ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We would like to thank to all the SUPERVISORS and STAFF of UPSRTC WORKSHOP IDGAH DEPOT AGRA. Who accorded us permission to undergo practical training at UPSRTC WORKSHOP IDGAH DEPOT AGRA. We would like to acknowledge gratefully the kind help and full cooperation rendered to us by the workshop staff . We are thankful to pump section staff for imparting the training to us at full gratitude of valuable guidance. We are also thankful to MR. MAHAVIR SINGH for their constant guidance and taking initiative and encouraging us to do well.

CONTENTS
I. UPSRTC
I.1 INTRODUCTION I.2 INFRASTRUCTURE I.3 PURCHASE PROCEDURE I.4 WORKSHOP

1. THE CHASSIS CONSTRUCTION 2. FRONT AXLE & STEERING 3. POWER UNIT

3.1 CONSTRUCTION DETAIL OF ENGINE 3.2 ENGINE SERVICE 3.3 ENGINE COOLING SYSTEM 3.4 LUBRICATION SYSTEM 3.5 FUEL INJECTION SYSTEM

4. TRANSMISSION SYSTEM
4.1 CLUTCH 4.2 GEAR BOX ASSEMBLY 4.3 UNIVERSAL JOINT 4.4 PROPELLER SHAFT 4.5 DIFFRENTIAL ASSEMBLY

5. SUPENSION SYSTEM 6. WHEELS & TYRES 7. AIR BRAKING SYSTEM 8. LIGHTING SYSTEM 9. SAFETY CONSIDERATION

INTRODUCTION
UPSRTC is a public sector passenger road transport corporation providing services in the state of Uttar Pradesh and other adjoining states in North India. With a fleet size of around 7668 buses we operate over 2.5 million kilometers catering to the travel needs of over 1.3 million people and earning over Rs. 38.3 million everyday. Provision of adequate, efficient, well co-ordinated, comfortable and economical services to our passengers, while earning enough for self-sustenance & growth, is our motto. Passenger road transport services in the state of U.P. started on 15th May, 1947 with the operation of bus service on the Lucknow - Barabanki route by the erstwhile U.P. Government Roadways. Subsequently, during the fourth Five Year Plan, the erstwhile UP Government Roadways was rechristened as Uttar Pradesh State Road Transport Corporation (UPSRTC) on 1-6-72 under the provisions of the Road Transport Act, 1950 with the following objectives:

For the development of the road transport sector correlated to which would be the overall development of trade & industry. For coordination of the road transport services with other modes of transport. For providing or causing the provision of an adequate, economical & efficiently coordinated road transport service to the residents of the state.

At the time of establishment of the Corporation it had a fleet of 4253 buses which were operating on 1123 routes. The corporation's earned kilometers operated at that time were 228.8 million kilometers. While the total number of passengers carried by its buses totalled 251.3 million.

INFRASTRUCTURE
The corporate office of the corporation is situated at Lucknow. The Corporation has been reconstituted on 30.10.03 with the services in the state of Uttaranchal firming a separate corporation. For efficient functioning the corporation has been divided into 19 regions of which 2 regions operate urban & sub-urban services. Each region has a regional workshop where major repair and maintenance work as well as assembly reconditioning work is performed. Each region has been further divided into operational units called depots. The total number of depots in the corporation is 108, including car-section. Each depot has a depot workshop attached to it to provide supportive maintenance facilities. For heavy maintenance and repair of vehicles, reconditioning of major assemblies, renovation of 3

buses and construction of bodies on new chassis, two Central workshops have been established in Kanpur: Central Workshop, Rawatpur and Dr. Ram Manohar Lohia Workshop, Allen Forest. Six tyre retreading plants are established at Gorakhpur, Ghaziabad, Bareilly, Kanpur, Saharanpur and Allahabad to provide in-house tyre retreading facilities. For repairs and maintenance of staff cars belonging to the State Government and the Corporation, a separate unit named Car Section is established in Lucknow. For imparting training to drivers and technical staff, a Training School is established in Kanpur. The locational details of the various units of UPSRTC are available in the list of regions.

S. No.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 Agra Ghaziabad Meerut Saharanpur Noida Aligarh Moradabad Bareilly Hardoi Etawah Kanpur Jhansi Lucknow Faizabad

Region

No. of Depots
8 7 4 4 1 7 5 4 5 6 7 5 7 6 2 9 7 6 7
Total : 107

Lucknow MPS Allahabad Azamgarh Gorakhpur Varanasi

PURCHASE PROCEDURE
Spare Parts The Corporation annually purchases a variety of spare parts as below :New Tyre sets, Tyre retreading material, vehicle spares fro maintenance, repairs and reconditioning, spring leaves, batteries, assemblies etc valuing approximate 650 million. Bus body fabrication and renovation - steel, aluminium, glass, plywood, rexine, etc. - approx. 500 million. Fuel and Oil The Corporation purchases around Rs. 2400 million per annum of diesel and various lubricant oils directly from M/S IOC on a 10 days payment credit. Vehicles Chassis is purchased on a 45 days credit policy directly from vehicle manufacturers M/s TELCO and M/s Ashok Leyland. Bus body is generally fabricated in -house and in special cases fabrication is got down by leading bus body fabricators, as per specifications on identification through tenders and contract.

WORKSHOPS
For maintenance and repair of vehicles, reconditioning of major assemblies, renovation of buses and construction of bodies on new chassis, two workshops have been established in Kanpur in each depot. A mojor workshop is established in the each region For heavy maintenance and repair of vehicles, reconditioning of major assemblies, renovation of buses and construction of bodies on new chassis, two Central workshops have been established in Kanpur: Central Workshop, Rawatpur and Dr. Ram Manohar Lohia Workshop, Allen Forest. For repairs and maintenance of staff cars belonging to the State Government and the Corporation, a separate unit named Car Section is established in Lucknow.

1. THE CHASIS CONSTRUCTION

The chassis also known as carrying unit is a French term & was initially used to denote the frame or main structure of a vehicle The term chassis is now extensively used to denote the complete vehicle except the body for heavy vehicle having separate body the chassis contain all the major units as necessary to propel the vehicle, direct its motion, consist of slope it ,& allow to it run smoothly over uneven surface. The chassis of a automobile the following components suitably mounted such as 1. Frame 2.Front axle 3. Steering system 4.Rear axle 5. Suspension system 6.Transmission system 7. Break system 8.Engine 9. Electrical system

Motor vehicle chassis with its suspension, exhaust system, and steering box In the case of vehicles, the term chassis means the frame plus the "running gear" like engine, transmission, driveshaft, differential, and suspension. A body (sometimes referred to as "coachwork"), which is usually not necessary for integrity of the structure, is built on the chassis to complete the vehicle. Commercial vehicle manufacturers may have chassis only, cowl and chassis, as well as "cab and chassis" versions that can be outfitted with specialized bodies. These include motor homes, fire engines, ambulances, box trucks, etc.

2.1

FRONT AXLE

Train wheels are affixed to a straight axle, such that both wheels rotate in unison. This is called a wheelset. An axle is a central shaft for a rotating wheel or gear. In some cases the axle may be fixed in position with a bearing or bushing sitting inside the hole in the wheel or gear to allow the wheel or gear to rotate around the axle. In other cases the wheel or gear may be fixed to the axle, with bearings or bushings provided at the mounting points where the axle is supported. Sometimes, especially on bicycles, the latter type is referred to as a spindle. Vehicle axles Axles are an integral structural component of a wheeled vehicle. The axles maintain the position of the wheels relative to each other and to the vehicle body. Since for most vehicles the wheels are the only part touching the ground, the axles must bear the weight of the vehicle plus any cargo, as well as acceleration and braking forces. In addition to the structural purpose, axles may serve one or more of the following purposes depending on the design of the vehicle.

Drive One or more axles may be an integral part of the drivetrain. A mechanical system (typically a motor) exerts a rotational force on the axle, which is transferred to the wheel(s) to accelerate the vehicle. Braking Conversely a vehicle may be slowed by applying force to brake the rotation of the axle. Consumer vehicles' brakes are part of the wheel assembly and therefore exert friction on the wheels directly, but engine braking may still be effected via the axle. Steering The front axle of most automobiles is a steering axle. The vehicle is maneuvered by controlling the direction of the front wheels' rotational axis relative to the body and rear wheels.

