Digest 108

Revised 1991
CI/SfB (M3)

Standard U-values
This Digest provides information which enables U-values for walls and roofs to be calculated on the basis of standard assumptions, in accordance with the CIBSE Guide, Section 3, Thermal properties of building structures. The calculation of heat losses from ground floors is described in IP3/90 and from dwellings in general in Digest 190.
The thermal transmittance or U-value of a wall, roof or floor of a building is a measure of its ability to conduct heat out of the building; the greater the U-value, the greater the heat loss through the structure. The total heat loss through the building fabric is found by multiplying U-values and areas of the externally exposed parts of the building, and multiplying the result by the temperature difference between inside and outside. U-values can be obtained by a variety of methods: by measurement, by adjustment of measured values, or by calculation from thermal resistance of component parts. These different methods of assessment will, in general, yield slightly different results. In fact, the U-value of a structure does vary to some extent from one situation to another; among other things it depends on the moisture content of the component materials, the wind speed and the internal conditions. The results obtained by measurement depend on conditions during tests and may differ from one another as well as from calculated values. Although all these methods give values that are accurate enough for heat loss calculation, a standard method of assessment is needed for comparing different constructions on a common basis or for meeting a stated figure specified by a client or by regulations. BASIS OF THE STANDARD U-VALUES Standard U-values are calculated from the resistances of the component parts, which in turn are based on standard assumptions about moisture contents of materials, rates of heat transfer to surfaces by radiation and convection, and airflow rates in ventilated airspaces. The effects of any heat bridging through the structure also have to be taken into account in a standard manner. The standard assumptions are, as far as possible, typical of practical conditions although they cannot be expected to agree in every case as conditions vary between one situation and another. EXPLANATION OF TERMS USED Thermal conductivity () is a measure of a material's ability to transmit heat; it is expressed as heat flow in watts per square metre of surface area for a temperature difference of 1K per metre thickness and may be expressed as : Wm m2K but thickness over area m cancels to 1 and the m2 m expression is normally given as W / (mK). Thermal resistivity (1/) is also a property of a material, independent of thickness. It is the reciprocal of conductivity: (mK) / W. When the thickness of a material is known, its actual thermal resistance (R) can be calculated by dividing its thickness in metres by its thermal conductivity. The resistance is expressed in (m2K) / W. Thermal transmittance (U) is a property of an element of a structure comprised of given thicknesses of material and is a measure of its ability to transmit heat under steady flow conditions. It is defined as the quantity of heat that will flow through unit area, in unit time, per unit difference of temperature between inside and outside environment. It is calculated as the reciprocal of the sum of the resistances of each layer of the construction and the resistances of the inner and outer surfaces and of any air space or cavity. It is given in W / (m2K).

Technical enquiries to: Building Research Establishment Garston, Watford, WD2 7JR Telex 923220 Fax 0923 664010

CALCULATION OF U-VALUES To summarise so far: a property of any material is its thermal conductivity (); the reciprocal of this is resistivity (1/). For material of known thickness, the resistance (R) can be calculated (thickness / conductivity) and from the resistances of the various layers comprising a construction and the resistances of cavities, and of inner and outer surfaces, the U-value can be calculated. For a simple structure without heat bridging, the thermal transmittance coefficient U is expressed as: U = 1/(Rsi + Rso + Rcav + R1 + R2......) where Rsi Rso Rcav = internal surface resistance (see Table 1) = external surface resistance (see Table 2) = resistance of any cavity within the building element (see Tables 3 and 4) R1,R2 = resistance of slabs of material

Ventilation airspace ventilation provides an additional heat flow path but, because air movement in such conditions is very variable, estimates for this are necessarily approximate. Ventilation may be either deliberate (ventilated cavity walls) or fortuitous (sheeted constructions with gaps between sheets). Standard values for various airspaces, unventilated and ventilated, are given in Tables 3 and 4. The small amount of ventilation required to avoid condensation in roof spaces does not significantly affect the airspace resistance and, where this is the only ventilation provided, data for unventilated airspace should be used. Similarly, the data in Table 3 are applicable to the airspace in a cavity wall that is ventilated only to normal standards.

