SQL Date Functions The most difficult part when working with dates is to be sure that the format

of the date you are trying to insert, matches the format of the date column in the database. As long as your data contains only the date portion, your queries will work as expected. However, if a time portion is involved, it gets complicated. Before talking about the complications of querying for dates, we will look at the most important built-in functions for working with dates. MySQL Date Functions The following table lists the most important built-in date functions in MySQL: Function NOW() CURDATE() CURTIME() DATE() EXTRACT() DATE_ADD() DATE_SUB() DATEDIFF() DATE_FORMAT() Description Returns the current date and time Returns the current date Returns the current time Extracts the date part of a date or date/time expression Returns a single part of a date/time Adds a specified time interval to a date Subtracts a specified time interval from a date Returns the number of days between two dates Displays date/time data in different formats

SQL Server Date Functions The following table lists the most important built-in date functions in SQL Server: Function GETDATE() DATEPART() DATEADD() Description Returns the current date and time Returns a single part of a date/time Adds or subtracts a specified time interval from a date

DATEDIFF() CONVERT()

Returns the time between two dates Displays date/time data in different formats

SQL Date Data Types MySQL comes with the following data types for storing a date or a date/time value in the database:

DATE - format YYYY-MM-DD DATETIME - format: YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM:SS TIMESTAMP - format: YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM:SS YEAR - format YYYY or YY

SQL Server comes with the following data types for storing a date or a date/time value in the database:

DATE - format YYYY-MM-DD DATETIME - format: YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM:SS SMALLDATETIME - format: YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM:SS TIMESTAMP - format: a unique number

Note: The date types are chosen for a column when you create a new table in your database! For an overview of all data types available, go to our complete Data Types reference. SQL Working with Dates You can compare two dates easily if there is no time component involved! Assume we have the following "Orders" table: OrderId 1 2 3 4 ProductName Geitost Camembert Pierrot Mozzarella di Giovanni Mascarpone Fabioli OrderDate 2008-11-11 2008-11-09 2008-11-11 2008-10-29

Now we want to select the records with an OrderDate of "2008-11-11" from the table above. We use the following SELECT statement: SELECT * FROM Orders WHERE OrderDate='2008-11-11' The result-set will look like this:

OrderId 1 3

ProductName Geitost Mozzarella di Giovanni

OrderDate 2008-11-11 2008-11-11

Now, assume that the "Orders" table looks like this (notice the time component in the "OrderDate" column): OrderId 1 2 3 4 ProductName Geitost Camembert Pierrot Mozzarella di Giovanni Mascarpone Fabioli OrderDate 2008-11-11 13:23:44 2008-11-09 15:45:21 2008-11-11 11:12:01 2008-10-29 14:56:59

If we use the same SELECT statement as above: SELECT * FROM Orders WHERE OrderDate='2008-11-11' we will get no result! This is because the query is looking only for dates with no time portion. Tip: If you want to keep your queries simple and easy to maintain, do not allow time components in your dates! SQL NULL Values NULL values represent missing unknown data. By default, a table column can hold NULL values. This chapter will explain the IS NULL and IS NOT NULL operators. SQL NULL Values If a column in a table is optional, we can insert a new record or update an existing record without adding a value to this column. This means that the field will be saved with a NULL value. NULL values are treated differently from other values. NULL is used as a placeholder for unknown or inapplicable values. Note: It is not possible to compare NULL and 0; they are not equivalent. SQL Working with NULL Values Look at the following "Persons" table:

P_Id 1 2 3

LastName Hansen Svendson Pettersen

FirstName Ola Tove Kari

Address

City Sandnes

Borgvn 23

Sandnes Stavanger

Suppose that the "Address" column in the "Persons" table is optional. This means that if we insert a record with no value for the "Address" column, the "Address" column will be saved with a NULL value. How can we test for NULL values? It is not possible to test for NULL values with comparison operators, such as =, <, or <>. We will have to use the IS NULL and IS NOT NULL operators instead. SQL IS NULL How do we select only the records with NULL values in the "Address" column? We will have to use the IS NULL operator: SELECT LastName,FirstName,Address FROM Persons WHERE Address IS NULL The result-set will look like this: LastName Hansen Pettersen FirstName Ola Kari Address

Tip: Always use IS NULL to look for NULL values. SQL IS NOT NULL How do we select only the records with no NULL values in the "Address" column? We will have to use the IS NOT NULL operator: SELECT LastName,FirstName,Address FROM Persons WHERE Address IS NOT NULL The result-set will look like this: LastName FirstName Address