Structural features A straight axle is a single rigid shaft connecting a wheel on the left side of the vehicle to a wheel on the right side. The axis of rotation fixed by the axle is common to both wheels. Such a design can keep the wheel positions steady under heavy stress, and can therefore support heavy loads. Straight axles are used on trains, for the rear axles of commercial trucks, and on heavy duty offroad vehicles. The axle can be protected and further reinforced by enclosing the length of the axle in a housing. In split-axle designs, the wheel on each side is attached to a separate shaft. Modern passenger cars generally have split front and rear axles. In some designs, this allows independent suspension of the left and right wheels, and therefore a smoother ride. Even when the suspension

It is ot independent, split axles permit the use of a differential, allowing the left and right drive wheels to be driven at different speeds as the automobile turns, improving traction and extending tire life. A tandem axle is a group of two or more axles situated close together. Trucks designs will use such a configuration to provide a greater weight capacity than a single axle. Semi trailers usually have a tandem axle at the rear.An axle that is driven by the engine is called a drive axle. Modern front wheel drive cars typically combine the transmission and front axle into a single unit called a transaxle. The drive axle is a split axle with a differential and universal joints between the two half axles. Each half axle connects to the wheel by use of a constant velocity 10

(CV) joint which allows the wheel assembly to move freely vertically as well as to pivot when making turns. In rear wheel drive cars and trucks, the engine turns a driveshaft which transmits rotational force to a drive axle at the rear of the vehicle. The drive axle may be a live axle, but modern automobiles generally use a split axle with a differential. A dead axle, also called lazy axle, is not part of the drivetrain but is instead free-rotating. The rear axle of a front-wheel drive car may be considered a dead axle. Many trucks and trailers use dead axles for strictly load-bearing purposes. A dead axle located immediately in front of a drive axle is called a pusher axle. A tag axle is a dead axle situated behind a drive axle. Some dump trucks and trailers are configured with airlift axles, which may be mechanically raised or lowered. The axle is lowered to increase the weight capacity, or to distribute the weight of the cargo over more wheels, for example to cross a weight restricted bridge. When not needed, the axle is lifted off the ground, to save wear on the tires and axle and increase traction in the remaining wheels. Lifting an axle also makes the vehicle perform better on tighter turns Several manufacturers offer computer-controlled airlift, so that the dead axles are automatically lowered when the main axle reaches its weight limit. The axles can still be lifted by the press of a button if needed. Differential (mechanical device) Input torque is applied to the ring gear (blue), which turns the entire carrier (blue), providing torque to both side gears (red and yellow), which in turn may drive the left and right wheels. If the resistance at both wheels is equal, the planet gear (green) does not rotate, and both wheels turn at the same rate.

If the left side gear (red) encounters resistance, the planet gear (green) rotates about the left side gear, in turn applying extra rotation to the right side gear (yellow). Differentials are a variety of gearbox, almost always used in one of two ways. In one of these, it receives one input and provides two outputs; this is found in every automobile. In the other, less commonly encountered, it combines two inputs to create an output that is the sum (or difference) of the inputs. In an automobile and other wheeled vehicles, the differential allows each of the driving wheels to rotate at different speeds, while supplying equal torque to each of them. In automotive applications, the differential and its housing are sometimes collectively called a "pumpkin" (because the housing resembles a pumpkin).

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2.2

STEERING

Steering is the term applied to the collection of components, linkages, etc. which will allow for a vessel (ship, boat) or vehicle (car) to follow the desired course. An exception is the case of rail transport by which rail tracks combined together with railroad switches provide the steering function. The most conventional steering arrangement is to turn the front wheels using a handoperated steering wheel which is positioned in front of the driver, via the steering column, which may contain universal joints to allow it to deviate somewhat from a straight line. Other arrangements are sometimes found on different types of vehicles, for example, a tiller or rearwheel steering. Tracked vehicles such as tanks usually employ differential steering that is, the tracks are made to move at different speeds or even in opposite directions to bring about a change of course. RACK & PINION TYPE Rack and pinion animation Rack and pinion unit mounted in the cockpit of an Ariel Atom sports car chassis. For most high volume production, this is usually mounted on the other side of this panel Many modern cars use rack and pinion steering mechanisms, where the steering wheel turns the pinion gear; the pinion moves the rack, which is a sort of linear gear which meshes with the pinion, from side to side. This motion applies steering torque to the kingpins of the steered wheels via tie rods and a short lever arm called the steering arm. The rack and pinion design has the advantages of a large degree of feedback and direct steering "feel"; it also does not normally have any backlash, or slackA disadvantage is that it is not adjustable, so that when it does wear and develop lash, the only cure is replacement. Older designs often use the recirculating ball mechanism, which is still found on trucks and utility vehicles. This is a variation on the older worm and sector design; the steering column turns a large screw (the "worm gear") which meshes with a sector of a gear, causing it to rotate about its axis as the worm gear is turned; an arm attached to the axis of the sector moves the pitman arm, which is connected to the steering linkage and thus steers the wheels. The recirculating ball version of this apparatus reduces the considerable friction by placing large ball bearings between the teeth of the worm and those of the screw; at either end of the apparatus the balls exit from between the two pieces into a channel internal to the box which connects them with the other end of the apparatus, thus they are "recirculated". The recirculating ball mechanism has the advantage of a much greater mechanical advantage, so that it was found on larger, heavier vehicles while the rack and pinion was originally limited to smaller and lighter ones; due to the almost universal adoption of power steering, however, this is no longer an important advantage, leading to the increasing use of rack and pinion on newer cars. The recirculating ball design also has a perceptible lash, or "dead spot" on center, where a minute turn of the steering wheel in either direction does not move the steering apparatus; this is easily 12

adjustable via a screw on the end of the steering box to account for wear, but it cannot be entirely eliminated or the mechanism begins to wear very rapidly. This design is still in use in trucks and other large vehicles, where rapidity of steering and direct feel are less important than robustness, maintainability, and mechanical advantage. The much smaller degree of feedback with this design can also sometimes be an advantage; drivers of vehicles with rack and pinion steering can have their thumbs broken when a front wheel hits a bump, causing the steering wheel to kick to one side suddenly (leading to driving instructors telling students to keep their thumbs on the front of the steering wheel, rather than wrapping around the inside of the rim). This effect is even stronger with a heavy vehicle like a truck; recirculating ball steering prevents this degree of feedback, just as it prevents desirable feedback under normal circumstances. The steering linkage connecting the steering box and the wheels usually conforms to a variation of Ackermann steering geometry, to account for the fact that in a turn, the inner wheel is actually traveling a path of smaller radius than the outer wheel, so that the degree of toe suitable for driving in a straight path is not suitable for turns. Power steering As vehicles have become heavier and switched to front wheel drive, the effort to turn the steering wheel manually has increased - often to the point where major physical exertion is required. To alleviate this, auto makers have developed power steering systems. There are two types of power steering systemshydraulic and electric/electronic. A hydraulic-electric hybrid system is also possible. A hydraulic power steering (HPS) uses hydraulic pressure supplied by an engine-driven pump to assist the motion of turning the steering wheel. Electric power steering (EPS) is more efficient than the hydraulic power steering, since the electric power steering motor only needs to provide assistance when the steering wheel is turned, whereas the hydraulic pump must run constantly. In EPS the assist level is easily tunable to the vehicle type, road speed, and even driver preference. An added benefit is the elimination of environmental hazard posed by leakage and disposal of hydraulic power steering fluid. Speed Adjustable Steering An outgrowth of power steering is speed adjustable steering, where the steering is heavily assisted at low speed and lightly assisted at high speed. The auto makers perceive that motorists might need to make large steering inputs while manoeuvering for parking, but not while traveling at high speed. The first vehicle with this feature was the Citron SM with its Diravi layout, although rather than altering the amount of assistance as in modern power steering systems, it altered the pressure on a centring cam which made the steering wheel try to "spring" back to the straight-ahead position. Modern speed-adjustable power steering systems reduce the pressure fed to the ram as the speed increases, giving a more direct feel. This feature is gradually becoming commonplace across all new vehicles.

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3. POWER UNIT

3.1 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE

The internal combustion engine is an engine in which the combustion of fuel and an oxidizer (typically air) occurs in a confined space called a combustion chamber. This exothermic reaction creates gases at high temperature and pressure, which are permitted to expand. Internal combustion engines are defined by the useful work that is performed by the expanding hot gases acting directly to cause the movement of solid parts of the engine. The term Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) is often used to refer to an engine in which combustion is intermittent, such as a Wankel engine or a reciprocating piston engine in which there is controlled movement of pistons, cranks, cams, or rods. However, continuous combustion engines such as jet engines, most rockets, and many gas turbines are also classified as types of internal combustion engines. This contrasts with external combustion engines such as steam engines and Stirling engines that use a separate combustion chamber to heat a separate working fluidwhich then in turn does work. For example, by moving a piston or a turbine. A huge number of different designs for internal combustion engines exist, each with different strengths and weaknesses. Although they're used for many different purposes, internal combustion engines particularly see use in mobile applications such as cars, aircraft, and even handheld applications: all where their ability to use an energy-dense fuel (especially fossil fuels) to deliver a high power-to-weight ratio. Internal combustion engines are most commonly used for mobile propulsion in vehicles and portable machinery. In mobile equipment, internal combustion is advantageous since it can provide high power-to-weight ratios together with excellent fuel energy-density. Generally using a petroleum called All-Petroleum Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles or APICEVs, these engines have appeared in transport in almost all automobiles, trucks, motorcycles, boats, and in a wide variety of aircraft and locomotives. Internal combustion engines appear in the form of gas turbines as well where a very high power is required, such as in jet aircraft, helicopters, and large ships. They are also frequently used for electric generators and by industry. .1.Combustion All internal combustion engines depend on the exothermic chemical process of combustion: the reaction of a fuel, typically with oxygen from the airalthough other oxidizers such as nitrous oxide may be employed. The combustion process typically results in the production of a great quantity of heat, as well as the production of steam and carbon dioxide and other chemicals at very high temperature; the temperature reached is determined by the chemical make up of the fuel and oxidisers (see stoichiometry).