Table 3 Standard thermal resistance of unventilated airspaces

Width Surface emissivity Thermal resistance (m2K)/W Heat flow direction Horizontal or upwards Downwards 5 mm high low 0.10 0.18 0.18 0.35 0.10 0.18 0.22 1.06

Table 1 Internal surface resistance Rsi

Building element Walls Ceilings or roofs, flat or pitched Floors Ceilings and floors Heat flow direction Horizontal (m2K)/W 0.12

Upward

0.10

20 mm or more high low High emissivity planes and corrugated sheets in contact

Downward

0.14

0.09

0.11

Table 2 External surface resistance Rso

Building element Wall Roof Floor (exposed on underside) Heat flow direction Horizontal Upwards Downwards (m2K)/W 0.06 0.04 0.04

In general, the surfaces of most building materials have high emissivities; reflective foils or polished metals have low emissivities.

Materials As explained previously, the resistance (R) of a material is equal to its thickness divided by its thermal conductivity . Values of for insulating materials can be obtained from the CIBSE Guide. These materials are intended for use in dry situations and their thermal conductivity in air-dry conditions is appropriate. For the materials commonly used for masonry walling brick, lightweight concrete, dense concretes there is a relationship between bulk dry density and thermal conductivity, but the effect of moisture must also be considered. Table 5 sets out for a range of dry densities some average thermal conductivities at moisture contents appropriate to solid brickwork and concrete, protected from rain and exposed to rain as, for example, in the inner and outer leaves respectively of cavity walling. If available, however, measured -values should be used for calculating standard U-values. The tests should have been made on specimens at fairly low moisture content and should be adjusted, using Table 6, to the standard moisture content appropriate to the conditions of use, as indicated by the column headings of Table 5.

Resistance of cavities (Rcav) The thermal resistance of airspaces, such as cavities in hollow wall constructions, depends mainly on the following factors: Thickness of the airspace (its dimension through the thickness of the wall) resistance increases with the thickness up to a maximum at about 20 mm. Surface emissivity commonly-used building materials have a high emissivity and radiation accounts for about two-thirds of the heat transfer through an airspace with high emissivity surfaces. Lining the airspace with low emissivity material, such as aluminium foil, increases the thermal resistance by reducing radiation. Direction of heat flow a horizontal airspace offers higher resistance to downward than to upward heat flow, because downward convection is small.

Table 4 Standard thermal resistance of ventilated airspaces

Thermal resistance* (m2K)/W

Table 7 Thermal conductivities ( ) of some building materials

Material Condition (if known) C C dry Bulk density kg/m3 1600 750 1600-2325 W/(mK) 0.40 0.12 0.43-1.15

(Airspace thickness, 20 mm minimum) Airspace between asbestos-cement or black painted metal cladding with unsealed joints, and high emissivity lining As above, with low emissivity surface facing airspace Loft space between flat ceiling and unsealed asbestos-cement or black metal cladding pitched roof As above, with aluminium cladding instead of black metal, or with low emissivity upper surface on ceiling Loft space between flat ceiling and unsealed tiled pitched roof Loft space between flat ceiling and pitched roof lined with felt or building paper Airspace between tiles and roofing felt or building paper on pitched roof Airspace behind tiles on tile-hung wall
*including internal boundary surface

0.16

0.30

0.14

0.25

0.11

0.18

0.12 0.12

Asbestos-cement sheet Asbestos insulating board Asphalt, roofing Brickwork see Table 5 Concrete see Table 5 Cork granules, raw Corkboard Fibre insulating board Hardboard: medium standard Metals: aluminium alloy, typical copper, commercial steel, carbon Mineral fibre (glass or rock) mat or quilt semi-rigid felted mat loose, felted slab or mat Perlite, loose granules plaster Plasterboard, gypsum perlite Plaster, gypsum lightweight sand/cement Plastics, cellular expanded polystyrene polyurethane foam (aged) pvc flooring Plastics, solid epoxy glass fibre polystyrene Stone see Table 5 Timber, across grain softwood hardwood plywood Vermiculite loose granules Wood chipboard Woodwool slab

dry C

115 145 260 600 900 2800 8900 7800

0.052 0.042 0.050 0.08 0.13 160 200 50 0.04 0.036 0.042 0.042 0.19 0.16 0.18 0.46 0.079-0.30 0.53 0.037 0.034 0.026 0.40 0.23 0.17

dry dry dry dry C

C dry dry dry dry dry dry

1220 130 180 65 600 950 800 1280 400-960 1570 15 25 30

1500 1050

Table 5 Thermal conductivity of masonry materials

Bulk dry density Thermal conductivity W/(mK) Brickwork protected from rain: 1%* 0.12 0.15 0.19 0.24 0.31 0.42 0.54 0.71 0.92 1.18 1.49 Concrete protected from rain 3%* 0.15 0.19 0.23 0.30 0.38 0.51 0.66 0.87 1.13 1.45 1.83 Brickwork or concrete exposed to rain: 5%* 0.16 0.20 0.26 0.33 0.42 0.57 0.73 0.96 1.24 1.60 2.00