Svendson

Tove

Borgvn 23

In the next chapter we will look at the ISNULL(), NVL(), IFNULL() and COALESCE() functions. SQL NULL Functions

SQL ISNULL(), NVL(), IFNULL() and COALESCE() Functions Look at the following "Products" table: P_Id 1 2 3 ProductName Jarlsberg Mascarpone Gorgonzola UnitPrice 10.45 32.56 15.67 UnitsInStock 16 23 9 20 UnitsOnOrder 15

Suppose that the "UnitsOnOrder" column is optional, and may contain NULL values. We have the following SELECT statement: SELECT ProductName,UnitPrice*(UnitsInStock+UnitsOnOrder) FROM Products In the example above, if any of the "UnitsOnOrder" values are NULL, the result is NULL. Microsoft's ISNULL() function is used to specify how we want to treat NULL values. The NVL(), IFNULL(), and COALESCE() functions can also be used to achieve the same result. In this case we want NULL values to be zero. Below, if "UnitsOnOrder" is NULL it will not harm the calculation, because ISNULL() returns a zero if the value is NULL: SQL Server / MS Access SELECT ProductName,UnitPrice*(UnitsInStock+ISNULL(UnitsOnOrder,0)) FROM Products Oracle Oracle does not have an ISNULL() function. However, we can use the NVL() function to achieve the same result: SELECT ProductName,UnitPrice*(UnitsInStock+NVL(UnitsOnOrder,0)) FROM Products MySQL

MySQL does have an ISNULL() function. However, it works a little bit different from Microsoft's ISNULL() function. In MySQL we can use the IFNULL() function, like this: SELECT ProductName,UnitPrice*(UnitsInStock+IFNULL(UnitsOnOrder,0)) FROM Products or we can use the COALESCE() function, like this: SELECT ProductName,UnitPrice*(UnitsInStock+COALESCE(UnitsOnOrder,0)) FROM Products SQL Data Types Data types and ranges for Microsoft Access, MySQL and SQL Server. Microsoft Access Data Types Data type Text Memo Description Use for text or combinations of text and numbers. 255 characters maximum Memo is used for larger amounts of text. Stores up to 65,536 characters. Note: You cannot sort a memo field. However, they are searchable Allows whole numbers from 0 to 255 Allows whole numbers between -32,768 and 32,767 Allows whole numbers between -2,147,483,648 and 2,147,483,647 Single precision floating-point. Will handle most decimals Double precision floating-point. Will handle most decimals Use for currency. Holds up to 15 digits of whole dollars, plus 4 decimal places. Tip: You can choose which country's currency to use AutoNumber fields automatically give each record its own number, usually starting at 1 Use for dates and times A logical field can be displayed as Yes/No, True/False, or On/Off. In code, use the constants True and False (equivalent to -1 and 0).Note: Null values are not allowed in Yes/No fields Can store pictures, audio, video, or other BLOBs (Binary Large OBjects) Contain links to other files, including web pages Let you type a list of options, which can then be chosen from a drop-down list 4 bytes 1 byte 2 bytes 4 bytes 4 bytes 8 bytes 8 bytes Storage

Byte Integer Long Single Double Currency

AutoNumber Date/Time Yes/No

4 bytes 8 bytes 1 bit

Ole Object Hyperlink Lookup Wizard

up to 1GB

MySQL Data Types In MySQL there are three main types : text, number, and Date/Time types. Text types: Data type CHAR(size) Description Holds a fixed length string (can contain letters, numbers, and special characters). The fixed size is specified in parenthesis. Can store up to 255 characters Holds a variable length string (can contain letters, numbers, and special characters). The maximum size is specified in parenthesis. Can store up to 255 characters. Note: If you put a greater value than 255 it will be converted to a TEXT type Holds a string with a maximum length of 255 characters Holds a string with a maximum length of 65,535 characters For BLOBs (Binary Large OBjects). Holds up to 65,535 bytes of data Holds a string with a maximum length of 16,777,215 characters For BLOBs (Binary Large OBjects). Holds up to 16,777,215 bytes of data Holds a string with a maximum length of 4,294,967,295 characters For BLOBs (Binary Large OBjects). Holds up to 4,294,967,295 bytes of data Let you enter a list of possible values. You can list up to 65535 values in an ENUM list. If a value is inserted that is not in the list, a blank value will be inserted. Note: The values are sorted in the order you enter them. You enter the possible values in this format: ENUM('X','Y','Z') SET Similar to ENUM except that SET may contain up to 64 list items and can store more than one choice

VARCHAR(size)

TINYTEXT TEXT BLOB MEDIUMTEXT MEDIUMBLOB LONGTEXT LONGBLOB ENUM(x,y,z,etc.)

