Q. What do you mean by the term Solid Waste/Bio Waste/E-Waste?

What are the main sources of these and its environmental/ health impacts? Solid Waste: 1. Environmental wastes are often referred to as solid wastes 2. Those materials which are unwanted or have outlived their useful lives are removed from their services and become solid wastes 3. This waste can be commercial waste from businesses, industrial wastes from industries or waste created by private individuals in their own houses 4. This type of wastes is referred to as garbage, trash or rubbish Sources of solid waste:
Source
Residential

Typical waste generators

Types of solid wastes

Industrial

Light and heavy manufacturing, fabrication, construction sites, power and chemical plants. Stores, hotels, restaurants, markets, office buildings, etc. Schools, hospitals, prisons, government centers. New construction sites, road repair, renovation sites, demolition of buildings Street cleaning, landscaping, parks, beaches, other recreational areas, water and wastewater treatment plants. Heavy and light manufacturing, refineries, chemical plants, power plants, mineral extraction and processing. Crops, orchards, vineyards, dairies, feedlots, farms.

Commercial

Paper, cardboard, plastics, wood, food wastes, glass, metals, special wastes, hazardous wastes. Same as commercial.

Institutional

Construction and demolition

Wood, steel, concrete, dirt, etc.

Municipal services

Street sweepings; landscape and tree trimmings; general wastes from parks, beaches, and other recreational areas; sludge.

Process (manufacturing, etc.)

Industrial process wastes, scrap materials, off-specification products, slay, tailings.

Agriculture

Spoiled food wastes, agricultural wastes, hazardous wastes (e.g., pesticides).

Impact on Environment/Health Impact: Health: 1. Chemical poisoning through chemical inhalation 2. Cancer 3. Low weight during birth 1

4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Congenital malformations Neurological disorders Uncollected wastes can block the storm water drain which can result in floods Nausea and vomiting Increase in hospitalization of diabetic residents living near hazard waste sites Mercury toxicity from eating fish with high levels of mercury

Animals & Aquatic Life: 1. 2. 3. 4. Increase in mercury levels in fish due to mercury disposal in water bodies Plastic found in oceans ingested by birds Increase in algal population in rivers and sea Degrades soil and water quality

Environment: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Clogging of storm water drains causing floods Littering, due to waste pollutions, illegal dumping Leaching: process by which solid waste enters soil and contaminates the ground water Change in climate and destruction of ozone layer due to biodegradable waste Waste breaks down in landfills to become methane, a potent greenhouse gas

Bio Wastes: 1. Includes biodegradable parts of municipal wastes including food and garden waste, paper, cardboard, textile and wood. 2. Also includes livestock manures and slurry, treated sewage sludge, organic industrial waste (paper and textiles) and compost Sources: Same as above Impact on health and environment: Environment: 1. Production of methane in landfills. Methane is a potent greenhouse gas. E-Wastes: 1. Term for electronic goods/equipments that have become unwanted, non-working or obsolete and have essentially reached the end of their useful life. 2. Because technology is emerging rapidly, many devices become trash after a few short years of use 3. Eg. VCRs replaced by DVD players, DVD players will be replaced by Blue ray players 4. Created by anything which is electronic Computers, TVs, VCRs, monitors, cell phones, PDAs, CD players etc. Sources: 1. White Goods: house hold appliances like refrigerators, washing machines and air conditioners 2

2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Brown Goods: televisions, cameras Grey Goods: computers, scanners, printers, cell phones Consumer and lighting equipment Electrical and electronic tools Sophisticated toys Sports equipment Medical devices Monitoring and Control instruments

Impact on health and environment: Lead: 1. Health: Brain damage; inclusion in food chain is primary cause of human health degradation 2. Environment: Disrupts natural functions of water and soil Mercury: 1. 2. 3. 4. Exists in CFL bulbs, if crushed gets released in environment. In landfill, combines with organics and forms highly toxic methyl-mercury Effect on fishes and human health on consumption of fishes Inhalation or skin absorption damage brain and nervous system

