Industry Oriented Mini Project on Non-Ferrous Sand Casting of Impeller

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING Submitted by Under the esteemed guidance of Mr. B.Babu Rao D.SAI KIRAN N.JASWANTH RAM J.PRAVEEN KUMAR (08245A0301) (08245A0302) (08245A0307)

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING GOKARAJU RANGARAJU INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY (Affliated to Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University)

Bachupally, Hyderabad- 500072. 2010-2011.

ABSTRACT
Manufacturing is the art of transforming raw materials into finished products. Foundry work deals with manufacture of products from molten metal, and the products obtained are called Castings. Castings are produced when the molten metal is poured into the mould cavity and left to solidify. Casting is the one of the cheapest methods of producing parts to a given shape. Casting in various forms represents one of the most important metal shaping process used in engineering manufacture. Non-ferrous metals do not contain iron as main constituent. Generally they are weaker than ferrous metals but have other important properties such as corrosion resistance, high electrical strength and thermal conductivity, good castability and special magnetic properties, Gun metal is an alloy containing 88%copper, 10%tin and 2%zinc. The small addition of zinc improves castability and intricate shapes may be cast with fine details.

CONTENTS 1.0 Introduction 2.0 Pattern 2.1 Types of pattern 2.1.1 Solid pattern 2.1.2 Split pattern 2.1.2.1 Two piece split pattern 2.1.2.2 Three piece split pattern 2.1.3 Match plate pattern 2.1.4 Gated pattern 2.1.5 Sweep pattern 2.1.6 Cope and drag pattern 2.1.7 Skeleton pattern 2.1.8 Loose piece pattern 2.1.9 Segmental pattern 2.1.10 Follow board pattern 2.1.11 Shell pattern Pattern materials 2.2.1 Wood 2.2.2 Metals 2.2.3 Plastics Characteristics of Pattern materials Construction of pattern 2.4.1 Pattern layout 2.4.2 Shaping Pattern Core Prints Colour codes for Pattern materials Hand moulding tools 2.7.1 Moulding Flask 2.7.2 Moulding Board 2.7.3 Shovel 2.7.4 Riddle 2.7.5 Rammer 2.7.6 Trowel 2.7.7 Slick 2.7.8 Lifter

2.2

2.3 2.4

2.5 2.6 2.7

2.7.9 Bellow 2.7.10 Strike off bar 2.7.11 Vent Rod 2.7.12 Sprue Pin 2.7.13 Gate Cutter 2.7.14 Swab 2.7.15 Draw spike 2.7.16 Rapper 2.7.17 Mallet 2.7.18 Shake bag 2.7.19 Water sprinkler 3.0 Moulding Sand 3.1 Classification of Moulding Sand 3.2 Binders 3.3 Sand additives 3.4 Properties of moulding sand 3.5 Sand conditioning 3.6 Cores 3.7 Types of cores 3.8 Core making 4.0 Metal process classification 4.1 Sand casting 4.2 Sequence of operations 4.3 Design requirements 4.4 Gating system 4.5 Procedure for casting of impeller 4.6 Applications of Impeller 5.0 Advantages and Disadvantages of Casting methods 5.1 Defects in Casting 5.2 Safety precautions 6.0 Foundry Layout 7.0 Conclusion 8.0 Bibliography

CONCEPT OF PROJECT REPORT

Before starting any project work it is necessary to plan the things properly for getting better results. Planning of a project is an important task and whole project largely depends upon its planning. Planning is done in order to anticipate possible difficulties and decide in advance as to how the production should be carried out in best and economical way. Broadly spreading project at analysis is the economical research done to find the suitability of a business or and industry to be started. Planners go into different investigations for effecting the business or industry to obtain good working conditions, better of product and handsome of profits.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We acknowledge our overwhelming gratitude to Sri B.Babu Rao, supervisor in Sri Raghavendra Non-Ferrous Foundries, for his valuable guidance in completing this project. We are also indebted for his encouragement and help in completing this project. We are very glad to convey our hearty thanks to Sri K.G.K Murthy, Head of the Mechanical Engineering section and also thankful to all staff members of Mechanical Engineering section for their encouragement and co-operation extended to us in this project work. We would like to express our sincere thanks to DR Adapa Ramarao, Dean and Vice Principal of GRIET Bachupally, Hyderabad, for his untiring support and taking special interest in our project and keeping our enthusiasm at various ups and downs during entire project duration. We are grateful to the principal of GRIET, for extended maximum help for the progress of this project.

