.teachingan-
dlearningresources.org.uk/whole-school/social-and-emotional-aspects-learning-seal
. http://education.gov.uk/schools/pupilsupport/pastoralcare/aoo;:;8/healthy-schools
Opening Minds o
initiatives introduced by organisations including Opening Minds, ELLI
(Deakin-Crick et al :oo) and the certicate of personal efectiveness
(ASDAN
o
). The authors note that a common thread has emerged with an
emphasis on well-being, transferable skills and on the development of
social and emotional intelligence, literacy, or competence. However,
with respect to dening what should be taught and how it should be
assessed they comment that the rhetoric belies the complexities involved
in this aspiration (p. ;;r).
Examples are given by Watson and Emery of a socio-cultural approach
to SEDS including the Northern Ireland Skills and Capabilities frame-
work (CCEA :oo:), Enquiring Minds
;
and Opening Minds. The authors
note that assessment methods in these initiatives tend to lean towards
methods that include in situ observational assessment, portfolios,
video evidence, diaries and journals, participatory approaches, simula-
tions and drama-based activities, interpretive narratives or summaries
(Delandshere and Petrosky r,,8) and learning stories (Carr :oor)
(p. ;;). The emphasis through these approaches is in the co-construc-
tion of interpretations of SEDS (p. ;;). Adopting a socio-cultural per-
spective, assessment is the ability to form judgements and determine
the signicance of an event (Delandshere and Petrosky r,,8, p. ro). In a
collaborative model, assessment is a process of a more knowledgeable or
expert other sitting alongside a learner and making an informed judge-
ment of their knowledge, abilities, skills and performances. This deni-
tion of assessment implies that we engage in observational assessment of
authentic performance (Watson and Emery :oo,, p. ;;,).
Deakin Crick et al (:oo) developed and tested an instrument to
identify the elements of an individuals capacity for lifelong learning
including learning orientation which they dened as the complex mix of
experience, motivation, intelligences and dispositions that any particular
learning opportunity evokes (p. :;). They argue that in an unpredictable
and ever-changing world, it will be crucial to assess the characteristics
of people as learners. If the capacity to go on learning throughout life is
important, then it is important to be able to assess the developing qualities
that make up an individuals capacity for lifelong learning. Their research
aimed to identify the elements that dene a good learner and devise an
instrument that could be used to assess where an individual is located in
relation to these elements at any given time, and in any particular context.
Existing research suggested that there are at least broad categories
that can be identied are making a substantial contribution to learning:

Learning capacities: dispositions, awareness and skills;

Learning identity: the beliefs, values and attitudes about learning,
self and knowledge held by the learner;