Cadmium: 1. Health: Causes Cancer, Affects kidney and bones, Carcinogenic in nature 2. Environment: Degrades soil health Lithium: 1. Nose and throat irritation 2. Heavy exposure can lead to pulmonary edema Q. What is meant by Global Warming? State the harmful effects of Global Warming. Methods of controlling / minimizing the harmful effects of Global Warming. Global Warming: 1. Increase in the average temperature of the Earths atmosphere and ocean since the late 19th century and in continuation 2. Since the early 20th century, earths mean surface temperature has increased by about 0.8 degree Celsius out of which about 2/3rd increase has occurred after 1980 3. 90% of the reason is due to the concentration of greenhouse gases produced by human activities like fossil fuel burning and deforestation 4. Greenhouse effect is the absorption and emission of infrared radiation by gases in the atmosphere warm a planets lower atmosphere and surface 5. The earth is surrounded by a cover of gases as atmosphere. This atmosphere allows most of the light to pass through, which reaches the surface of earth. This light from sun is absorbed by the earth surface and converts into heat energy. This heat energy is re-emitted by the surface of the earth during night. Due excessive presence 3

of some gasses in the atmosphere, this escape of heat from earth surface is prevented, resulting in heating of earth called global warming. The gasses which are responsible for causing global warming are called greenhouse gasses. 6. A number of human activities, processes and consumptions produce waste gasses or greenhouse gasses that are harmful to the environment. They include: (a) Fuel combustion (b) Energy industries (c) Manufacturing industries and construction (d) Vehicle Transport and automobiles (e) Fugitive emissions from fuels (f) Burning of solid fuels (g) Use of oil and natural gas (h) Mineral products (i) Chemical industry (j) Metal production (k) Production of halocarbons and sulfur hexafluoride (l) Consumption of halocarbons and sulfur hexafluoride (m) Solvent and other product use (n) Enteric fermentation (o) Manure management (p) Rice cultivation (q) Agricultural soils (r) Prescribed burning of savannas (s) Field burning of agricultural residues (t) Solid waste disposal on land (u) Wastewater handling (v) Waste incineration Harmful effects of Global Warming: 1. Polar ice caps melting a. It will raise sea level; Low lying areas will be submerged gradually b. Melting ice water will meet the ocean and desalinate it or make it less salty; Ocean currents will be distorted resulting in temperature variations; Irregular patter of cooling and warming in some areas c. Temperature rises and changing landscapes in the artic circle will endanger several species of animals. Only the most adaptable will survive. 2. Increased probability and intensity of droughts and heat waves a. Although some areas of Earth will become wetter due to global warming, other areas will suffer serious droughts and heat waves. Africa will receive the worst of it, with more severe droughts also expected in Europe. Water is already a scarce commodity in Africa, and global warming will worsen the conditions. 3. Warmer waters and more hurricanes a. As the temperature of oceans rises, so will the probability of more frequent and stronger hurricanes

4. Spread of disease a. As northern countries warm, disease carrying insects migrate north, bringing plague and disease with them 5. Economic Consequences a. Most of the effects of global warming will not be good. These effects bring economic consequences badly for almost all the countries of the world. Methods of controlling / minimizing the harmful effects of global warming: 1. Use of alternative energy sources a. Fossil fuels to be replaced by renewable sources of energy to reduce carbon emission b. Replace fossil fuels in 3 main areas : power generation, hot water heating & transport fuels c. Electricity generation from geothermal energy, hydroelectric plants d. Solar water heating, use of biomass for heating, geothermal heating e. Renewable bio-fuels like biodiesel and ethanol fuels 2. Fuel Switching a. Use of natural gas instead of oil and coal emits less greenhouse gases as the carbon to hydrogen ratio in coal is high 3. Carbon capturing and storage a. Carbon capture and storage is a method of capturing Carbon Dioxide from large point sources such as power plants and subsequently storing it away safely instead of releasing it into the atmosphere. 4. Energy efficiency and conservation a. Insulating a home allows a building to use less heating and cooling energy to achieve and maintain a comfortable temperature b. Installing fluorescent lights and skylights use less energy to illuminate as compared to light bulbs c. Use of CFL lights use 2/3rd less energy as compared to incandescent light d. Energy conservation: Heating a room lesser in winter; Driving less; Working in a less brightly lit room 5. Transport a. Use of hybrid electric vehicles b. Development of new technologies like developing hydrogen cars will reduce petroleum consumption and emission of Carbon Dioxide c. Use of bio-fuels d. Use of public transportation e. Shift from air transportation to electric rail transportation 6. Urban Planning a. Efficient use of land b. Compact community development c. Multiple transportation choices d. Mixed land uses e. Practices to conserve green space f. Developing urban parks and open spaces 7. Building Design a. Zero energy building techniques should be used b. Use of insulation c. High efficiency appliances 5