1.0

Introduction :
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Manufacturing is the art of transforming raw materials into finished products. Foundry work deals with manufacture of products from molten metal, and the products obtained are called castings. castings are produced when the molten metal is poured into the mould cavity and left to solidify, Casting in various forms represents one of the most important metal shaping processes used in engineering manufacture. Sand casting is very old technique but with improved methods it can still compete with other production processes. Roughly 75% of the total outputs of the castings are made in sand moulding though they do not full satisfy the required surface finish and accuracy. Therefore more advanced methods such as shell moulding, investment castings, die castings; centrifugal castings etc. are finding wider applications. An impeller is a rotating component of a centrifugal pump usually made of iron, steel, bronze, brass, aluminum, gun-metal or plastic, which transfers energy from the motor that drives the pump to the fluid being pumped by accelerating the fluid outwards from the center of rotation. The impeller in our project is made by Gun-metal. The Gun-metal is also known as red brass in USA. It has a tensile strength of 221 to 310 MPa, a specific gravity of 8.7, a density 8,719 kg/m3, and a Brinell hardness of 65 to 74.Gunmetal casts and machines well and is resistant to corrosion from stream and salt water, and is used to make steam and hydraulic castings, valves, and gears, and also statues and various small objects, e.g. buttons. The velocity achieved by the impeller transfers into pressure when the outward movement of the fluid is confined by the pump casing. Impellers are usually short cylinders with an open inlet (called an eye) to accept incoming fluid, vanes to push the fluid radially, and a splined, keyed or threaded bore to accept a driveshaft. Some impellers are similar to small propellers but without the large blades. Among other uses, they are used in water jets to power high speed boats. Sri Raghavendra Non-Ferrous Foundries is located at Balanagar is famous for non ferrous castings. This industry contains of about 20 employees and 5 pit furnaces. It is well known for its specialization in the castings of various complex products which are widely used in manufacturing fields. The various outcomes of the industry are bushes, bearings, impellers, exhaust fan blade, electrical equipments, flywheels etc.

2.0

Pattern:

Pattern is the replica or full size model of the castings to be made. It gives its shape to the mould cavity where the molten metal solidifies to the desired form and size. The design of casting should be as simple as possible to make the pattern easy to draw from the sand and avoid more cores than necessary.

2.1

Types of Patterns:

The type of pattern depends upon the design of casting, complexity of shape, the number of castings required, moulding process, surface finish and accuracy The following are the types of pattern are in common use. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Solid (single piece) pattern Split pattern Match plate pattern Gated pattern Sweep pattern Cope and drag pattern 7. Skeleton pattern 8. Loose piece pattern 9. Segmental pattern 10. Follow board pattern 11. Shell pattern

2.1.1 Solid Pattern:

Solid or single piece pattern are inexpensive and best suited for limited production. In simple type of solid pattern, one side is made flat which serves as a parting surface. In this case, the mould cavity will be entirely in the drag, and requires the more number of manual operations such as cutting the gating system and repairing of the mould.

Fig1. Solid Pattern

2.1.2

Split Pattern:

Split pattern are used for intricate castings or castings of unusual shapes. Split patterns may be two piece pattern or three piece pattern.

2.1.2.1

Two-Piece Split Pattern:

These are made in two parts. One part producing the mould in drag and other in cope. They are kept in position by dowel pins, and the split is usually arranged along the parting line.

2.1.2.2

Three-Piece Split Pattern:

These are used for more complex castings. This type of pattern is known as multi piece pattern, it requires moulding box with three parts. The middle one is called cheek.

2.1.3

Match Plate Pattern:

Match plate patterns are mostly used in machine moulding as well as for producing large number of small castings by hand moulding. In this case, pattern is two halves is attached on opposite side of wooden or metal plate (match plate). Production efficiency and dimensional accuracy of castings can be greatly improved by the use of these patterns is shown in fig.

2.1.4 Gated Pattern:

Pattern those include gates are riser for producing casting are called gated patterns. The use of gated pattern eliminates the time required to cut the gating system by hand. Thus the moulding time is greatly reduced. These are suitable for small quantity production.