Learning story: the socio-cultural formation of learners over
time; Learning relationships: the quality and substance of learn-
ing relationships.
(Deakin-Crick et al, 2004, p. 249)
o. www.asdan.org.uk/
;. www.enquiringminds.org.uk/
Evidence to support a competency-based approach to assesment 1
These authors provide a detailed discussion and analysis on how the
Efective Lifelong Learning Inventory (ELLI) was piloted, rened and tri-
alled with a cohort of r8o students who were drawn from a range of social,
economic and ethnic backgrounds. They conclude that the implications
of our study must be seen in the light of how learners themselves feel about
learning rather than from a more external measure of learner orientation
if indeed this was possible (p. :oo). They note that being a good learner is
critical to the response individuals make to new opportunities and contexts
in enabling them to engage enthusiastically and efectively with learning.
An alternative model for assessing competencies is provided by Meijer
et al (:oor) at the University of Amsterdam, who developed and tested
an instrument which was constructed to assess the level of competence of
students (aged rro) on eight cross-curricular skills. These are dened as
general skills which can be taught and practised in curricula for diferent
disciplines (p. 8o). They noted that the challenge to use multiple-choice
questions, not an approach usually associated with measuring general
skills, was welcomed because there is an increasing need for assessment
instruments which are appropriate for large-scale investigations.
Meijer et al identify four cross-curricular skills taught in secondary
education: designing and conducting investigations, stating ones own
ideas and opinions, working in collaboration on assignments and
using criteria to evaluate the quality of ones own work and working
methods. In designing an appropriate assessment they drew on literature
about higher-order thinking skills (eg Marzano and Arredondo r,8o).
An instrument was designed for assessing students prociency in eight
skills, which were considered relevant for students of rro years of age.
The instrument included o multiple-choice questions, eight for each
cross-curricular skill. In r,,o, the revised version of the assessment was
administered to a representative sample of approximately ,,ooo students
who were r and ro years of age. The results of the test were used to
establish a base level for future evaluation studies on the mastery of
cross-curricular skills of students in secondary education (p. ,). In con-
clusion, the authors note that the use of a multiple-choice questionnaire
to assess skills is to be welcomed because there is an increasing need for
assessment of general skills and for assessment instruments, which are
appropriate for large-scale investigations (p. ro).
In this section we highlight a number of studies in which attempts
have been made to develop a tool for assessing competences. However,
none seem to be directly relevant to the OM programme, either because
they had been designed to test large cohorts of pupils or to test generic
thinking skills. Instead, we believe that the OM programme benets
most from adopting a socio-cultural approach to assessment, that is,
using a collaborative model in which assessment is based on the involve-
ment of a more knowledgeable or expert other sitting alongside a learner
and making an informed judgement of their knowledge, abilities, skills
and performances authentic performance.
Recommendation 12: An appropriate system of assessment of OM compe-
tencies should embrace the principles of Assessment for Learning through
a collaborative approach in particular by sharing the criteria for learning
An instrument was
designed for assessing
students prociency in
8
which were considered
relevant for students of
rro years of age
Opening Minds i
with the learners incorporating self and peer-assessment and ensuring
feedback informs future teaching and learning.
Portfolio assessment
A portfolio is described as a purposeful collection of examples of learning
collected over a period of time, and gives visible and detailed evidence of
a persons attainment of competences Segers et al :oo8, p. o). Portfolio
assessment has developed partly in response to concerns that qualications
and testing assess only the surface learning which relies on memorisation
and reproduction of material needed to complete the assessment. In con-
trast, modes of assessment such as assignments and portfolios enhance the
adoption of deep approaches to learning because they require students to
relate, analyse, solve and evaluate (Segers et al p. ).
One hundred and ten students in Applied Science using portfolio
assessment participated in the study by Segers et al. The researchers used
an Assessment Experience Questionnaire to capture students perceptions
of this assessment method and its relationship to their learning approaches.
The study highlights, as noted by Wade and Yarbrough (r,,o), that feed-
back is essential when implementing portfolio assessment and that it is not
the assessment design that matters, but how it is implemented. The con-
struction process of a portfolio over time is found to contribute to individ-
ual learning (Zeichner and Wray :ooo). Collecting targeted information in
a portfolio is a highly reective process (Hamilton r,,8). In addition, Tang
et al (r,,,) reported that students who engage in portfolio assessment,
compared with multiple choice tests, show deeper approaches to learning.
Segers et al (p. ;) describe rr conditions for assessment to enhance
student learning. These are summarised as:
Quantity and distribution of student effort
Condition 1

Condition 2
Sufcient assessed tasks are provided to
capture sufcient study time and effort
These tasks distribute student effort evenly
across topics and weeks
Quality and level of student effort
Condition 3
Condition 4
These tasks engage students in productive
learning activity
Assessment communications clear and high
expectations of students
Quantity and timing of feedback
Condition 5

Condition 6
Student feedback is provided both often
enough and in enough detail
The feedback is provided quickly enough to
be useful to the students
Quality of feedback
Condition 7