8. Reforestation and avoid deforestation Q. How to forecast an urban flooding? What are the reasons for Mumbai deluge? With rivers of central and peninsular regions of the country, flooding is an annual feature, caused by heavy monsoon rainfall over the catchment areas. Flooding in the Himalayan rivers is caused by heavy precipitation in the upper catchments and is aggravated by factors such as rivers changing their course, increase in the silt load, construction of embankments, etc. There is a well-organized system in this country for forecasting of river floods, which is run by the Central Water Commission with the active involvement of the Flood Meteorological Offices of the India Meteorological Department. However, the type of flooding that occurred in Mumbai on 26 July is a very different matter. In fact, here, the term flooding is a misnomer, as it is not the result of water spilling over from a flooded river, but an inundation caused by accumulation of heavy local rainfall. In technical parlance, it is drainage congestion or the inability of the drainage process to match the rainfall rate. Providing protection from drainage congestion is the responsibility of civic bodies or local authorities. Besides the characteristics of the rain storm, many other factors like proximity to rivers and ocean, local topography, traffic patterns, drainage design, housing, population density, all influence the severity of drainage congestion. A vital but tricky consideration in the design of drainage systems is the return period of the most extreme rainfall events. Usually an optimum balance has to be struck between over-estimating and under-estimating the risks involved and a major deciding factor is the cost. Population growth and urban development over say the ne xt 100 years are also not easy to visualize and the choice of future projections will have its own impact on the design and cost. River floods can be predicted because there is considerable time lag between the occurrence of heavy rainfall in the upper catchment and the consequent build-up of the flood flow in the river, and its travel to a downstream area. Such a lead time is not available in case of drainage congestion caused by local rainfall. Also, the propagation of a flood wave in a river channel is easier to compute. Mathematical or physical modelling of city drainage is, from a hydraulics point of view, a far more complex problem. Also required is a parallel system for quantitative prediction of the rainfall amount and rate on a scale that will match the scale of the hydraulic model.. As of today, the state of art in these areas is rather primitive. Some Reasons for Mumbai deluge: 1. The principal cause of the deluge on 26-27 July 2005 was the unprecedented heavy rainfall (1,000+ mm) surpassing all known daily rainfall records. 2. Slum encroachments over existing Alabamians have reduced the waterways. 3. Drainage system a. Inadequate dilapidated drainage system in Island City, which was constructed over 170 years ago. b. 1870 to 1930s: Many Royal Commissions of enquiry found that system was designed without a proper understanding of the monsoon rainfall c. Water logging during heavy rains coupled with high tide d. Sewage flow is connected to SWD system at many places. The slums also invariably discharge silage into the S.W.D. System. Slum Colonies generate garbage which finds its entry into SWD and causes siltation and obstructions. The system of garbage collection and disposal needs improvement. 4. Mithi River a. Originates at Powai and Meets the Arabian sea at MahimCreek after 15 km b. Nearly 54 per cent of the original river flow has been lost to slum huts, roads and development. 6

c. The Bandra-Worli Sea Link has reclaimed the mouth of the river with as much as 27 hectares of landfill Filled in most of Mahim Bay d. Waters did not recede even after 3 days in the airport colony belt even after the July 26 deluge e. Effluents from illegal small industries have choked the MithiRiver 5. City development a. At many locations, existing ground levels are below the high tide level e.g. Sat Rasta, Lower Parel, Grant Road, etc b. The entire area south of airport boundary wall (in front of the AI colony and IA colony) happened to be situated on the periphery of a low-lying reclaimed pond area. c. It can be seen from the 1925 survey record that it was a portion of d. Level of outfalls e. Rapid development eliminating holding ponds f. Increase in runoff coefficient g. Dilapidated drains h. Obstructions of utilities i. Siltation of drains/ nallas 6. High tides: The impact was further worsened because of high tides occurring at the same time on 26th July evening. 7. Diminishing Ponds: The City had a number of ponds which disappeared with development. Only names like Dhobi-Talao, C.P.Tank, Gowalia Tank remain in use and remind us that there were ponds or tanks here. The ponds were filled up to accommodate the incoming population and to create a land mass for city development. Diminishing ponds indicate a loss of the hydraulic holding capacity of the system. Public life disrupted in Mumbai on 26th July 2005 flooding: Due to submergence of the power stations and substations, the power supply in suburban area got suspended from the evening of 26th July and it was restored only after receding of water. On 26th July 2005 at about 15.00-15.30 water started rising in the railway yards. As the signaling system got water-logged the trains started to move at a crawling speed of less than 8 Km. per hour. After 16.00 the train movement was completely stopped. The process of accumulation of commuters had already started from 15.30 coinciding with the rush of office employees who were allowed to go home early as per usual practice on such occasions. This resulted in a large crowd of more than 2 lacs commuters piled up in the Churchgate and CST stations. Due to the submergence of the Airport by the evening the Airport became dysfunctional and the air traffic was suspended at the domestic and international aircrafts for more than 2 days. People had either to take shelter at public places or private as available. Many tried to reach homes by walking and paving the way through all sorts of obstructions. Some of them could reach their destination as late as 24 hours to 48 hours More than 20000 small vehicles, about 2500 BEST buses and about 25% of trains, thousands of two wheelers/ three wheelers etc. were damaged in rains and were non operational for weeks. Road services to Nashik, Pune and Ahmedabad as also the train corridors of Kasara and Karjat were disrupted due to rains for 3 to 10 days. Flooded roads prevented supply of essential goods such as milk and vegetables to the citizens. Incidence of major landslide due to heavy rains on 26-07-05 at Sakinaka claimed several lives. The heavy rains made the rescue operations very difficult as little access was available even to reach up to site after heavy flooding. 7