2.1.5 Sweep Pattern:

It is not a true pattern, but a template made of wood or metal revolving around a fixed axis in the mould shapes the sand to the desired contour. It is suitable for producing simple symmetrical castings. In this case no importance is given to accuracy and smoothness of the casing.

2.1.6 Cope and Drag Pattern:

This pattern is made up of two halves, which are mounted on different plates. In this case, cope and drag parts of the moulds are made separately, and then assembled. They are used for very large castings.

2.1.7 Skeleton Pattern:

Skeleton pattern is used for making large castings in small number. This consists of simple wooden frame outlining the shape of casting. This frame work is filled with loam sand

and rammed.

2.1.8 Loose Piece Pattern:

Loose piece pattern is used to produce the castings having projections in the sides, such design makes impossible to draw the pattern from the mould. It is therefore necessary to make such projections in loose piece and fastened to main pattern by means of anchor pin. During the moulding the anchor pin is removed keeping loose piece in place. After completing mould, the main pattern is drawn, the loose piece remains in the mould; but it is later removed with the help of pointed lifter.

2.1.9 Segmental Pattern:

It is actually in the form of segment and used for moulding parts having circular sections such as rings, wheel rims and gears. This pattern revolves about centre and after ramming one section, it moves forward to another section to complete mould.

2.1.10

Follow Board Pattern:

It is used for making thin walled castings. Ramming of thin walled pattern may present problems such as saggings, breakage of pattern etc. It is therefore necessary to support pattern on block (follow board) that fit inside the pattern. Follow board is removed after ramming drag, and the ramming of the cope then proceeds.

2.1.11

Shell Pattern:

It is a hollow construction and its outside shape is used as pattern while inside is used as core box for making cores. The pattern is made in two halves and are accurately dowled together along parting line. It is mostly used for drainage fittings and pipe work.

2.2

Pattern Materials:

The chief purpose of pattern is to form a cavity of desired size and shape in the moulding sand. The patterns are produced in a variety of materials which differ greatly in their characteristics. The selection of pattern materials depends on the following factors Production quantity Dimensional accuracy required. Moulding process used. Size and shape of the casting. The material selected for the pattern should be easily workable, durable and should maintain dimensional accuracy. The material most commonly used for patterns are discussed below.

2.2.1 Wood:
The most common material for the construction of pattern is wood. Wood pattern is

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used when small number of castings are to be produced. As a pattern material it offers the following advantages. Easily available and pocess low weight. Inexpensive and easy to work. Can be preserved its surface by shellac coatings. However, it has the following disadvantages: Susceptible to shrinkage (when dry) or swelling(when wet) caused by change in the moisture content in the atmosphere. Less resistance to abrasion and hence, wears out quickly. Seasoning is almost pre-requisite for use of wood as a pattern material.

2.2.2 Metal:
To produce metal patterns a special wooden pattern is required which necessitates the use of a double-contraction allowances, Metal patterns are used for mass production of castings. Compared to wooden patterns, metal patterns offer the following advantages: Durable, and produce castings of improved surface finish. High strength, and do not deform in storage. Wear resistance and maintains dimensional stability. Greater resistance to abrasion in mould. Greater stability under changing atmosphere.

On the other hand metal patterns have the following disadvantages: Much heavier. More difficult to repair and modify. Poor resistance to corrosion. Metal patterns are generally made from steel, cast iron, aluminium, brass, etc.

2.2.3 Plastics:
Plastics have replaced other materials in numerous products, and are finding their place as modern pattern materials. The type of plastics used for patterns must be very strong and highly resistant to wear. Thermo-setting resins (phenolic resin, epoxy resins) have the desired qualities of a pattern material.

The advantages of plastic patterns are: Produced more cheaply than metal patterns.

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High strength and light weight. Good dimensional stability. Resistance to corrosion. Ease of repair and modification.

However, they offer the following disadvantages: Not economical for small production runs. Plastic is brittle and not suitable for moulding large number of sand castings. It is used only for making small patterns and core boxes of intricate shapes, etc.