Number types: Data type TINYINT(size) Description -128 to 127 normal. 0 to 255 UNSIGNED*. The maximum number of digits may be specified in parenthesis -32768 to 32767 normal. 0 to 65535 UNSIGNED*. The maximum number of digits may be specified in parenthesis

SMALLINT(size)

MEDIUMINT(size)

-8388608 to 8388607 normal. 0 to 16777215 UNSIGNED*. The maximum number of digits may be specified in parenthesis -2147483648 to 2147483647 normal. 0 to 4294967295 UNSIGNED*. The maximum number of digits may be specified in parenthesis -9223372036854775808 to 9223372036854775807 normal. 0 to 18446744073709551615 UNSIGNED*. The maximum number of digits may be specified in parenthesis A small number with a floating decimal point. The maximum number of digits may be specified in the size parameter. The maximum number of digits to the right of the decimal point is specified in the d parameter A large number with a floating decimal point. The maximum number of digits may be specified in the size parameter. The maximum number of digits to the right of the decimal point is specified in the d parameter A DOUBLE stored as a string , allowing for a fixed decimal point. The maximum number of digits may be specified in the size parameter. The maximum number of digits to the right of the decimal point is specified in the d parameter

INT(size)

BIGINT(size)

FLOAT(size,d)

DOUBLE(size,d)

DECIMAL(size,d)

*The integer types have an extra option called UNSIGNED. Normally, the integer goes from an negative to positive value. Adding the UNSIGNED attribute will move that range up so it starts at zero instead of a negative number. Date types: Data type DATE() Description A date. Format: YYYY-MM-DD Note: The supported range is from '1000-01-01' to '9999-12-31' DATETIME() *A date and time combination. Format: YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM:SS Note: The supported range is from '1000-01-01 00:00:00' to '9999-12-31 23:59:59' TIMESTAMP() *A timestamp. TIMESTAMP values are stored as the number of seconds since the Unix epoch ('1970-0101 00:00:00' UTC). Format: YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM:SS Note: The supported range is from '1970-01-01 00:00:01' UTC to '2038-01-09 03:14:07' UTC TIME() A time. Format: HH:MM:SS Note: The supported range is from '-838:59:59' to '838:59:59' YEAR() A year in two-digit or four-digit format. Note: Values allowed in four-digit format: 1901 to 2155. Values allowed in two-digit format: 70 to 69, representing years from 1970 to 2069 *Even if DATETIME and TIMESTAMP return the same format, they work very differently. In an INSERT or UPDATE query, the TIMESTAMP automatically set itself to the current date and time. TIMESTAMP also accepts various formats, like YYYYMMDDHHMMSS, YYMMDDHHMMSS, YYYYMMDD, or YYMMDD.

SQL Server Data Types Character strings: Data type char(n) varchar(n) varchar(max) text Description Fixed-length character string. Maximum 8,000 characters Variable-length character string. Maximum 8,000 characters Variable-length character string. Maximum 1,073,741,824 characters Variable-length character string. Maximum 2GB of text data Storage n

Unicode strings: Data type nchar(n) nvarchar(n) nvarchar(max) ntext Description Fixed-length Unicode data. Maximum 4,000 characters Variable-length Unicode data. Maximum 4,000 characters Variable-length Unicode data. Maximum 536,870,912 characters Variable-length Unicode data. Maximum 2GB of text data Storage

Binary types: Data type bit binary(n) varbinary(n) varbinary(max) image Description Allows 0, 1, or NULL Fixed-length binary data. Maximum 8,000 bytes Variable-length binary data. Maximum 8,000 bytes Variable-length binary data. Maximum 2GB Variable-length binary data. Maximum 2GB Storage