The communication such as telephone, cellular phones got suspended on by one after at around 17.00 p.m. Cellular phone network (G.S.M./C.D.M.A.) of all the service providers got suspended. Land-lines of M.T.N.L. were also only partially functional. The mass media channels such as Doordarshan & Radio were of no much help to the citizens, because they also did not know the exact situation. They could not communicate with the masses about the over-all situation. Had the communication network been operational and the public address system effective, many people would have got some guidance and could not have ventured in putting their lives to unnecessary risk. Q. What are the impacts of air pollution? How to control/prevent air pollution? Air Pollution: Air pollution occurs in many forms but can generally be thought of as gaseous and particulate contaminants that are present in the earth's atmosphere. Gaseous pollutants include sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx), ozone (O3), carbon monoxide (CO), volatile organic compounds (VOC), hydrogen sulfide (H2S), hydrogen fluoride (HF), and various gaseous forms of metals. These pollutants are emitted from large stationary sources such as fossil fuel fired power plants, smelters, industrial boilers, petroleum refineries, and manufacturing facilities as well as from area and mobile sources. They are corrosive to various materials which causes damage to cultural resources, can cause injury to ecosystems and organisms, aggravate respiratory diseases, and reduce visibility. Particulates come in both large and small or "fine" solid forms. Large particulates include substances such as dust, asbestos fibers, and lead. Fine particulates include sulfates (SO4) and nitrates (NO3). Important sources of particulates are power plants, smelters, mining operations, and automobiles. Asbestos and lead affect organisms, while sulfates and nitrates not only cause health problems, but also contribute to acid rain or acid deposition and a reduction in visibility. Particulate matter, a term sometimes used instead of particulates, refers to the mixture of solid particles and liquid droplets found in the air. Toxic air pollutants are a class of chemicals which may potentially cause health problems in a significant way. The sources of toxic air pollutants include power plants, industries, pesticide application, and contaminated windblown dust. Persistent toxic pollutants, such as mercury, are of particular concern because of their global mobility and ability to accumulate in the food chain. More research is needed to fully understand the fate and effects of mercury and the many other toxic pollutants. Primary pollutants are those that are emitted directly into the air from pollution sources. Secondary pollutants are formed when primary pollutants undergo chemical changes in the atmosphere. Ozone is an example of a secondary pollutant. It is formed when nitrogen oxides (NOx) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are mixed and warmed by sunlight. Ozone (O3) is a major component of what is often referred to as smog. The ozone which is present in the troposphere, or the atmosphere that is close to the ground, should not be confused with beneficial ozone that is located in the stratosphere or upper atmosphere. This beneficial ozone in the stratosphere helps protect the earth from harmful ultraviolet light from the sun. Sources of Air Pollution: Stationary & Target Source: A stationary source of air pollution refers to an emission source that does not move, also known as a point source. Stationary sources include factories, power plants, dry cleaners and degreasing operations. The term area source is used to describe many small sources of air pollution located together whose individual emissions may be below thresholds of concern, but whose collective emissions can be significant. Residential wood burners are a good example of a small source, but when combined with many other small sources, they 8