2.3 Characteristics of Pattern Material:

Characteristics Materials Machinabilit y Strength Weight Wear Resistance to Corrosio n Excellent Excellent Poor Poor Excellent Swelling

Wood Aluminium Steel Cast iron Plastics

Excellent Good Fair Good Good

Fair Good Excellent Good Good

Excellent Good Poor Poor Good

Poor Good Excellent Excellent Fair

Poor Excellent Excellent Excellent Excellent

2.4 Construction of a Pattern:

The pattern maker, before making pattern should study the blue print and he has to decide the way in which it can be handled. This consideration is important because the cost of moulding depends to a great extent on paper construction of a pattern; and the better the pattern, the better will be the castings. The following factors should be considered while making a pattern 9 9 9 9 Type of metal to be cast. Number of castings required to be produced. Method of moulding, and Pattern allowances.

The sequence of operations involved in pattern making are: 9 Pattern layout, and 9 Shaping the pattern.

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2.4.1 Pattern Layout:

One of the most important steps in the construction of (wooden) pattern is an accurate layout. The reproduction of the blue print to a full size scale on suitable board (layout board) is called layout of a pattern. Pattern maker must be able to make full size layout drawings from the information contained in blue print. The core prints and other additional features of the pattern are to be included in the layout. The following steps are common to all pattern layout and should be followed for each new layout. 1. Study the working drawing (blue print) and select a suitable layout board which can be accommodate a full-size drawings of at least two views (in most cases three views) of the required pattern. 2. Select a working face and plane a working edge straight, smooth and square with the face of the board. Plane a working end straight, smooth and square with both the faces and working edge. The working edge and end will serve as reference surfaces for making the layout. 3. Start the layout of a symmetrical pattern from centre line. 4. Select the proper contraction rule for making layout measurements. 5. Mark straight line with knife edge and circles (arcs) with divider. 6. Colour the layout marks in black so that they may be readily seen and finishing marks in red for emphasis. 7. Preserve the layout until the pattern has been constructed and approved.

2.4.2 Shaping The Pattern:

After completing the layout, the next step is the shaping the pieces that are to be used for making the pattern. The following sequence of operations is suggested for constructing a simple pattern. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Study the pattern layout and determine the location of the parting surface. Start the pattern by constructing the main part. Cut out the parts of pattern and provide required draft on them. Check each part of the pattern for accuracy by placing it on layout. Assemble each part carefully with glue or dowels, and check its position with layout drawing. Check the completed pattern with the layout for accuracy. Smooth any rough surface with fine sand paper and give the pattern a first coat of thin shellac. Place the wax fillets on all inside corners, and make any repairs at this time. Coat the surfaces or parts of pattern with specific colours for easy identification.

2.5 Core Prints:

The projections on a pattern which form a seat in a mould for dry sand cores are

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called core prints. The print must be of adequate size and shape to form a seat large enough to support the core against the pressure of molten metal. According to their position, core prints are classified as: 1. Vertical core print (cope and drag print) - forms a seat for a core that stand vertically in the mould. 2. Horizontal core print - forms a seat for a core that laid horizontally in the mould. 3. Balanced core print - used for the horizontal core that is intended for blind holes. 4. The drop core print (wing or tail print) - used for the core providing recess or hole which is above or below the parting line in the mould. 5. Hanging core print - forms a seat for the core that is required to be suspended from the top of the mould.

Fig 2: Core Prints and its Use 2.6 Colour Codes For Patterns:

Patterns are given protective coating so that the mixture of sand will not affect the shape of the patterns and will not injure the glued joint. Proper colour coding systems must be used in order to: Identify the different parts of patterns. Indicate the type of metal to be cast.

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 Identify core prints, seats for loose pieces. Identify the surfaces to be machined. The following colour coding system is most popular and adopted in foundry practice. surface Surface to be left unmachined Surface to be machined Core prints and seats for loose core prints Parting surfaces on a split pattern Seats and loose pieces Stop-offs or supports colour Black Red Yellow Clear (or no colour) Red strips on a yellow back ground Black strips on a yellow back ground

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

2.7

Hand Moulding Tools:

Various tools are required by the moulder to prepare a mould.

Some of the basic tools are given below.