Number types: Data type Description Storage

tinyint smallint int bigint

Allows whole numbers from 0 to 255 Allows whole numbers between -32,768 and 32,767 Allows whole numbers between -2,147,483,648 and 2,147,483,647 Allows whole numbers between -9,223,372,036,854,775,808 and 9,223,372,036,854,775,807 Fixed precision and scale numbers. Allows numbers from -10^38 +1 to 10^38 1. The p parameter indicates the maximum total number of digits that can be stored (both to the left and to the right of the decimal point). p must be a value from 1 to 38. Default is 18. The s parameter indicates the maximum number of digits stored to the right of the decimal point. s must be a value from 0 to p. Default value is 0

1 byte 2 bytes 4 bytes 8 bytes

decimal(p,s)

5-17 bytes

numeric(p,s)

Fixed precision and scale numbers. Allows numbers from -10^38 +1 to 10^38 1. The p parameter indicates the maximum total number of digits that can be stored (both to the left and to the right of the decimal point). p must be a value from 1 to 38. Default is 18. The s parameter indicates the maximum number of digits stored to the right of the decimal point. s must be a value from 0 to p. Default value is 0

5-17 bytes

smallmoney money float(n)

Monetary data from -214,748.3648 to 214,748.3647 Monetary data from -922,337,203,685,477.5808 to 922,337,203,685,477.5807 Floating precision number data from -1.79E + 308 to 1.79E + 308. The n parameter indicates whether the field should hold 4 or 8 bytes. float(24) holds a 4byte field and float(53) holds an 8-byte field. Default value of n is 53.

4 bytes 8 bytes 4 or 8 bytes

real

Floating precision number data from -3.40E + 38 to 3.40E + 38

4 bytes

Date types: Data type datetime datetime2 smalldatetime date Description From January 1, 1753 to December 31, 9999 with an accuracy of 3.33 milliseconds From January 1, 0001 to December 31, 9999 with an accuracy of 100 nanoseconds From January 1, 1900 to June 6, 2079 with an accuracy of 1 minute Store a date only. From January 1, 0001 to December 31, 9999 Storage 8 bytes 6-8 bytes 4 bytes 3 bytes

10

time datetimeoffset timestamp

Store a time only to an accuracy of 100 nanoseconds The same as datetime2 with the addition of a time zone offset Stores a unique number that gets updated every time a row gets created or modified. The timestamp value is based upon an internal clock and does not correspond to real time. Each table may have only one timestamp variable

3-5 bytes 8-10 bytes

Other data types: Data type sql_variant uniqueidentifier xml cursor table Description Stores up to 8,000 bytes of data of various data types, except text, ntext, and timestamp Stores a globally unique identifier (GUID) Stores XML formatted data. Maximum 2GB Stores a reference to a cursor used for database operations Stores a result-set for later processing

SQL Functions SQL has many built-in functions for performing calculations on data. SQL Aggregate Functions SQL aggregate functions return a single value, calculated from values in a column. Useful aggregate functions:

AVG() - Returns the average value COUNT() - Returns the number of rows FIRST() - Returns the first value LAST() - Returns the last value MAX() - Returns the largest value MIN() - Returns the smallest value SUM() - Returns the sum

SQL Scalar functions SQL scalar functions return a single value, based on the input value. Useful scalar functions:

UCASE() - Converts a field to upper case LCASE() - Converts a field to lower case MID() - Extract characters from a text field LEN() - Returns the length of a text field ROUND() - Rounds a numeric field to the number of decimals specified

11

NOW() - Returns the current system date and time FORMAT() - Formats how a field is to be displayed

Tip: The aggregate functions and the scalar functions will be explained in details in the next chapters. SQL AVG() Function The AVG() function returns the average value of a numeric column. SQL AVG() Syntax

SELECT AVG(column_name) FROM table_namSQL AVG() Example We have the following "Orders" table: O_Id 1 2 3 4 5 6 OrderDate 2008/11/12 2008/10/23 2008/09/02 2008/09/03 2008/08/30 2008/10/04 OrderPrice 1000 1600 700 300 2000 100 Customer Hansen Nilsen Hansen Hansen Jensen Nilsen

Now we want to find the average value of the "OrderPrice" fields. We use the following SQL statement: SELECT AVG(OrderPrice) AS OrderAverage FROM Orders The result-set will look like this: OrderAverage 950

Now we want to find the customers that have an OrderPrice value higher than the average OrderPrice value. We use the following SQL statement: SELECT Customer FROM Orders WHERE OrderPrice>(SELECT AVG(OrderPrice) FROM Orders)