C C C C C 530 100 800 500 600

0.13 0.15 0.14 0.065 0.15 0.085 0.093

kg/m3 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400

C conditioned to constant weight at 20C and 65% rh Notes Some of the figures in this table are representative values to be used in the absence of precise information. Materials commonly used as thin membranes are not included. The contribution to overall insulation made by a membrane is due largely to the forming of additional airspaces, the resistance of the actual material being too low to be significant. The thermal resistance of roofing tiles and slates should be neglected because of the airflow through the units; the resistance of this portion of the structure is allowed for in the values for ventilated airspaces given in Table 4.

*Moisture content expressed as a percentage by volume

Table 6 Moisture factors, for use with Table 5

Moisture content (% by volume) Moisture factor 1 3 5 10 15 20 25

HEAT BRIDGING A metal or other high conductivity member bridging a structure increases the heat loss. In simple cases, the thermal resistance can be found by calculating separately the thermal transmittance of the different portions of the construction and combining them in proportion to their relative areas. Multi-webbed bridges occur in components such as slotted blocks and perforated bricks. For these, calculation should be by three-dimensional analysis or by the combined method in the CIBSE Guide.

1.3

1.6 1.75 2.1 2.35 2.55 2.75

THE CALCULATION OF U-VALUES Table 7 sets out the thermal conductivities (from the CIBSE Guide) of a range of building materials and, in conjunction with Tables 1-6, enables U-values to be calculated for a wide range of constructions.

EXAMPLE 1 Find the U-value of an unplastered 'one-brick' solid wall, built of bricks of 1700 kg/m3 density. From Table 1: Rsi = 0.12 (m2K)/W From Table 2: Rso = 0.06 (m2K)/W Rbrick = thickness in metres = 0.215 -value 0.84 = 0.26 U= 1 = 0.12 + 0.06 + 0.26 1 0.44 = 2.3 W/(m2K)

EXAMPLE 2 Calculate the effect of filling with polyurethane foam the cavity in Example 3. U-value of the original construction 0.94 W/(m2K) (1) (2) 1/0.94 Deduct Rcav = 1.06 0.18 = 0.88 0.050 0.026 = 1.92 = 2.80 (4) U = 1/2.80 = 0.36 W/(m2K)

(3)

Add Rfill

EXAMPLE 3 Calculate U-value of wall shown. U= 1 Rsi + Rso + Rcav + R1 + R2 + R3 = = = = 0.10 0.84 = 0.10 0.19 0.12 (m2K)/W 0.06 0.18 = 0.12

From Table 1: Rsi From Table 2: Rso From Table 3: Rcav From Table 5: (outer leaf) R1 (inner leaf) R2 From Table 7: (plaster) R3

= 0.53

The CIBSE Guide lists standard U-values for a selection of external wall and roof constructions. These constructions, or any others for which a U-value is already known, may be varied and the effect of the variation calculated by the following procedures: 1 Find the reciprocal to the U-value (= total resistance of the construction). 2 Deduct from this the resistance of any layers that are to be omitted. 3 Add the resistance of any layers that are to be added. 4 Find the reciprocal of the new total resistance (= the U-value).

= 0.01 0.19

= 0.05

1.06 U= 1 1.06 = 0.94 W/(m2K)

FURTHER READING IP 3/90 The U-value of ground floors: application to Building Regulations Digest 190 Heat losses from dwellings

Printed in the UK and published by Building Research Establishment. Price Group 3. Also available by subscription. Current prices from: BRE Bookshop, Building Research Establishment, Garston, Watford, WD2 7JR (Tel: 0923 664444). Full details of all recent issues of BRE publications are given in BRE News sent free to subscribers.

Crown copyright 1991

ISBN 0 85125 285 0

Digest 108
Revised 1991
CI/SfB (M3)

108 108

108 108

108 108

108 108

108 108

108

108

10

11

12

10

11

12

Technical enquiries to: Building Research Establishment Garston, Watford, WD2 7JR Telex 923220 Fax 0923 664010

Printed in the UK and published by Building Research Establishment. Price Group 3. Also available by subscription. Current prices from: BRE Bookshop, Building Research Establishment, Garston, Watford, WD2 7JR (Tel: 0923 664444). Full details of all recent issues of BRE publications are given in BRE News sent free to subscribers.

Crown copyright 1991

ISBN 0 85125 285 0