2.7.1 Moulding Flask:

A flask is a wood or metal frame in which a mould is made. It is generally made in two parts, the cope (top section) and the drag (bottom section). These two are held in position by dowel pins. If the flask is made in three sections (to increase the depth of mould for complicated castings), the centre one is called cheek. A flask must be strong and rigid so as to protect the mould against damage during assembly, transportation and pouring. Steel flasks are considered more durable than wooden flasks. The common type of moulding boxes are: a) Snap flask: It is a small flask with open frame. It is made with hing on one corner and a lock on the opposite corner. It can be removed from the mould before it is poured. Therefore, many moulds can be made with single flask for the same melt. b) Box flask: Box flask is suitable for small or medium size castings. It is removed from the mould only after solidification of castings. c) Wooden moulding boxes: wooden boxes are often used for making relatively large castings. Sides (held together by cross bars) of a wooden boxes are extended to be used as handle.

Fig 3: Moulding Flask 2.7.2 Moulding Board:

It is a smooth wooden board, make slightly bigger size than moulding box. Pattern is placed on a moulding board and moulding box placed around it, at the starting of mould. It

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also supports the mould until the casting is solidified.

Fig 4: Moulding Board 2.7.3 Shovel:

It is used for mixing and tempering the moulding sand and loading the sand into flasks.

Fig 5: Shovel 2.7.4 Riddle:

Riddle or sieve is a wire mesh fitted into a wooden frame. It is used for screening the moulding sand and to scatter the fine moulding sand over the pattern.

Fig 6: Riddle 2.7.5 Rammers:

Rammers are used for packing the sand around the pattern in a flask. The rammer is generally made of hard wood with one end flat(butt) and other wedge (peen). Peen rammer is used for pressing the sand around the pattern and side ways in the flask. Butt rammer is preferred for pressing (ramming) the surface of sand.

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Fig 7: Rammer 2.7.6 Trowels:

These are used for cleaning, smoothing and patching the flat surface of the mould. The blade is made with mild steel and fitted in wooden handle. These are made in different forms and sizes to suit the job.

Fig 8: Trowel 2.7.7 Slick:

It has a flat on one end and spoon on the other end. It is used for patching and smoothing the mould after the pattern has been withdrawn.

Fig 9: Slick 2.7.8 Lifter:

These are usually made of mild steel. It is used for removing the sand particles from the mould. It may also be used to repair the mould.

Fig 10: Lifter

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2.7.9

Bellow:

Bellows are used to blow excess parting material from the pattern and also to blow loose sand particles from the mould.

Fig 11: Bellow 2.7.10 Strike Of Bar:

It is made either from wood or metal with straight edge. This is used to cutting off extra sand after ramming and bringing it in level with the surface.

Fig 11: Strike Of Bar 2.7.11 Vent Rod:

It is a steel wire or rod with sharp pointed end. It is used to make a series of small holes in the sand of a mould. This permits the gases to escape while the molten metal is being poured.

Fig 12: Vent Rod 2.7.12 Sprue Pin:

Sprue pin or rod is a tapered wooden peg. It forms the vertical passage in the cope along which the molten metal enters the mould. Pin used to make riser hole is called riser pin.

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Fig 13: Sprue pin

2.7.13 Gate Cutter:

It is a piece of sheet metal bent in the form used to cut gates (passage through which the metal flows into the mould.

Fig 14: Gate Cutter

2.7.14 Swab:
This is a soft brush used for moistening the sand around the pattern. This strengthens the sand and prevents the edges from breaking when the pattern is removed.

Fig 15: Swab

2.7.15 Draw Spikes:

Draw spikes are used to lift the pattern from the sand mould. Draw pin is inserted into a wooden pattern while thread end of draw spikes (draw screw) screws into a draw plate fastened to the large wooden plate or tapped hole of metal pattern.

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Fig 16: Draw Spike 2.7.16 Rapper:

Rapper is a fork-shaped rod used to drive the draw pin into pattern, and then is used to rap the pattern from side-to-side. This facilitates easy removal of pattern from mould.

Fig 17: Rapper 2.7.17 Mallet:

A mallet is used to loosen the pattern (i.e. to rap the pattern) to withdraw it from the mould and for stripping the core box from the cores.

Fig 18: Mallet

2.7.18 Shake Bag:

It is made from loosely woven cotton cloth and is used for dusting parting compound on the mould surface.