12

The result-set will look like this: Customer Hansen Nilsen Jensen SQL COUNT() Function The COUNT() function returns the number of rows that matches a specified criteria. SQL COUNT(column_name) Syntax The COUNT(column_name) function returns the number of values (NULL values will not be counted) of the specified column: SELECT COUNT(column_name) FROM table_name SQL COUNT(*) Syntax The COUNT(*) function returns the number of records in a table: SELECT COUNT(*) FROM table_name SQL COUNT(DISTINCT column_name) Syntax The COUNT(DISTINCT column_name) function returns the number of distinct values of the specified column: SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT column_name) FROM table_name Note: COUNT(DISTINCT) works with ORACLE and Microsoft SQL Server, but not with Microsoft Access. SQL COUNT(column_name) Example We have the following "Orders" table: O_Id 1 2 3 4 5 OrderDate 2008/11/12 2008/10/23 2008/09/02 2008/09/03 2008/08/30 OrderPrice 1000 1600 700 300 2000 Customer Hansen Nilsen Hansen Hansen Jensen

13

2008/10/04

100

Nilsen

Now we want to count the number of orders from "Customer Nilsen". We use the following SQL statement: SELECT COUNT(Customer) AS CustomerNilsen FROM Orders WHERE Customer='Nilsen' The result of the SQL statement above will be 2, because the customer Nilsen has made 2 orders in total: CustomerNilsen 2

SQL COUNT(*) Example If we omit the WHERE clause, like this: SELECT COUNT(*) AS NumberOfOrders FROM Orders The result-set will look like this: NumberOfOrders 6

which is the total number of rows in the table. SQL COUNT(DISTINCT column_name) Example Now we want to count the number of unique customers in the "Orders" table. We use the following SQL statement: SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT Customer) AS NumberOfCustomers FROM Orders The result-set will look like this: NumberOfCustomers 3

which is the number of unique customers (Hansen, Nilsen, and Jensen) in the "Orders" table.

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SQL FIRST() Function The FIRST() function returns the first value of the selected column. SQL FIRST() Syntax SELECT FIRST(column_name) FROM table_name SQL FIRST() Example We have the following "Orders" table: O_Id 1 2 3 4 5 6 OrderDate 2008/11/12 2008/10/23 2008/09/02 2008/09/03 2008/08/30 2008/10/04 OrderPrice 1000 1600 700 300 2000 100 Customer Hansen Nilsen Hansen Hansen Jensen Nilsen

Now we want to find the first value of the "OrderPrice" column. We use the following SQL statement: SELECT FIRST(OrderPrice) AS FirstOrderPrice FROM Orders Tip: Workaround if FIRST() function is not supported: SELECT OrderPrice FROM Orders ORDER BY O_Id LIMIT 1 The result-set will look like this: FirstOrderPrice 1000 SQL LAST() Function The LAST() function returns the last value of the selected column. SQL LAST() Syntax SELECT LAST(column_name) FROM table_name SQL LAST() Example

15

We have the following "Orders" table: O_Id 1 2 3 4 5 6 OrderDate 2008/11/12 2008/10/23 2008/09/02 2008/09/03 2008/08/30 2008/10/04 OrderPrice 1000 1600 700 300 2000 100 Customer Hansen Nilsen Hansen Hansen Jensen Nilsen

Now we want to find the last value of the "OrderPrice" column. We use the following SQL statement: SELECT LAST(OrderPrice) AS LastOrderPrice FROM Orders Tip: Workaround if LAST() function is not supported: SELECT OrderPrice FROM Orders ORDER BY O_Id DESC LIMIT 1 The result-set will look like this: LastOrderPrice 100 SQL MAX() Function The MAX() function returns the largest value of the selected column. SQL MAX() Syntax SELECT MAX(column_name) FROM table_name SQL MAX() Example We have the following "Orders" table: O_Id 1 2 OrderDate 2008/11/12 2008/10/23 OrderPrice 1000 1600 Customer Hansen Nilsen

16

3 4 5 6

2008/09/02 2008/09/03 2008/08/30 2008/10/04

700 300 2000 100

Hansen Hansen Jensen Nilsen

Now we want to find the largest value of the "OrderPrice" column. We use the following SQL statement: SELECT MAX(OrderPrice) AS LargestOrderPrice FROM Orders The result-set will look like this: LargestOrderPrice 2000 SQL MIN() Function The MIN() function returns the smallest value of the selected column. SQL MIN() Syntax SELECT MIN(column_name) FROM table_name SQL MIN() Example We have the following "Orders" table: O_Id 1 2 3 4 5 6 OrderDate 2008/11/12 2008/10/23 2008/09/02 2008/09/03 2008/08/30 2008/10/04 OrderPrice 1000 1600 700 300 2000 100 Customer Hansen Nilsen Hansen Hansen Jensen Nilsen