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The most common modern fuels are made up of hydrocarbons and are derived mostly from petroleum. These include the fuels known as dieselfuel, gasoline and petroleum gas, and the rarer use of propane. Except for the fuel delivery components, most internal combustion engines that are designed for gasoline use can run on natural gas or liquefied petroleum gases without major modifications. Liquid and gaseous biofuels, such as ethanol and biodiesel (a form of diesel fuel that is produced from crops that yield triglycerides such as soybean oil), can also be used. Some engines with appropriate modifications can also run on hydrogen gas.

All internal combustion engines must achieve ignition in their cylinders to create combustion. Typically engines use either a spark ignition (SI) method or a compression ignition (CI) system. In the past, other methods using hot tubes or flames have been used. Gasoline Ignition Process Gasoline engine ignition systems generally rely on a combination of a lead-acid battery and an induction coil to provide a high-voltage electrical spark to ignite the air-fuel mix in the engine's cylinders. This battery is recharged during operation using an electricity-generating device such as an alternator or generator driven by the engine. Gasoline engines take in a mixture of air and

15

gasoline and compress to less than 185 psi, then use a spark plug to ignite the mixture when it is compressed by the piston head in each cylinder.

Energy Efficiency Once ignited and burnt, the combustion productshot gaseshave more available thermal energy than the original compressed fuel-air mixture (which had higher chemical energy). The available energy is manifested as high temperature and pressure that can be translated into work by the engine. In a reciprocating engine, the high-pressure gases inside the cylinders drive the engine's pistons. Once the available energy has been removed, the remaining hot gases are vented (often by opening a valve or exposing the exhaust outlet) and this allows the piston to return to its previous position (top dead center, or TDC). The piston can then proceed to the next phase of its cycle, which varies between engines. Any heat that isn't translated into work is normally considered a waste product and is removed from the engine either by an air or liquid cooling system. Engine efficiency can be discussed in a number of ways but it usually involves a comparison of the total chemical energy in the fuels, and the useful energy abstracted from the fuels in the form of kinetic energy. The most fundamental and abstract discussion of engine efficiency is the thermodynamic limit for abstracting energy from the fuel defined by a thermodynamic cycle. The most comprehensive is the empirical fuel economy of the total engine system for accomplishing a desired task; for example, the miles per gallon accumulated. Internal combustion engines are primarily heat engines and as such the phenomenon that limits their efficiency is described by thermodynamic cycles. None of these cycles exceed the limit defined by the Carnot cycle which states that the overall efficiency is dictated by the difference between the lower and upper operating temperatures of the engine. A terrestrial engine is usually and fundamentally limited by the upper thermal stability derived from the material used to make up the engine. All metals and alloys eventually melt or decompose and there is significant researching into ceramic materials that can be made with higher thermal stabilities and desirable structural properties. Higher thermal stability allows for greater temperature difference between the lower and upper operating temperaturesthus greater thermodynamic efficiency. The thermodynamic limits assume that the engine is operating in ideal conditions. A frictionless world, ideal gases, perfect insulators, and operation at infinite time. The real world is substantially more complex and all the complexities reduce the efficiency. In addition, real engines run best at specific loads and rates as described by their power curve. For example, a car cruising on a highway is usually operating significantly below its ideal load, because the engine is designed for the higher loads desired for rapid acceleration. The applications of engines are used as contributed drag on the total system reducing overall efficiency, such as wind resistance designs for vehicles. These and many other losses result in an engines' real-world fuel economy that is usually measured in the units of miles per gallon (or kilometers per liter) for automobiles.

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Ignition system An internal combustion engine can be classified by its ignition system. Today most engines use an electrical or compression heating system for ignition. However, outside flame and hot-tube systems have been used historically. Compression Ignition comes from the heat derived from oxidation and the mechanical compression of the air or mixture. The vast majority of compression ignition engines are diesels in which the fuel is mixed with the air after the air has reached ignition temperature. In this case, the timing comes from the fuel injection system. Very small model engines for which simplicity is more important than fuel costs, use special fuels to control ignition timing. Ignition Timing For reciprocating engines, the point in the cycle at which the fuel-oxidizer mixture is ignited has a direct effect on the efficiency and output of the ICE. The thermodynamics of the idealized Carnot heat engine tells us that an ICE is most efficient if most of the burning takes place at a high temperature, resulting from compressionnear top dead center. The speed of the flame front is directly affected by the compression ratio, fuel mixture temperature, and octane or cetane rating of the fuel. Leaner mixtures and lower mixture pressures burn more slowly requiring more advanced ignition timing. It is important to have combustion spread by a thermal flame front (deflagration), not by a shock wave. Combustion propagation by a shock wave is called detonation and, in engines, is also known as pinging or knocking. So at least in gasoline-burning engines, ignition timing is largely a compromise between an earlier "advanced" sparkwhich gives greater efficiency with high octane fueland a later "retarded" spark that avoids detonation with the fuel used. For this reason, high-performance diesel automobile proponents such as, Gale Banks, believe that Fuel systems Fuels burn faster and more completely when they have lots of surface area in contact with oxygen. In order for an engine to work efficiently the fuel must be vaporized into the incoming air in what is commonly referred to as a fuel-air mixture. There are two commonly used methods of vaporizing fuel into the air: one is the carburetor: the other is fuel injection. Carburetor Often for simpler reciprocating engines, a carburetor is used to supply fuel into the cylinder. However, exact control of the correct amount of fuel supplied to the engine is impossible. Carburetors are the current most widespread fuel mixing device used in lawn mowers and other small engine applications. Prior to the mid-1980s, carburetors were also common in automobiles.

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Fuel injection Larger gasoline engines used in automobiles have mostly moved to fuel injection systems (see Gasoline Direct Injection). Diesel engines always use fuel injection because it is the fuel system that controls the ignition timing. Autogas (LPG) engines use either fuel injection systems or open- or closed-loop carburetors. .Superchargers A supercharger is a "forced induction" system which uses a compressor powered by the shaft of the engine which forces air through the valves of the engine to achieve higher flow. When these systems are employed the maximum absolute pressure at the inlet valve is typically around 2 times atmospheric pressure or more. Cooling systems Combustion generates a great deal of heat, and some of this transfers to the walls of the engine. Failure will occur if the body of the engine is allowed to reach too high a temperature, either the engine will physically fail, or any lubricants used will degrade to the point that they no longer protect the engine. Cooling systems usually employ air or liquid cooling while some very hot engines using radiative cooling (especially some Rocket engines). Some high altitude rocket engines use ablative cooling where the walls gradually erode in a controlled fashion. Piston A piston is a component of reciprocating engines. It is located in a cylinder and is made gas-tight by piston rings. Its purpose is to transfer force from expanding gas in the cylinder to the crankshaft via a piston rod and/or connecting rod. In some engines, the piston also acts as a valve by covering and uncovering ports in the cylinder wall. Crankshafts Very many reciprocating internal combustion engines end up turning a shaft. This means that the linear motion of a piston must be turned into a rotation. This is typically achieved by a crankshaft. Flywheels Flywheels are found in most reciprocating engines as a way to smooth out the power delivery over each rotation of the crank. Without it, many engines would stall at low engine speeds. Engine service

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3.2 Precaution during engine service

1.Hot engine part should be carefully handled. 2.Care should be exercised while taking out lubricating oil from the hot engine, 3.Be careful while removing radiator cap of a hot engine. 4.USE PROPER EQUIPMENT & methods to handle heavy components. 5.Engine mating surface should be handled with utmost care to avoid damage. 6.Electrical system re-connections must be done correctly. 7.Utmost care should be taken to maintain cleanliness of not only engine parts, but also the entire service area. A small amount of dirt on a critical component may cause damage by excessive friction, while slight spilling of a lubricating oil may result in injury by slipping.

3.3 Engine cooling

Engine cooling is cooling an engine, typically using either air or liquid. Heat engines generate mechanical power by extracting energy from heat flows, much as a water wheel extracts mechanical power from a flow of mass falling through a distance. Engines are not perfectly efficient, so more heat energy enters the engine than comes out as mechanical power; the difference is waste heat and must be removed. Internal combustion engines remove waste heat through cool intake air, hot exhaust gases, and explicit engine cooling. Engines with higher efficiency have more energy leave as mechanical motion and less as waste heat. Some waste heat is essential: it guides heat through the engine, much as a water wheel works only if there is some exit velocity (energy) in the waste water to carry it away and make room for more water. Thus, all heat engines need cooling to operate. Cooling is also needed because high temperatures damage engine materials and lubricants. Internal-combustion engines burn fuel hotter than the melting temperature of engine materials, and hot enough to set fire to lubricants. Engine cooling removes energy fast enough to keep temperatures low so the engine can survive. Some high-efficiency engines run without explicit cooling and with only accidental heat loss, a design called adiabatic. For example, 10,000 mile-per-gallon "cars" for the Shell economy challenge are insulated, both to transfer as much energy as possible from hot gases to mechanical motion, and to reduce reheat losses when restarting. Such engines can achieve high efficiency but compromise power output, duty cycle, engine weight, durability, and emissions. Advantages

Oil has a higher boiling point than water, so it can be used to cool items 100C or higher Oil is an electrical insulator, thus can be used inside of or in direct contact with electrical components.