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Fig 19: Shake Bag .

2.7.19 Water Sprinkler:

It is a device (water can with sprinkler) used for wetting and tempering the moulding sand.

Fig 21: Water Sprinkler

3.0 Moulding Sand:

Various materials are used in foundries for making casting moulds. Among the mould materials, sand is used more than all others, since it posses all he required characteristics. Probably the greatest advantage of sand as a moulding material is its versatility. A wide range of alloys can be cast into sand as it has a high tolerance for thermal shock. Thus relatively low melting point aluminium and magnesium alloys are sand cast as well as alloy steels. Further more, the mass of a casting is not a limiting factor. The majority of sand can be re-used after casting. This is particularity in the case of green and dry sand moulding Sand is formed by the disintegration of rocks under the action of frost, wind and rain. In natural conditions, both large and small sand particles settle down on the bottom of water basins. Sand suitable for moulding consists of silica (SiO2) grains together with sufficient clay to act as a binding material.

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3.1 Classification of Moulding Sand:

Moulding sand is classified as under: (1) According to native of its origin. Natural sand, Synthetic sand, Special sand. (a) Natural sand: Natural sand is collected from natural resources like river beds or it dug from pits. Natural sand containing required proportion of clay (5-20%) is referred as green sand. It is used as mined. It requires only mixing water with aggregate (sand-clay mixture). The clay develops the strength and plasticity for moulding. They are less refractory than synthetic sand. But, they have the advantage of maintaining moisture content for a long time, and permitting easy patching and finishing of mould. This sand is used for non ferrous castings and grey iron castings.

(b) Synthetic sand: Synthetic sand is essentially high silica grains containing no clay in natural form. They are mixed with clay (3 to 5 % bentonite) and water (3 to 4%) to develop required moulding properties. It is used for steel castings.

The advantages of synthetic sands over natural sands are: More uniform grain size. High permeability and refractoriness. Mouldability with less moisture. Requires less binder. Easier control of properties, and Suitable for different kinds of casting. However, synthetic sands have the following disadvantages. High initial cost. Patching is difficult. Workable over a narrow moisture range.

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 Dry out more rapidly, and More skill is necessary of mould. (c) Special sand: Special sands are high refractory materials used for obtaining smoother surface of castings. They include Zirconium (ZrSiO4), Olivinite (MgSiO4), and Chromite (FeO. Cr2O3), Magnesite (MgCO3) and Chamotte (3Al2O3SiO2). Zirconium sand is costlier than silica sand and it is used for core brass and bronze casting. Olivinite is valuable for steel castings. Its refractoriness is high and improves the surface smoothness of castings. Chormite is suitable for facing mixtures in moulds for large steel castings. It has high refractoriness and volume stability. Magnesite is suitable for facing mixtures employed in castings high-manganese steel. Chamotte has high refractoriness and it is used for dry sand moulding of large steel castings. 2. According to their initial condition ( i.e. Green or dry ) and use: a) b) c) d) e) f) g) h) Green sand Dry sand Loam sand Facing sand Backing sand System sand Parting sand Core sand.

(a)Green sand: Foundry sand containing moisture is known is green sand; green refers to the moisture content and not the color of the sand. It consists of silica sand, clay (18 to 30%) and water (6 to 8%). Clay and water furnishes required strength for green sand. It is used for making small and medium size castings. The advantage of green sand is that it can be reused many times by reconditioning with water, clay and other material. However, the sand is not suitable for intricate castings and the castings which require dimensional accuracy. (b) Dry sand: Sand free from moisture is called dry sand. It possesses greater strength than green sand and can be employed for making larger castings.

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Dry sand mixtures for various castings are given below: Sand mixtures 1. Silica sand with 7% bentonite 14% other additives (silica flour, Mallasson, water) Silica sand with 7 to 8% fire clay, 1 to 2% bentonite, 2 to 3% silica flour Silica sand (40% new sand + 60% Used sand) with 3 to 6% bentonite, 1 to 2% pitch, 1 to 1.5% cereals. Applications General steel casting.

2.

Heavy steel castings.

3.