can contribute to local and regional air pollution levels. Area sources can also be thought of as non-point sources, such as construction of housing developments, dry lake beds, and landfills. Mobile Sources: A mobile source of air pollution refers to a source that is capable of moving under its own power. In general, mobile sources imply "on-road" transportation, which includes vehicles such as cars, sport utility vehicles, and buses. In addition, there is also a "non-road" or "off-road" category that includes gas-powered lawn tools and mowers, farm and construction equipment, recreational vehicles, boats, planes, and trains. Agricultural Sources: Agricultural operations, those that raise animals and grow crops, can generate emissions of gases and particulate matter. For example, animals confined to a barn or restricted area (rather than field grazing), produce large amounts of manure. Manure emits various gases, particularly ammonia into the air. This ammonia can be emitted from the animal houses, manure storage areas, or from the land after the manure is applied. In crop production, the misapplication of fertilizers, herbicides, and pesticides can potentially result in aerial drift of these materials and harm may be caused. Natural Sources: Although industrialization and the use of motor vehicles are overwhelmingly the most significant contributors to air pollution, there are important natural sources of "pollution" as well. Wildland fires, dust storms, and volcanic activity also contribute gases and particulates to our atmosphere.
Along with harming human health, air pollution can cause a variety of environmental effects: Acid rain is precipitation containing harmful amounts of nitric and sulfuric acids. These acids are formed primarily by nitrogen oxides and sulfur oxides released into the atmosphere when fossil fuels are burned. These acids fall to the Earth either as wet precipitation (rain, snow, or fog) or dry precipitation (gas and particulates). Some are carried by the wind, sometimes hundreds of miles. In the environment, acid rain damages trees and causes soils and water bodies to acidify, making the water unsuitable for some fish and other wildlife. It also speeds the decay of buildings, statues, and sculptures that are part of our national heritage. Acid rain has damaged Massachusetts lakes, ponds, rivers, and soils, leading to damaged wildlife and forests. For more information on acid rain, go tohttp://www.epa.gov/acidrain/. Eutrophication is a condition in a water body where high concentrations of nutrients (such as nitrogen) stimulate blooms of algae, which in turn can cause fish kills and loss of plant and animal diversity. Although eutrophication is a natural process in the aging of lakes and some estuaries, human activities can greatly accelerate eutrophication by increasing the rate at which nutrients enter aquatic ecosystems. Air emissions of nitrogen oxides from power plants, cars, trucks, and other sources contribute to the amount of nitrogen entering aquatic ecosystems. Haze is caused when sunlight encounters tiny pollution particles in the air. Haze obscures the clarity, color, texture, and form of what we see. Some haze-causing pollutants (mostly fine particles) are directly emitted to the atmosphere by sources such as power plants, industrial facilities, trucks and automobiles, and construction activities. Others are formed when gases emitted to the air (such as sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides) form particles as they are carried downwind. For more information on haze, visit the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Visibility Web page: http://www.epa.gov/oar/visibility/. Effects on wildlife. Toxic pollutants in the air, or deposited on soils or surface waters, can impact wildlife in a number of ways. Like humans, animals can experience health problems if they are exposed to sufficient concentrations of air toxics over time. Studies show that air toxics are contributing to birth defects, reproductive failure, and disease in animals. Persistent toxic air pollutants (those that break down slowly in the environment) are of particular concern in aquatic ecosystems. These pollutants accumulate in sediments and may biomagnify in tissues of animals at the top of the food chain to concentrations many times higher than in the water or air.

Ozone depletion. Ozone is a gas that occurs both at ground-level and in the Earth's upper atmosphere, known as the stratosphere. At ground level, ozone is a pollutant that can harm human health. In the stratosphere, however, ozone forms a layer that protects life on earth from the sun's harmful ultraviolet (UV) rays. But this "good" ozone is gradually being destroyed by man-made chemicals referred to as ozone-depleting substances, including chlorofluorocarbons, hydrochlorofluorocarbons, and halons. These substances were formerly used and sometimes still are used in coolants, foaming agents, fire extinguishers, solvents, pesticides, and aerosol propellants. Thinning of the protective ozone layer can cause increased amounts of UV radiation to reach the Earth, which can lead to more cases of skin cancer, cataracts, and impaired immune systems. UV can also damage sensitive crops, such as soybeans, and reduce crop yields. Crop and forest damage. Air pollution can damage crops and trees in a variety of ways.Ground-level ozone can lead to reductions in agricultural crop and commercial forest yields, reduced growth and survivability of tree seedlings, and increased plant susceptibility to disease, pests and other environmental stresses (such as harsh weather). As described above, crop and forest damage can also result from acid rain and from increased UV radiation caused by ozone depletion. Global climate change. The Earth's atmosphere contains a delicate balance of naturally occurring gases that trap some of the sun's heat near the Earth's surface. This "greenhouse effect" keeps the Earth's temperature stable. Unfortunately, evidence is mounting that humans have disturbed this natural balance by producing large amounts of some of these greenhouse gases, including carbon dioxide and methane. As a result, the Earth's atmosphere appears to be trapping more of the sun's heat, causing the Earth's average temperature to rise - a phenomenon known as global warming. Many scientists believe that global warming could have significant impacts on human health, agriculture, water resources, forests, wildlife, and coastal areas. For more information, visit EPA's Global Warming Web page: http://www.epa.gov/globalwarming/.

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