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3.4 Lubrication Systems

Internal combustions engines require lubrication in operation to allow moving parts to slide smoothly over each other. Insufficient lubrication will subject the engine to rapid wear and ultimately, it may even seize up entirely. Several different types of lubrication systems are used. Simple two-stroke engines are lubricated by oil mixed into the fuel or injected into the induction stream as a spray. Early slow-speed stationary and marine engines were lubricated by gravity from small chambers similar to those used on steam engines at the timewith an engine tender refilling these as needed. As engines were adapted for automotive and aircraft use, the need for a high power-to-weight ratio led to increased speeds, higher temperatures, and greater pressure on bearings which in turn required pressure-lubrication for crank bearings and connecting-rod journals. This was provided either by a direct lubrication from a pump, or indirectly by a jet of oil directed at pickup cups on the connecting rod ends which had the advantage of providing higher pressures as the engine speed increased. Control systems Most engines require one or more systems to start and shutdown the engine and to control parameters such as the power, speed, torque, pollution, combustion temperature, efficiency and to stabilise the engine from modes of operation that may induce self-damage such as preignition. Such systems may be referred to as engine control units. Very many systems today are digital control systems, and are frequently termed FADEC (Full Authority Digital Electronic Control) systems. Crankshaft design Crankshafts on 6 cylinder engines generally have either 4 main bearings or 7 main bearings. Larger engines and diesels tend to use the latter because of high loadings and to avoid crankshaft flex. Because of the 6 cylinder engine's smooth characteristic, there is a tendency for a driver to load the engine at low rpm. This can produce crankshaft flex in 4 main bearing designs where the crank spans the distance of 2 cylinders between main bearings. This distance is longer than the distance between two adjacent main bearings on a V6 with 4 mains because the V6 has cylinder bores on opposite banks which overlap significantly. In addition, modern high-compression engines subject the crankshaft to greater bending loads from higher peak gas pressures, requiring the crankthrows to have greater support from adjacent bearings, so it is now customary to design straight-6s with 7 main bearings. However many of the more sporty high performance engines use the 4 bearing design because of better torsional stiffness (eg BMW small straight 6's, Ford's Zephyr 6). In a 7 main bearing design the crank has two throws between each cylinder. The accumulated length of main bearing journals and 12 crank throws, gives a relatively torsionally flexible crankshaft. The 4 main bearing design has only 6 crank throws and 4 main journals so is much stiffer in the torsional domain. At high rpm the lack of torsional stiffness can make the 7 main bearing design

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susceptible to torsional flex and potential breakage. Note that a V12 engine can be made with the same number of crank throws as the 7 main bearing straight 6. Another factor affecting large straight 6 engines is the front mounted timing chain which connects the camshaft(s) to the crank. The camshafts are also quite long and subject to torsional flex as they in turn operate valves alternately near the front of the engine and near the rear. At high rpm the camshaft(s) can flex torsionally while the crank is doing likewise. This results in valve timing for the rear most cylinders becoming inaccurate and erratic, losing power and in extreme cases resulting in mechanical interference between valve and piston with catastrophic results. Some designers have experimented with installing the timing chain/gears in the middle of the engine (between cylinders 3 and 4) or adding a second timing chain at the rear of the engine. Either method can solve the problem. Another factor affecting the ability of the large 6 cylinder engines to achieve high rpm is the simple geometric reality of a relatively long stroke (undersquare) design. A straight 6 is a long engine and the designer is usually encouraged to make it as short as possible while height is not usually a problem. Hence the tendency to use a longer stroke and smaller bore than in a V engine to achieve a given capacity.

3.5 Fuel injection system

Fuel injection is a system for mixing fuel with air in an internal combustion engine. It has become the primary system used in automotive engines, having almost completely replaced carburetors in the late 1980s. A fuel injection system is designed and calibrated specifically for the type(s) of fuel it will handle: gasoline (petrol), Autogas (LPG, also known as propane), ethanol, methanol, methane (natural gas), hydrogen or diesel. The majority of fuel injection systems are for gasoline or diesel applications. With the advent of electronic fuel injection (EFI), the diesel and gasoline hardware has become similar. EFI's programmable firmware has permitted common hardware to be used with multiple different fuels. For gasoline engines, carburetors were the predominant method to meter fuel before the widespread use of fuel injection. However, a wide variety of injection systems have existed since the earliest usage of the internal combustion engine. The primary functional difference between carburetors and fuel injection is that fuel injection atomizes the fuel by forcibly pumping it through a small nozzle under high pressure, while a carburetor relies on low pressure created by intake air rushing through it to add the fuel to the airstream. The fuel injector is only a nozzle and a valve: the power to inject the fuel comes from farther back in the fuel supply, from a pump or a pressure container.

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Objectives The functional objectives for fuel injection systems can vary. All share the central task of supplying fuel to the combustion process, but it is a design decision how a particular system will be optimized. There are several competing objectives such as:

power output fuel efficiency emissions performance ability to accommodate alternative fuels reliability driveability and smooth operation initial cost maintenance cost diagnostic capability range of environmental operation

Certain combinations of these goals are conflicting, and it is impractical for a single engine control system to fully optimize all criteria simultaneously. In practice, automotive engineers strive to best satisfy a customer's needs competitively. The modern digital electronic fuel injection system is far more capable at optimizing these competing objectives than a carburetor. Engine operation Operational benefits to the driver of a fuel-injected car include smoother and more dependable engine response during quick throttle transitions, easier and more dependable engine starting, better operation at extremely high or low ambient temperatures, increased maintenance intervals, and increased fuel efficiency. On a more basic level, fuel injection does away with the choke which on carburetor-equipped vehicles must be operated when starting the engine from cold and then adjusted as the engine warms up. An engine's air/fuel ratio must be accurately controlled under all operating conditions to achieve the desired engine performance, emissions, driveability, and fuel economy. Modern electronic fuel-injection systems meter fuel very accurately and precisely, and use closed loop fuelinjection quantity-control based on feedback from an oxygen sensor (or "O2 sensor"). This enables fuel-injected engines to produce less air pollution than comparable carbureted engines. Properly-designed fuel injection systems can react rapidly to changing inputs such as sudden throttle movements, and will control the amount of fuel injected to match the engine's needs across a wide range of operating conditions such as engine load, ambient air temperature, engine temperature, fuel octane level, and prevailing barometric pressure. A multipoint fuel injection system generally delivers a more accurate and equal mass of fuel to each cylinder than can a carburetor, thus improving the cylinder-to-cylinder distribution. Exhaust emissions are cleaner because the more precise and accurate fuel metering reduces the concentration of toxic combustion byproducts leaving the engine, and because exhaust cleanup

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devices such as the catalytic converter can be optimized to operate more efficiently since the exhaust is of consistent and predictable composition. [The process of determining the amount of fuel, and its delivery into the engine, are known as fuel metering. Early injection systems used mechanical methods to meter fuel (non electronic, or mechanical fuel injection). Modern systems are nearly all electronic, and use an electronic solenoid (the injector) to inject the fuel. An electronic engine control unit calculates the mass of fuel to inject. In contrast to an EFI system, a carburetor directs the induction air through a venturi, which generates a minute difference in air pressure. The minute air pressure differences both emulsify (premix fuel with air) the fuel, and then acts as the force to push the mixture from the carburetor nozzle into the induction air stream. As more air enters the engine, a greater pressure difference is generated, and more fuel is metered into the engine. A carburetor is a self-contained fuel metering system, and is cost competitive when compared to a complete EFI system. An EFI system requires several peripheral components in addition to the injector(s), in order to duplicate all the functions of a carburetor. A point worth noting during times of fuel metering repair is that early EFI systems are prone to diagnostic ambiguity. A single carburetor replacement can accomplish what might require numerous repair attempts to identify which one of the several EFI system components is malfunctioning. Newer EFI systems since the advent of OBD II diagnostic systems, can be very easy to diagnose due to the increased ability to monitor the realtime data streams from the individual sensors. This gives the diagnosing technician realtime feedback as to the cause of the drivability concern, and can dramatically shorten the number of diagnostic steps required to ascertain the cause of failure, something which isn't as simple to do with a carburetor. On the other hand, EFI systems require little regular maintenance; a carburetor typically requires seasonal and/or altitude adjustments.