Now we want to find the smallest value of the "OrderPrice" column. We use the following SQL statement:

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SELECT MIN(OrderPrice) AS SmallestOrderPrice FROM Orders The result-set will look like this: SmallestOrderPrice 100 SQL SUM() Function The SUM() function returns the total sum of a numeric column. SQL SUM() Syntax SELECT SUM(column_name) FROM table_name SQL SUM() Example We have the following "Orders" table: O_Id 1 2 3 4 5 6 OrderDate 2008/11/12 2008/10/23 2008/09/02 2008/09/03 2008/08/30 2008/10/04 OrderPrice 1000 1600 700 300 2000 100 Customer Hansen Nilsen Hansen Hansen Jensen Nilsen

Now we want to find the sum of all "OrderPrice" fields". We use the following SQL statement: SELECT SUM(OrderPrice) AS OrderTotal FROM Orders The result-set will look like this: OrderTotal 5700 SQL GROUP BY Statement Aggregate functions often need an added GROUP BY statement. The GROUP BY Statement

18

The GROUP BY statement is used in conjunction with the aggregate functions to group the result-set by one or more columns. SQL GROUP BY Syntax SELECT column_name, aggregate_function(column_name) FROM table_name WHERE column_name operator value GROUP BY column_name SQL GROUP BY Example We have the following "Orders" table: O_Id 1 2 3 4 5 6 OrderDate 2008/11/12 2008/10/23 2008/09/02 2008/09/03 2008/08/30 2008/10/04 OrderPrice 1000 1600 700 300 2000 100 Customer Hansen Nilsen Hansen Hansen Jensen Nilsen

Now we want to find the total sum (total order) of each customer. We will have to use the GROUP BY statement to group the customers. We use the following SQL statement: SELECT Customer,SUM(OrderPrice) FROM Orders GROUP BY Customer The result-set will look like this: Customer Hansen Nilsen Jensen SUM(OrderPrice) 2000 1700 2000

Nice! Isn't it? :) Let's see what happens if we omit the GROUP BY statement:

19

SELECT Customer,SUM(OrderPrice) FROM Orders The result-set will look like this: Customer Hansen Nilsen Hansen Hansen Jensen Nilsen SUM(OrderPrice) 5700 5700 5700 5700 5700 5700

The result-set above is not what we wanted. Explanation of why the above SELECT statement cannot be used: The SELECT statement above has two columns specified (Customer and SUM(OrderPrice). The "SUM(OrderPrice)" returns a single value (that is the total sum of the "OrderPrice" column), while "Customer" returns 6 values (one value for each row in the "Orders" table). This will therefore not give us the correct result. However, you have seen that the GROUP BY statement solves this problem. GROUP BY More Than One Column We can also use the GROUP BY statement on more than one column, like this: SELECT Customer,OrderDate,SUM(OrderPrice) FROM Orders GROUP BY Customer,OrderDate SQL HAVING Clause The HAVING clause was added to SQL because the WHERE keyword could not be used with aggregate functions. SQL HAVING Syntax SELECT column_name, aggregate_function(column_name) FROM table_name WHERE column_name operator value GROUP BY column_name HAVING aggregate_function(column_name) operator value SQL HAVING Example We have the following "Orders" table: O_Id 1 OrderDate 2008/11/12 OrderPrice 1000 Customer Hansen

20

2 3 4 5 6

2008/10/23 2008/09/02 2008/09/03 2008/08/30 2008/10/04

1600 700 300 2000 100

Nilsen Hansen Hansen Jensen Nilsen

Now we want to find if any of the customers have a total order of less than 2000. We use the following SQL statement: SELECT Customer,SUM(OrderPrice) FROM Orders GROUP BY Customer HAVING SUM(OrderPrice)<2000 The result-set will look like this: Customer Nilsen SUM(OrderPrice) 1700