Condition 8
Condition 9
Feedback focuses on learning rather than on
marks or on students themselves
Feedback is linked to the purpose of the
assignment and to criteria
Feedback is understandable to students,
given their sophistication
Evidence to support a competency-based approach to assesment
The Questionnaire addressed students perceptions of the rr condi-
tions and two main ndings emerged: in comparison with a multiple-
choice test, students adopted more cognitively challenging activities such
as application, relation and reection. Secondly, the results indicated
there was a signicant positive correlation between a deep approach to
learning and what students do with the feedback they receive (p. r).
These conditions provide a useful set of factors to build into the
assessment of Opening Minds.
In summary, this section highlighted the benets of assessment
processes which encourage deep approaches to learning rather than those
which embrace surface learning, such as tests which rely on memory.
Deep learning can be fostered through the inclusion of modes of assess-
ment such as assignments and portfolios. Of primary importance is the
need to include high quality feedback. The Table above (Segers et al)
helpfully outlines eleven conditions for assessment to enhance student
learning feedback and the OM programme may benet from drawing on
some of the ideas detailed in the table. We ofer the view that an appropri-
ate assessment tool for use in the OM programme may be the construc-
tion of a portfolio of evidence coupled with formative feedback.
Student response to feedback
Condition 10
Condition 11
Feedback is received by students and
attended to
Feedback is acted upon by students to
improve their work or their learning
Opening Minds
Concluding comments
and recommendations
Opening Minds covers a wide range of outcomes and embraces many
of the conceptual positions supported by the research reviewed in this
report. There are insumcient empirical studies and none except the :oro
evaluation commissioned by the RSA that specically address OM to be
able to state clearly whether OM generates better attainment or other
outcomes than other approaches. The little empirical work that exists
in this area suggests that RSA should be encouraged: their competency
framework is more balanced than most others reviewed here. For exam-
ple the EUs competencies are heavily weighted to Learning; Hoskins
and Deakin-Cricks to Citizenship and Managing Situations; PISAs to
Learning and Managing Information. Jaros and Deakin-Crick (:oo;,
p. o) support these characteristics of Opening Minds in suggesting:
The RSA Curriculum Project Opening Minds (:oo) is another example
of an innovative approach to the curriculum for school-aged students that
aims at integration, rather than a subject-based and thus fragmented ap-
proach to knowledge. It lends itself to a more holistic and learner-centred
approach that encourages interdisciplinary enquiry, the stimulation of
learning power, and the acquisition of transferable skills.
Throughout this review recommendations are given that might assist
in improving the OM approach.
Recommendation 1: The Opening Minds curriculum resonates well with
both the economic and wider learning characteristics that emerge from
the review as important. As such the RSA should be promoting both the
versatility of its curriculum and how it appears to meet the diverse aims
or drivers underpinning competence based approaches. Below we now
consider the individual elements that contribute to making CBE efective
and the conditions required for its success.
Recommendation 2: If they are to lead to expertise and competence, CBE
must be grounded in the local and individual context and this is what
OM already does.
Recommendation 3: Since the evidence supports a view of competence as
embracing a diverse range or types of knowledge, tailoring OM must also
be realised by students being able to use standard knowledge in a local-
ised context as well as embracing other existing knowledge types.
The little empirical
work that exists in
this area suggests
that RSA should
be encouraged:
their competency
framework is
more balanced
than mostothers
reviewed here.
Concluding comment and recomendations
Recommendation 4: The evidence on learning power implies that the
CBE should centre on learning as a skill rather than simply lead students
to acquire knowledge. As such, teachers using the OM curriculum should
ensure that OM is fully grounded in an understanding of a conception
of learning skills and, in particular how such skills can be developed
over time.
Recommendation 5: The RSA should consider its denition of competence
and choose one that has salience with the main stakeholders concerned
(i.e. teachers, learners and employers) whilst also reecting the myriad
and diverse outcomes that OM supports.
Recommendation 6: Ensure that those teaching OM are themselves com-
petent to do so (i.e. are comfortable in their roles as coaches and experts
and the balance required between these roles and the need for self-respon-
sibility and self-reection in their students) and are able to demonstrate
the competences that are required of their pupils.
Recommendation 7: The eight aspects suggested by Wesselink et al (:oo,)
should be considered by those using OM.
Recommendation 8: Teachers using OM should make explicit the links
between curricular subjects such that the interrelated nature of competen-
cies can be addressed.
Recommendation 9: The emphasis placed in the OM curriculum on
Managing emotions should be maintained given the evidence on the
importance of these competencies in and out of the workplace.
Recommendation 10: As the OM programme aims to develop a wide
range of competences, assessment processes need to reect this and
ensure that the drive to gain a formal qualication does not inhibit wider
learning and that the assessment process is not divorced from the peda-
gogical approach.
Opening Minds
Recommendation 11: If formal accreditation is brought into the OM pro-
gramme, diferent actors such as students and teachers can provide useful
input for the format and operation of competency-based assessments.
Recommendation 12: An appropriate system of assessment of OM compe-
tencies should embrace the principles of Assessment for Learning through
a collaborative approach, in particular by sharing the criteria for learning
with the learners incorporating self and peer-assessment and ensuring
feedback informs future teaching and learning.
Hipkins et al (:oro p. rr) remind us:
an understanding of the curriculum role of competencies is mostly still
a task to be tackled. Given the power of the competitive academic cur-
riculum, there are many questions in this agenda that must be addressed
if competencies are to be enacted in the way envisaged by Haste (:oor).
These include: What is the relationship between competencies and subject
content? Are competencies assessed and reported on, and if so how?
How are they planned for and taught in the curriculum? What kind of
professional development is needed? Unless these and other questions
are addressed, competencies will simply be subsumed by the dominant
curriculum grammars and fail to live up to the potential of their trans-
formative promise.
The RSA should consider re-evaluating the efectiveness of Opening
Minds looking at the impact at school, teacher and pupil level with a
view to strengthening existing arguments regarding its emcacy. Whilst
acknowledging that accreditation of the OM programme is at school
level, the overall accreditation process could draw on Hipkins et al in
asking: how the competencies will be assessed and reported on, who will
be involved in the assessment and what kind of professional development
supports the efective use of the Opening Minds curriculum?
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Appendix:
Search terms
Competence terms Evidence/
assessment terms
Contextual
terms
Specic
programme terms
Capability Analysis Curriculum Opening Minds
Competence* Appraise Education SEAL
Competence-based Assessment Programme Enquiring Minds
Competency indicator Effectiveness Pupils ELLI
Core skills Evaluate School leavers Learning Power
Employability skills Evidence Students
Expertise Study
Integration of
knowledge, skills and
attitudes
Syllabus
Key competencies Use
Key skills Assessment
Learners
Learning power
Lifelong learning
Prociency
Transversal skills
Vocational
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