Multi-point fuel injection Multi-point fuel injection injects fuel into the intake port just upstream of the cylinder's intake valve, rather than at a central point within an intake manifold, referred to as SPFI, or single point fuel injection. MPFI (or just MPI) systems can be sequential, in which injection is timed to coincide with each cylinder's intake stroke, batched, in which fuel is injected to the cylinders in groups, without precise synchronisation to any particular cylinder's intake stroke, or Simultaneous, in which fuel is injected at the same time to all the cylinders. Direct injection Many diesel engines feature direct injection (DI). The injection nozzle is placed inside the combustion chamber and the piston incorporates a depression (often toroidal) where initial combustion takes place. Direct injection diesel engines are generally more efficient and cleaner than indirect injection engines. Some recent gasoline engines utilize direct injection as well. This is the next step in evolution from multi-port fuel injection and offers another magnitude of

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emission control by eliminating the "wet" portion of the induction system. By virtue of better dispersion and homogeneity of the directly injected fuel, the cylinder and piston are cooled, thereby permitting higher compression ratios and more aggressive ignition timing, with resultant enhanced output. More precise management of the fuel injection event also enables better control of emissions. Finally, the homogenity of the fuel mixture allows for leaner air/fuel ratios, which together with more precise ignition timing can improve fuel economy. Some direct-injection systems incorporate piezo electronic injectors. With their extremely fast response time, multiple injection events can occur during each power stroke of the engine.

Injection pump
An Injection Pump is the device that pumps fuel into the cylinders of a diesel engine or less typically, a gasoline engine. Traditionally, the pump is driven indirectly from the crankshaft by gears, chains or a toothed belt (often the timing belt) that also drives the camshaft on overheadcam engines ( OHC ). It rotates at half crankshaft speed in a conventional four-stroke engine. Its timing is such that the fuel is injected only very slightly before top dead-centre of that cylinder's compression stroke. It is also common for the pump belt on gasoline engines to be driven directly from the camshaft. Because of the need for positive injection into a very high-pressure environment, the pump develops great pressuretypically 15,000 psi (100 MPa) or more on newer systems. This is a good reason to take great care when working on diesel systems; escaping fuel at this sort of pressure can easily penetrate skin and clothes, and be injected into body tissues with serious consequences. Earlier diesel pumps used an in-line layout with a series of cam-operated injection cylinders in a line, rather like a miniature inline engine. The pistons have a constant stroke volume, and injection volume (ie, throttling) is controlled by rotating the cylinders against a cut-off port that aligns with a helical slot in the cylinder. When all the cylinders are rotated at once, they simultaneously vary their injection volume to produce more or less power from the engine. Inline pumps still find favour on large multi-cylinder engines such as those on trucks, construction plant, static engines and agricultural vehicle For use on cars and light trucks, the rotary pump or distributor pump was developed. It uses a single injection cylinder driven from an axial cam plate, which injects into the individual fuel lines via a rotary distribution valve. Later incarnations such as the Bosch VE pump vary the injection timing with crank speed to allow greater power at high crank speeds, and smoother, more economical running at slower revs. Some VE variants have a pressure-based system that allows the injection volume to increase over normal to allow a turbocharger or supercharger equipped engine to develop more power under boost conditions.

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4.

TRANSMISSION SYSTEM

4.1 Clutches
A clutch is a mechanism for transmitting rotation, which can be engaged and disengaged. Clutches are useful in devices that have two rotating shafts. In these devices, one shaft is typically driven by a motor or pulley, and the other shaft drives another device. In a drill, forinstance, one shaft is driven by a motor, and the other drives a drill chuck. The clutch connects the two shafts so that they can either be locked together and spin at the same speed

Single plate friction clutch This type of clutch is used almost exclusively in automobiles and trucks and has three main parts: 1. Driving member 2. Driven member 3. Operating member The clutch plate is lined with a friction material with the output shaft running through the center. This type has the advantage of a lever that allows the operator to manually engage and disengage the drive via the pressure plates. This type of clutch allows for a smooth take away and gear changes.lot mix Multiple plate friction clutch This type of clutch has several driving members interleaved with several driven members. It is used in motorcycles and in some diesel locomotives with mechanical transmission.

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Vehicular There are many different vehicle clutch designs but most are based on one or more friction discs, pressed tightly together or against a flywheel using springs. The friction material varies in composition depending on whether the clutch is dry or wet, and on other considerations. Friction discs once contained asbestos, but this has been largely eliminated. Clutches found in heavy duty applications such as trucks and competition cars use ceramic clutches that have a greatly increased friction coefficient, however these have a "grabby" action and are unsuitable for road cars. The spring pressure is released when the clutch pedal is depressed thus either pushing or pulling the diaphragm of the pressure plate, depending on type, and the friction plate is released and allowed to rotate freely. When engaging the clutch, the engine speed may need to be increased from idle, using the manual throttle, so that the engine does not stall. (Although in some cars, especially diesels, there is enough torque at idling speed that the car can move. This requires fine control of the clutch.) However, raising the engine speed too high while engaging the clutch will cause excessive clutch plate wear. Engaging the clutch abruptly when the engine is turning at high speed causes a harsh, jerky start. This kind of start is necessary and desirable in drag racing and other competitions where speed is more of an issue than comfort. WET & DRY CLUTCH A 'wet clutch' is immersed in a cooling lubricating fluid, which also keeps the surfaces clean and gives smoother performance and longer life. Wet clutches, however, tend to lose some energy to the liquid. A 'dry clutch', as the name implies, is not bathed in fluid. Since the surfaces of a wet clutch can be slippery (as with a motorcycle clutch bathed in engine oil), stacking multiple clutch disks can compensate for slippage. Operation in automobiles In a car the clutch is operated by the left-most pedal using hydraulics or a cable connection from the pedal to the clutch mechanism. Even though the clutch may physically be located very close to the pedal, such remote means of actuation are necessary to eliminate the effect of slight engine movement, engine mountings being flexible by design. With a rigid mechanical linkage, smooth engagement would be near-impossible, because engine movement inevitably occurs as the drive is "taken up." No pressure on the pedal means that the clutch plates are engaged (driving), while pressing the pedal disengages the clutch plates, allowing the driver to shift gears or coast. A manual transmission contains cogs for selecting gears. These cogs have matching teeth, called dog teeth, which means that the rotation speeds of the two parts have a synchronizer, a device that uses frictional contact to bring the two parts to the same speed, and a locking mechanism called a blocker ring to prevent engagement of the teeth (full movement of the shift lever into gear) until the speeds are synchronized.

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4.2 GEAR BOX ASSEMBLY Transmission (mechanics)

Early transmissions included the right-angle drives and other gearing in windmills, horsepowered devices, and steam engines, in support of pumping, milling, and hoisting. Most modern gearboxes either reduce an unsuitable high speed and low torque of the prime mover output shaft to a more stable lower speed with higher torque, or do the opposite and provide a mechanical advantage (i.e increase in torque) to allow higher forces to be generated. Some of the simplest gearboxes merely change the physical direction in which power is transmitted.

Many typical automobile transmissions include the ability to select one of several different gear ratios. In this case, most of the gear ratios (simply called "gears") are used to slow down the output speed of the engine and increase torque. However, the highest gears may be "overdrive" types that increase the output speed. Uses Gearboxes have found use in a wide variety of differentoften stationaryapplications. Transmissions are also used in agricultural, industrial, construction, mining and automotive equipment. In addition to ordinary transmission equipped with gears, such equipment makes extensive use of the hydrostatic drive and electrical adjustable-speed drives. Simple The simplest transmissions, often called gearboxes to reflect their simplicity (although complex systems are also called gearboxes in the vernacular), provide gear reduction (or, more rarely, an increase in speed), sometimes in conjunction with a right-angle change in direction of the shaft (typically in helicopters, see picture). These are often used on PTO-powered agricultural 27

equipment, since the axial PTO shaft is at odds with the usual need for the driven shaft, which is either vertical (as with rotary mowers), or horizontally extending from one side of the implement to another (as with manure spreaders, flail mowers, and forage wagons). More complex equipment, such as silage choppers and snowblowers, have drives with outputs in more than one direction. Regardless of where they are used, these simple transmissions all share an important feature: the gear ratio cannot be changed during use. It is fixed at the time the transmission is constructed. For transmission types that overcome this issue, please see Continuously Variable Transmission, also known as CVT. Multi-ratio systems Many applications require the availability of multiple gear ratios. Often, this is to ease the starting and stopping of a mechanical system, though another important need is that of maintaining good fuel economy. Automotive basics The need for a transmission in an automobile is a consequence of the characteristics of the internal combustion engine. Engines typically operate over a range of 600 to about 7000 revolutions per minute (though this varies, and is typically less for diesel engines), while the car's wheels rotate between 0 rpm and around 1800 rpm. Furthermore, the engine provides its highest torque outputs approximately in the middle of its range, while often the greatest torque is required when the vehicle is moving from rest or traveling slowly. Therefore, a system that transforms the engine's output so that it can supply high torque at low speeds, but also operate at highway speeds with the motor still operating within its limits, is required. Transmissions perform this transformation. Most transmissions and gears used in automotive and truck applications are contained in a cast iron case, though sometimes aluminium is used for lower weight. There are three shafts: a mainshaft, a countershaft, and an idler shaft. The mainshaft extends outside the case in both directions: the input shaft towards the engine, and the output shaft towards the rear axle (on rear wheel drive cars- front wheel drives generally have the engine and transmission mounted transversely, the differential being part of the transmission assembly.) The shaft is suspended by the main bearings, and is split towards the input end. At the point of the split, a pilot bearing holds the shafts together. The gears and clutches ride on the mainshaft, the gears being free to turn relative to the mainshaft except when engaged by the clutches. Types of automobile transmissions include manual, automatic or semi-automatic transmission.