Now we want to find if the customers "Hansen" or "Jensen" have a total order of more than 1500. We add an ordinary WHERE clause to the SQL statement: SELECT Customer,SUM(OrderPrice) FROM Orders WHERE Customer='Hansen' OR Customer='Jensen' GROUP BY Customer HAVING SUM(OrderPrice)>1500 The result-set will look like this: Customer Hansen Jensen SQL UCASE() Function The UCASE() function converts the value of a field to uppercase. SQL UCASE() Syntax SELECT UCASE(column_name) FROM table_name Syntax for SQL Server SELECT UPPER(column_name) FROM table_name SUM(OrderPrice) 2000 2000

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SQL UCASE() Example We have the following "Persons" table: P_Id 1 2 3 LastName Hansen Svendson Pettersen FirstName Ola Tove Kari Address Timoteivn 10 Borgvn 23 Storgt 20 City Sandnes Sandnes Stavanger

Now we want to select the content of the "LastName" and "FirstName" columns above, and convert the "LastName" column to uppercase. We use the following SELECT statement: SELECT UCASE(LastName) as LastName,FirstName FROM Persons The result-set will look like this: LastName HANSEN SVENDSON PETTERSEN SQL LCASE() Function The LCASE() function converts the value of a field to lowercase. SQL LCASE() Syntax SELECT LCASE(column_name) FROM table_name Syntax for SQL Server SELECT LOWER(column_name) FROM table_name SQL LCASE() Example We have the following "Persons" table: P_Id 1 2 LastName Hansen Svendson FirstName Ola Tove Address Timoteivn 10 Borgvn 23 City Sandnes Sandnes FirstName Ola Tove Kari

22

Pettersen

Kari

Storgt 20

Stavanger

Now we want to select the content of the "LastName" and "FirstName" columns above, and convert the "LastName" column to lowercase. We use the following SELECT statement: SELECT LCASE(LastName) as LastName,FirstName FROM Persons The result-set will look like this: LastName hansen svendson pettersen SQL MID() Function The MID() function is used to extract characters from a text field. SQL MID() Syntax SELECT MID(column_name,start[,length]) FROM table_name FirstName Ola Tove Kari

Parameter column_name start length

Description Required. The field to extract characters from Required. Specifies the starting position (starts at 1) Optional. The number of characters to return. If omitted, the MID() function returns the rest of the text

SQL MID() Example We have the following "Persons" table: P_Id 1 2 3 LastName Hansen Svendson Pettersen FirstName Ola Tove Kari Address Timoteivn 10 Borgvn 23 Storgt 20 City Sandnes Sandnes Stavanger

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Now we want to extract the first four characters of the "City" column above. We use the following SELECT statement: SELECT MID(City,1,4) as SmallCity FROM Persons The result-set will look like this: SmallCity Sand Sand Stav SQL LEN() Function The LEN() function returns the length of the value in a text field. SQL LEN() Syntax SELECT LEN(column_name) FROM table_name SQL LEN() Example We have the following "Persons" table: P_Id 1 2 3 LastName Hansen Svendson Pettersen FirstName Ola Tove Kari Address Timoteivn 10 Borgvn 23 Storgt 20 City Sandnes Sandnes Stavanger

Now we want to select the length of the values in the "Address" column above. We use the following SELECT statement: SELECT LEN(Address) as LengthOfAddress FROM Persons The result-set will look like this: LengthOfAddress 12 9

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9 SQL ROUND() Function The ROUND() function is used to round a numeric field to the number of decimals specified. SQL ROUND() Syntax SELECT ROUND(column_name,decimals) FROM table_name

Parameter column_name decimals SQL ROUND() Example

Description Required. The field to round. Required. Specifies the number of decimals to be returned.

We have the following "Products" table: Prod_Id 1 2 3 ProductName Jarlsberg Mascarpone Gorgonzola Unit 1000 g 1000 g 1000 g UnitPrice 10.45 32.56 15.67

Now we want to display the product name and the price rounded to the nearest integer. We use the following SELECT statement: SELECT ProductName, ROUND(UnitPrice,0) as UnitPrice FROM Products The result-set will look like this: ProductName Jarlsberg Mascarpone Gorgonzola SQL NOW() Function The NOW() function returns the current system date and time. UnitPrice 10 33 16

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SQL NOW() Syntax SELECT NOW() FROM table_name SQL NOW() Example We have the following "Products" table: Prod_Id 1 2 3 ProductName Jarlsberg Mascarpone Gorgonzola Unit 1000 g 1000 g 1000 g UnitPrice 10.45 32.56 15.67

Now we want to display the products and prices per today's date. We use the following SELECT statement: SELECT ProductName, UnitPrice, Now() as PerDate FROM Products The result-set will look like this: ProductName Jarlsberg Mascarpone Gorgonzola SQL FORMAT() Function The FORMAT() function is used to format how a field is to be displayed. SQL FORMAT() Syntax SELECT FORMAT(column_name,format) FROM table_name UnitPrice 10.45 32.56 15.67 PerDate 10/7/2008 11:25:02 AM 10/7/2008 11:25:02 AM 10/7/2008 11:25:02 AM

Parameter column_name format

Description Required. The field to be formatted. Required. Specifies the format.