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Manual transmission Manual transmission come in two basic types:

a simple but rugged sliding-mesh or unsynchronized / non-synchronous system, where straight-cut spur gear sets are spinning freely, and must be synchronized by the operator matching engine revs to road speed, to avoid noisy and damaging "gear clash", and the now common constant-mesh gearboxes which can include non-synchronised, or synchronized / synchromesh systems, where diagonal cut helical (and sometimes doublehelical) gear sets are constantly "meshed" together, and a dog clutch is used for changing

gears. On synchromesh boxes, friction cones or "synchro-rings" are used in addition to the dog clutch. The former type is commonly found in many forms of racing cars, older heavy-duty trucks, and some agricultural equipment. Manual transmissions dominate the car market outside of North America. They are cheaper, lighter, usually give better performance, and fuel efficiency (although the latest sophisticated automatic transmissions may yield results slightly better than the ones yielded by manual transmissions). It is customary for new drivers to learn, and be tested, on a car with a manual gear change. In Malaysia, Denmark and Poland all cars used for testing (and because of that, virtually all those used for instruction as well) have a manual transmission. In Japan, the Philippines, Germany, Israel, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Austria, the UK [1][2], Ireland[2], Sweden, France, Australia, Finland and Lithuania , a test pass using an automatic car does not entitle the driver to use a manual car on the public road; a test with a manual car is required. [citation needed] Manual transmissions are much more common than automatic transmissions in Asia, Africa, South America and Europe.

Non-synchronous There are commercial applications engineered with designs taking into account that the gear shifting will be done by an experienced operator. They are a manual transmission, but are known as non-synchronized transmissions. Dependent on country of operation, many local, regional, and national laws govern the operation of these types of vehicles (Commercial Driver's License). This class may include commercial, military, agricultural, or engineering vehicles. Some of these may use combinations of types for multi-purpose functions. An example would be a PTO, or power-take-off gear. The non-synchronous transmission type requires an understanding of gear range, torque, engine power, and multi-functional clutch and shifter functions. Also see Doubleclutching, and Clutch-brake sections of the main article at non-synchronous transmissions.

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. Semi-automatic The creation of computer control also allowed for a sort of cross-breed transmission where the car handles manipulation of the clutch automatically, but the driver can still select the gear manually if desired. This is sometimes called a "clutchless manual," "dual-clutch," or "automated manual" transmission. Many of these transmissions allow the driver to give full control to the computer. They are generally designed using manual transmission "internals", and when used in passenger cars, have synchromesh operated helical constant mesh gear sets. Specific type of this transmission includes: Easytronic, Geartronic, and Direct-Shift Gearbox. There are also sequential transmissions which use the rotation of a drum to switch gears. [1] . Uncommon types The Continuously Variable Transmission (CVT) is a transmission in which the ratio of the rotational speeds of two shafts, as the input shaft and output shaft of a vehicle or other machine, can be varied continuously within a given range, providing an infinite number of possible ratios. The continuously variable transmission (CVT) should not be confused with the Infinitely Variable Transmission (IVT) (See below). The other mechanical transmissions described above only allow a few different gear ratios to be selected, but this type of transmission essentially has an infinite number of ratios available within a finite range. The continuously variable transmission allows the relationship between the speed of the engine and the speed of the wheels to be selected within a continuous range. This can provide even better fuel economy if the engine is constantly running at a single speed. The transmission is in theory capable of a better user experience, without the rise and fall in speed of an engine, and the jerk felt when changing gears. propulsion, and having the ability to control the portion of the mechanical power used directly for propelling the vehicle and the portion of mechanical power that is converted to electric power and recombined to drive the vehicle. The EVT and power sources are controlled to provide a balance between the power sources that increases vehicle fuel economy while providing advantageous performance when needed. The EVT may also be used to provide electrically generated power to charge large storage batteries for subsequent electric motor propulsion as needed, or to convert vehicle kinetic energy to electricity through 'regenerative braking' during deceleration. Various configurations of power generation, usage and balance can be implemented with a EVT, enabling great flexibility in propelling hybrid vehicles.

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4.3

UNIVERSAL JOINT

U joint, Cardan joint, Hardy-Spicer joint, or Hooke's joint is a joint in a rigid rod that allows the rod to 'bend' in any direction, and is commonly used in shafts that transmit rotary motion. It consists of a pair of ordinary hinges located close together, but oriented at 90 relative to each other. History The main concept of the universal joint is based on the design of gimbals, which have been in use since antiquity. One anticipation of the universal joint was its use by the Ancient Greeks on ballistae. The first person known to have suggested its use for transmitting motive power was Gerolamo Cardano, an Italian mathematician, in 1545, although it is unclear whether he produced a working model. Christopher Polhem later reinvented it and it was called "Polhem knot". In Europe, the device is often called the Cardan joint or Cardan shaft. Robert Hooke produced a working universal joint in 1676, giving rise to an alternative name, the Hooke's joint. Though the first use of the name universal joint is sometimes attributed to American car manufacturer Henry Ford, the term appeared in patent documents as early as 1884 when Charles H. Amidon was awarded United States Letters Patent No. 298,542 for a bit brace. The configuration of the universal joint can be specified by three variables:

1 The angle of rotation of axle 1 2 The angle of rotation of axle 2 The angle of the axles with respect to each other, zero being parallel, or straight through.

These variables are illustrated in the diagram on the right. Also shown are a set of fixed coordinate axes with unit vectors and and the planes of rotation of each axle. These planes of rotation are perpedicular to the axes of rotation and do not move as the axles rotate. The two axles are joined by a gymbal which is not shown. However, axle 1 attaches to the gymbal at the red points on the red plane of rotation in the diagram, and axle 2 attaches at the blue points on the blue plane. Coordinate systems fixed with respect to the rotating axles are defined as having their x-axis unit vectors (and) pointing from the origin towards one of the connection points. As shown in the diagram, is at angle 1 with respect to its beginning position along the x axis and is at angle 2 with respect to its beginning position along the y axis.is confined to the "red plane" in the diagram and is related to 1 by: Double cardan A configuration known as a double cardan joint drive shaft partially overcomes the problem of jerky rotation. In this configuration, two U-joints are utilised where the second U-joint is phased in relation to the first U-joint in order to cancel the changing angular velocity, and an intermediate shaft connects the two U-joints. In this configuration, the assembly will result in an almost constant velocity, provided both the driving and the driven shaft are parallel and the two

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universal joints are correctly aligned with each other - usually 45. This assembly is commonly employed in rear wheel drive vehicles. Even when the driving and driven shafts are parallel, if 0, oscillating moments are applied to the three shafts as they rotate. These tend to bend them in a direction perpendicular to the common plane of the shafts. This applies forces to the support bearings and can cause "launch shudder" in rear wheel drive vehicles. The intermediate shaft will also maintain a sinusoidal angular velocity, which contributes to vibration and stresses. In practice, it is often impossible to maintain a strict geometric relationship between the driving and driven shafts, and the intermediate shaft, giving rise to greater vibrations and mechanical stresses. The stresses can be reduced by the use of a smaller and lighter intermediate shaft, ensuring the driven and driving shafts share as close to the same angle in relation to the intermediate shaft, and reducing the angle of the joints. A recent innovation, the Thompson coupling is a further development of the double cardan joint, which doesn't rely on friction or sliding elements to maintain a strict geometric relationship within the joint, and which is capable of transmitting torque under axial and radial loads with low frictional losses. Cardan shaft Constant-velocity joint Constant Velocity Joints (aka homokinetic or CV joints) allow a rotating shaft to transmit power through a variable angle, at constant rotational speed, without an appreciable increase in friction or play. They are mainly used in front wheel drive and all wheel drive cars. However, rear wheel drive cars with independent rear suspensions typically use CV joints at the ends of the rear axle halfshafts. Audi Quattros use them for all four half-axles and on the front-to-rear driveshaft (propeller shaft) as well, for a total of ten CV joints. Early front wheel drive systems such as those used on the Citron Traction Avant and the front axles of Land Rover and similar four wheel drive vehicles used Hardy-Spicer (universal) joints, where a cross-shaped metal pivot sits between two forked carriers (These are not strictly CV joints as they result in a variation of the transmitted speed except for certain specific configurations). These are simple to make and can be tremendously strong, and are still used to provide a flexible coupling in the propeller shafts, where there is not very much movement. However, they become "notchy" and difficult to turn when operated at extreme angles, and need regular maintenance. They also need more complicated support bearings when used in drive axles, and could only be used in rigid axle designs. As front wheel drive systems became more popular, with cars such as the Mini using compact transverse engine layouts, the shortcomings of Hardy-Spicer joints in front axles became more and more apparent. Based on a design by Alfred H. Rzeppa which was filed for patent in 1927[1], constant velocity joints solved a lot of these problems. They allowed a smooth transfer of power despite the wide range of angles they were bent in. Driveshafts using CV joints are selfsupporting along their length, and do not need additional supports (although very long shafts

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4.4

PROPELLER SHAFT

A driveshaft, driving shaft, propeller shaft, or Cardan shaft is a mechanical device for transferring power from the engine or motor to the point where useful work is applied. Most engines or motors deliver power as torque through rotary motion: this is extracted from the linear motion of pistons in a reciprocating engine; water driving a water wheel; or forced gas or waterin a turbine. From the point of delivery, the components of power transmission form the drive train. Driveshafts are carriers of torque: they are subject to torsion and shear stress, which represents the difference between the input force and the load. They thus need to be strong enough to bear the stress, without imposing too great an additional inertia by virtue of the weight of the shaft.

Most automobiles today use rigid driveshafts to deliver power from a transmission to the wheels. A pair of short driveshafts is commonly used to send power from a central differential, transmission, or transaxle to the wheels.

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Early automobiles often used chain drive or belt drive mechanisms rather than a driveshaft. Some used electrical generators and motors to transmit power to the wheels. In British English, the term "driveshaft" is restricted to a transverse shaft which transmits power to the wheels, especially the front wheels. A driveshaft connecting the gearbox to a rear differential is called a propeller shaft, or prop-shaft. A prop-shaft assembly consists of a propeller shaft, a slip joint and one or more universal joints. Where the engine and axles are separated from each other, as on four-wheel drive and rear-wheel drive vehicles, it is the propeller shaft that serves to transmit the drive force generated by the engine to the axles. A driveshaft connecting a rear differential to a rear wheel may be called a halfshaft. The name derives from the fact that two such shafts are required to form one rear axle. There are different types of driveshafts in Automotive Industry:

1 piece driveshaft 2 piece driveshaft Slip in Tube driveshaft

The Slip in Tube Driveshaft is the new type which also helps in Crash Energy Management. It can be compressed in case of crash. It is also known as a collapsible driveshaft. Driveshaft for Research and Development The automotive industry also uses driveshafts at testing plants. At an engine test stand a drive shaft is used to transfer a certain speed / torque from the combustion engine to a dynamometer. A "shaft guard" is used at a shaft connection to protect against contact with the drive shaft and for detection of a shaft failure. At a transmission test stand a drive shaft connects the prime mover with the transmission. Driveshafts have been used on motorcycles almost as long as there have been motorcycles. As an alternative to chain and belt drives, driveshafts offer relatively maintenance-free operation and long life. A disadvantage of shaft drive on a motorcycle is that gearing is needed to turn the power 90 from the shaft to the rear wheel, losing some power in the process. On the other hand, it is easier to protect the shaft linkages and drive gears from dust, sand and mud. The best known motorcycle manufacturer to use shaft drive for a long time since 1923 is BMW. Among contemporary manufacturers, Moto Guzzi is also well-known for its shaft drive motorcycles. The British company, Triumph and all four Japanese brands, Honda, Suzuki, Kawasaki and Yamaha, have produced shaft drive motorcycles.

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4.5

DIFFERENTIAL ASSEMBALY

An epicyclic differential uses epicyclic gears to split torque asymmetrically between the front and rear axles. An epicyclic differential is at the heart of the Toyota Prius automotive drive train, where it interconnects the engine, motor-generators, and the drive wheels (which have a second differential for splitting torque as usual). It has the advantage of being relatively compact along the length of its axis (that is, the sun gear shaft).

In the image, the yellow shaft carries the sun gear, which is gray and almost hidden. The blue gears are called planetary gears. Epicyclic gearing is used here to split torque asymmetrically.The input shaft is the green hollow one, the yellow is the low torque output and the pink is the high torque output. The force applied in the yellow and the pink gears is the same, but since the arm of the pink one is 2x-3x bigger the torque will be 2x-3x higher.

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Spur-gear differential This is another type of differential that was used in some early automobiles, more recently the Oldsmobile Toronado, as well as other non-automotive devices. It consists of spur gears only. A spur-gear differential has two equal-sized spur gears, one for each half-shaft, with a space between them. Instead of the miter gear assembly (the "spider") at the center of the differential, there is a rotating carrier on the same axis as the two shafts. Power from a prime mover or transmission, such as the drive shaft of a car, rotates this carrier. Mounted in this carrier are one or more pairs of identical pinions, generally longer than their diameters, and typically smaller than the spur gears on the individual half-shafts. Each pinion pair rotates freely on pins supported by the carrier. Furthermore, the pinions pairs are displaced axially, such that they mesh only for the part of their length between the two spur gears. The remaining length of a given pinion meshes with the nearer spur gear on its axle. Therefore, each pinion couples that spur gear to the other pinion, and in turn, the other spur gear. When the drive shaft rotates the carrier, its relationship to the gears for the individual wheel axles is the same as that in a miter-gear differential.A relatively new technology is the electronically-controlled active differential. A computer uses inputs from multiple sensors, including yaw rate, steering angle, and lateral acceleration and adjusts the distribution of torque to compensate for undesirable handling behaviors like understeer. Active differentials used to play a large role in the World Rally Championship, but in the 2006 season the FIA has limited the use of active differentials only to those drivers who have not competed in the World Rally Championship in the last five years. .The second constraint of the differential is passive it is actuated by the friction kinematics chain through the ground. The difference in torque on the tires (caused by turns or bumpy ground) drives the second degree of freedom, (overcoming the torque of inner friction) to equalise the driving torque on the tires. The sensitivity of the differential depends on the inner friction through the second degree of freedom. All of the differentials (so called active and passive) use clutches and brakes for restricting the second degree of freedom, so all suffer from the same disadvantage decreased sensitivity to a dynamically changing environment. The sensitivity of the computer controlled differential is also limited by the time delay caused by sensors and the response time of the actuators.

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5. SUSPENTION SYSTEM
Suspension is the term given to the system of springs, shock absorbers and linkages that connects a vehicle to its wheels. Suspension systems serve a dual purpose contributing to the car's handling and braking for good active safety and driving pleasure, and keeping vehicle occupants comfortable and reasonably well isolated from road noise, bumps, and vibrations.

These goals are generally at odds, so the tuning of suspensions involves finding the right compromise. The suspension also protects the vehicle itself and any cargo or luggage from damage and wear. The design of front and rear suspension of a car may be different. This article is primarily about four-wheeled (or more) vehicle suspension. For information on two-wheeled vehicles' suspensions see the suspension (motorcycle), motorcycle fork, bicycle suspension, and bicycle fork articles. Leaf springs have been around since the early Egyptians. Ancient military engineers used leaf springs in the form of bows to power their siege engines, with little success at first. The use of leaf springs in catapults was later refined and made to work years later. Springs were not only made of metal, a sturdy tree branch could be used as a spring, such as with a bow. 37

Springs and dampers Most suspensions use springs to absorb impacts and dampers (or shock absorbers) to control spring motions. Some notable exceptions are the hydropneumatic systems, which can be treated as an integrated unit of gas spring and damping components, used by the French manufacturer Citron and the hydrolastic, hydragas and rubber cone systems used by the British Motor Corporation, most notably on the Mini. A number of different types of each have been used: Dampers or shock absorbers The shock absorbers damp out the (otherwise resonant) motions of a vehicle up and down on its springs. They also must damp out much of the wheel bounce when the unsprung weight of a wheel, hub, axle and sometimes brakes and differential bounces up and down on the springiness of a tire. The regular bumps found on dirt roads (nicknamed "corduroy", but properly washboarding) are caused by this wheel bounce. Suspension types Suspension systems can be broadly classified into two subgroups - dependent and independent. These terms refer to the ability of opposite wheels to move independently of each other. A dependent suspension normally has a beam (a simple 'cart' axle) or (driven) live axle that holds wheels parallel to each other and perpendicular to the axle. When the camber of one wheel changes, the camber of the opposite wheel changes in the same way (by convention on one side this is a positive change in camber and on the other side this a negative change). Di-Dion suspensions are also in this category as they rigidly connect the wheels together. An independent suspension allows wheels to rise and fall on their own without affecting the opposite wheel. Suspensions with other devices, such as anti-roll bars that link the wheels in some way are still classed as independent. A third type is a semi-dependent suspension. In this case, the motion of one wheel does affect the position of the other but they are not rigidly attached to each other. A twist-beam rear suspension is such a system.