SQL FORMAT() Example We have the following "Products" table:

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Prod_Id 1 2 3

ProductName Jarlsberg Mascarpone Gorgonzola

Unit 1000 g 1000 g 1000 g

UnitPrice 10.45 32.56 15.67

Now we want to display the products and prices per today's date (with today's date displayed in the following format "YYYY-MM-DD"). We use the following SELECT statement: SELECT ProductName, UnitPrice, FORMAT(Now(),'YYYY-MM-DD') as PerDate FROM Products The result-set will look like this: ProductName Jarlsberg Mascarpone Gorgonzola SQL Quick Reference SQL Statement AND / OR Syntax SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name WHERE condition AND|OR condition ALTER TABLE table_name ADD column_name datatype or ALTER TABLE table_name DROP COLUMN column_name AS (alias) SELECT column_name AS column_alias FROM table_name or SELECT column_name FROM table_name AS table_alias BETWEEN SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name UnitPrice 10.45 32.56 15.67 PerDate 2008-10-07 2008-10-07 2008-10-07

ALTER TABLE

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WHERE column_name BETWEEN value1 AND value2 CREATE DATABASE CREATE TABLE CREATE DATABASE database_name CREATE TABLE table_name ( column_name1 data_type, column_name2 data_type, column_name2 data_type, ... ) CREATE INDEX index_name ON table_name (column_name) or CREATE UNIQUE INDEX index_name ON table_name (column_name) CREATE VIEW CREATE VIEW view_name AS SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name WHERE condition DELETE FROM table_name WHERE some_column=some_value or DELETE FROM table_name (Note: Deletes the entire table!!) DELETE * FROM table_name (Note: Deletes the entire table!!) DROP DATABASE DROP INDEX DROP DATABASE database_name DROP INDEX table_name.index_name (SQL Server) DROP INDEX index_name ON table_name (MS Access) DROP INDEX index_name (DB2/Oracle) ALTER TABLE table_name DROP INDEX index_name (MySQL) DROP TABLE table_name SELECT column_name, aggregate_function(column_name) FROM table_name WHERE column_name operator value GROUP BY column_name SELECT column_name, aggregate_function(column_name) FROM table_name

CREATE INDEX

DELETE

DROP TABLE GROUP BY

HAVING

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WHERE column_name operator value GROUP BY column_name HAVING aggregate_function(column_name) operator value IN SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name WHERE column_name IN (value1,value2,..) INSERT INTO table_name VALUES (value1, value2, value3,....) or INSERT INTO table_name (column1, column2, column3,...) VALUES (value1, value2, value3,....) INNER JOIN SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name1 INNER JOIN table_name2 ON table_name1.column_name=table_name2.column_name SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name1 LEFT JOIN table_name2 ON table_name1.column_name=table_name2.column_name SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name1 RIGHT JOIN table_name2 ON table_name1.column_name=table_name2.column_name SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name1 FULL JOIN table_name2 ON table_name1.column_name=table_name2.column_name SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name WHERE column_name LIKE pattern SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name ORDER BY column_name [ASC|DESC] SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name SELECT * FROM table_name

INSERT INTO

LEFT JOIN

RIGHT JOIN

FULL JOIN

LIKE

ORDER BY

SELECT

SELECT *

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SELECT DISTINCT

SELECT DISTINCT column_name(s) FROM table_name SELECT * INTO new_table_name [IN externaldatabase] FROM old_table_name or SELECT column_name(s) INTO new_table_name [IN externaldatabase] FROM old_table_name

SELECT INTO

SELECT TOP

SELECT TOP number|percent column_name(s) FROM table_name TRUNCATE TABLE table_name SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name1 UNION SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name2 SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name1 UNION ALL SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name2 UPDATE table_name SET column1=value, column2=value,... WHERE some_column=some_value SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name WHERE column_name operator value

TRUNCATE TABLE UNION

UNION ALL

UPDATE

WHERE

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