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6. WHEEL & TYRES

A wheel is a circular device that is capable of rotating on its axis, facilitating movement or transportation whilst supporting a load (mass), or performing labour in machines. A wheel, together with an axle overcomes friction by facilitating motion by rolling. In order for wheels to rotate, a moment needs to be applied to the wheel about its axis, either by way of gravity, or by application of another external force. Common examples are found in transport applications. More generally the term is also used for other circular objects that rotate or turn, such as a Ship's wheel, steering wheel and flywheel. .Mechanics and function The wheel is a device that enables efficient movement of an object across a surface where there is a force pressing the object to the surface. Common examples are a cart drawn by a horse, and the rollers on an aircraft flap mechanism. The wheel is not a machine, and should not be confused with the wheel and axle, one of the simple machines. A driven wheel is a special case, that is a wheel and axle. Note that wheels predate driven wheels by about 6000 years. Wheels are used in conjunction with axles, either the wheel turns on the axle, or the axle turns in the object body. The mechanics are the same in either case. The low resistance to motion (compared to dragging) is explained as follows (refer to friction):

the normal force at the sliding interface is the same. the sliding distance is reduced for a given distance of travel. the coefficient of friction at the interface is usually lower.

Bearings are used to reduce friction at the interface. Example:

If dragging a 100 kg object for 10 m along a surface with = 0.5, the normal force is 981 N and the work done (required energy) is (work=force x distance) 981 0.5 10 = 4905 joules. Now give the object 4 wheels. The normal force between the 4 wheels and axles is the same (in total) 981 N, assume = 0.1, and say the wheel diameter is 1000 mm and axle diameter is 50 mm. So while the object still moves 10 m the sliding frictional surfaces only slide over each other a distance of 0.5 m. The work done is 981 x 0.1 x 0.5 = 49 joules.

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Tires, or tyres (in American and British English, respectively), are ring-shaped parts, either pneumatic or solid (including rubber, metals and plastic composites), that fit around wheels to protect them and enhance their effect. Pneumatic tires are used on many types of vehicles, such as bicycles, motorcycles, cars, trucks, earthmovers, and aircraft. Tires enable better vehicle performance by providing traction, braking, steering, and load support. Tires form a flexible cushion between the vehicle and the road, which smooths out shock and makes for a comfortable ride. Flat tire A flat tire occurs when a tire deflates to the point where the metal of the wheel rim comes to ground level. This can occur as a result of normal wear-and-tear, a leak, or more serious damage. A tire which has lost sufficient pressure to cause it to become distorted at the bottom will impair the stability of the vehicle and may further damage the tire if it is driven in this condition. The tire should be changed and or repaired before it becomes completely flat. Continuing to drive a vehicle with an absolutely flat tire will likely result in damaging the tire beyond repair, possible damage to the rim and vehicle, and will put the occupants, and other vehicles in danger. A flat tire or low pressure tire should be considered an emergency situation, requiring immediate attention to rectify the problem. Hydroplaning (or aquaplaning) Hydroplaning, also known as aquaplaning, is the condition where a layer of water builds up between the tire and road surface. Hydroplaning occurs when the tread pattern cannot channel away enough water at an adequate rate to ensure a dry footprint area. When hydroplaning occurs, the tire effectively "floats" above the road surface on a cushion of water - and loses traction, braking and steering, creating a very unsafe driving condition. When hydroplaning occurs, there is considerably less responsiveness of the steering wheel. The correction of this unsafe condition is to gradually reduce speed, by merely lifting off the accelerator/gas pedal.Hydroplaning becomes more prevalent with wider tires Air brake (road vehicle)

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7.

Air Brake System

A "Compressed Air Brake System" is a different air brake used for trucks, consisting of a standard disc/drum brake arrangement using compressed air in place of hydraulic fluid. Most types of truck air brakes are drum units, though there is an increasing trend towards the use of disc brakes in this application. The compressed air brakes system works by drawing filtered air from the atmosphere, compressing it, and holding it in high-pressure reservoirs at around 120 PSI. When needed for braking, this high pressure air is routed to the operating cylinders on the brakes, which actuate the braking hardware and slow the vehicle. Design and Function A compressed air brake system is divided into a supply system and a control system. The supply system compresses, stores and supplies high-pressure air to the control system as well as to additional air operated auxiliary truck systems (gearbox shift control, clutch pedal air assistance servo, etc.). Supply system The air compressor is driven off of the engine either by crankshaft pulley via a belt or directly off of the engine timing gears. It is lubricated and cooled by the engine lubrication and cooling systems. Compressed air is first routed through a series of cooling coils and into an air dryer. The dryer device removes moisture and oil impurities and also may include a pressure regulator and safety valve. As an alternative to the air dryer, the supply system can be equipped with an anti freeze device and oil separator. The compressed air is then stored in a storage reservoir (also called a primary tank) from which it is then distributed via way protection valves into the front and rear brake circuit air tanks, parking brake air tank and an auxiliary equipment air tank. The system also includes various check, pressure limiting, drain and safety valves. .Aerodynamic Occlusion as Vehicle Air Brake This example of the air brake consists of a physical structure on the exterior of a vehicle that will increase the vehicle's drag coefficient, and therefore slow it down. Air brakes of this sort are ineffective at normal road vehicle speeds, and therefore are reserved for vehicles which need to quickly decelerate from high speeds, such as race and high performance sports cars.

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8. LIGHTING SYSTEM

Main beam (high beam, driving beam, full beam) Main-beam (also called high, driving, or full beam) headlamps provide an intense, centreweighted distribution of light with no particular control of glare. Therefore, they are only suitable for use when alone on the road, as the glare they produce will dazzle other drivers. International ECE Regulations permit higher-intensity high-beam headlamps than are allowed under North American regulations[4] Driving lamps "Driving lamp" is a term deriving from the early days of nighttime driving, when it was relatively rare to encounter an opposing vehicle. Only on those occasions when opposing drivers passed each other would the dipped or "passing" beam be used. The full beam was therefore known as the driving beam, and this terminology is still found in international ECE Regulations, which do not distinguish between a vehicle's primary (mandatory) and auxiliary (optional) upper/driving beam lamps. The "driving beam" term has been supplanted in North American regulations by the functionally descriptive term auxiliary high-beam lamp They are most notably fitted on rallying cars, and are occasionally fitted to production vehicles derived from or imitating such cars. They are common in countries with large stretches of unlit roads, or in regions such as the Nordic countries where the period of daylight is short during winter. Many countries regulate the installation and use of driving lamps. For example, in Russia each vehicle may have no more than three pairs of lights including the original-equipment items, and in Paraguay, auxiliary driving lamps must be off and covered with opaque material when the vehicle is circulating in urban areas. Fog lamps A pair of yellow fog lamps Front fog lamps provide a wide, bar-shaped beam of light with a sharp cutoff at the top, and are generally aimed and mounted low They may be either white or selective yellow. They are intended for use at low speed to increase the illumination directed towards the road surface and verges in conditions of poor visibility due to rain, fog, dust or snow. As such, they are often most effectively used in place of dipped-beam headlamps, reducing the glareback from fog or falling snow, although the legality varies by jurisdiction of using front fog lamps without low beam headlamps. Use of the front fog lamps when visibility is not seriously reduced is often prohibited (for example in the United Kingdom), as they can cause increased glare to other drivers, particularly in wet pavement conditions, as well as harming the driver's own vision due to excessive foreground illumination

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The respective purposes of front fog lamps and driving lamps are often confused, due in part to the misconception that fog lamps are necessarily selective yellow, while any auxiliary lamp that makes white light is a driving lamp. Automakers and aftermarket parts and accessories suppliers frequently refer interchangeably to "fog lamps" and "driving lamps" (or "fog/driving lamps"). In most countries, weather conditions rarely necessitate the use of fog lamps, and there is no legal requirement for them, so their primary purpose is frequently cosmetic. They are often available as optional extras or only on higher trim levels of many cars. Studies have shown that in North America more people inappropriately use their fog lamps in dry weather than use them properly in poor weather Spot lights Police cars, emergency vehicles, and those competing in road rallies are sometimes equipped with an auxiliary lamp, sometimes called an alley light, in a swivel-mounted housing attached to one or both a-pillars, directable by a handle protruding through the pillar into the vehicle. Until the mid-1940s, these spot lamps could be found as standard equipment on expensive cars. Until the mid-1960s, they were commonly offered by automakers as model-specific accessory items. More recently, customizers have installed them or dummy substitutes on their cars. Spot lamps are used to illuminate signs, house numbers, and people with more power than a flashlight. Spot lights can also be had in versions designed to mount through the vehicle's roof. In some countries, for example in Russia, spot lights are allowed only on emergency vehicles or for offroad driving only. Daytime running lamps Some countries permit or require vehicles to be equipped with daytime running lamps (DRL). These may be functionally-dedicated lamps, or the function may be provided by e.g. the low beam or high beam headlamps, the front turn signals, or the front fog lamps, depending on local regulations. In ECE Regulations, a functionally-dedicated DRL must emit white light with an intensity of at least 400 candelas on axis and no more than 800 candelas in any direction. Most countries applying ECE Regulations permit low beam headlamps to be used as daytime running lamps. Canada, Sweden, Norway, Slovenia, Finland, Iceland, and Denmark require hardwired automatic DRL systems of varying specification depending on the specific country

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