Grey cast iron castings

(c) Loam sand: Loam sand is a mixture of sand clay (50%). It is used for making large castings such as cylinders, paper rolls and bells. (d) Facing sand: Facing sand is applied to the pattern to obtain castings of smooth and clear surfaces. It forms the face of the mould and is in direct contact with molten metal. 20 to 25% of coal dust or graphite is used to prevent the metal from burning into the sand. The layer of facing sand in a mould usually ranges from 20 to 30mm. It should have sufficient strength and refractoriness so that the mould can withstand to the pressure and heat of molten metal during pouring. (e) Backing sand: The backing sand is porous mixture of used sand. It is used to support (i.e. back up) the facing sand and to fill the rest of flask. (f) System sand: It is reconditioned sand (i.e. prepared from used sand) employed in a mechanized foundries. It is used to fill the complete flask. It possesses greater strength, permeability and refractoriness than backing sand. (g) Parting sand: parting sand is used to prevent the moulding sand from sticking to their surfaces. Powders free from clay are used for the purpose. Very fine brick-powder can be used as parting sand. (h) Core sand: It is silicon sand mixed with organic component such as linseed oil, resins and other binding materials. It is used for making cores. The cores are subject to severe conditions in the mould. For his reason core sand must have refractoriness, dry strength, permeability and good collapsibility.

3.2

Binders:

A binder is any material that imparts strength to the sand. This material may be added to sand or provided by nature. The foundry sand binders may be classified into three types: 1) Clay binder, 2) Organic binder, 3) Inorganic binder.

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1) Clay binders: Clay is the earthy material that becomes plastic when water is mixed. Clay type binders are used for both green sand and dry sand moulds to increase their strength, hardness and toughness. But, increased clay content reduces flowability and permeability. Bentonite and kaolinite (fire clay) are commonly used binders for moulding sands. 2) Organic binders: Organic binders are quite inexpensive and more commonly used for core making. These binders give strength after baking and therefore organic binders are usually referred as baked binders. The more commonly used organic binders are cereals, dextrin, linseed oil, resins, pitch etc.., Cereal binders are inexpensive and impart good flowability and collapsibility for core sands. Sands with these binders are baked at 190C to develop strength. Dextrin is used to increase dry strength. Linseed oils are most commonly used for core sands. They speed up the process of drying. Resins develop high strength. Many synthetic resins do not require baking in ovens, as they harden on exposure to air. But, they are expensive. Pitch (byproduct of coke) improves dry strength, decreases expansion and contraction of the mould. 3) Inorganic binders: The common inorganic binders are Portland cement and sodium silicate. Large castings with close dimensions can be obtained with cement bonded moulds. Sodium silicate is most commonly used in CO2 process for making cores.

3.3 Sand additives:

Although sand is a very important moulding material, it cannot be expected to perform satisfactory unless its properties are adequately controlled. Additives of various materials to sand make them acceptable for many diverse castings applications. Other than binders, all materials are added to moulding sand for special purposes are called additives. The following materials are widely used as additives. 1. Coal dust 2. Wood flour 3. Silica flour, and 4. Iron oxide. 1.Coal dust (sea coal) is a finely pulverized bituminous coal. It is mixed with facing to improve surface finish and prevents burning on sand. Is amount varies from 2 to 6% for thin walled castings (5 to 15 mm thick), while for thick walled castings it amounts to 12%. 2.Wood flour is a ground soft wood and is mixed with sand to improve surface finish of the casting and collapsibility of cores. It also reduces the effect of sand expansion during pouring. The amount of wood flour in sand varies from 0.5 to 1%. 3.Silica flour is a finely ground silica sand. It is a good refractory material and is mixed with facing sand to reduce the metal penetration during pouring. 4. Iron oxide powder is added to moulding sand to increase strength. It is also added to core sand to improve collapsibility.

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3.4

Properties of Moulding Sand:

A moulding sand should possess the following properties.

I) Porosity: Moulding sand must be sufficiently porous to provide a passage for steam (formed due to evaporation moisture) and gases (evolved during solidification). Otherwise, the gas penetrates into metal which leads to formation of gas cavities (blow holes). The ability of sand to allow the gas to pass through it is called permeability. It depends on size and shape of grains, moisture content and degree of compaction (ramming). II) Plasticity: Sand should have plasticity. It is the ability of a sand to acquire shape from the pattern that is moulded and retain it during casting. The plasticity of a moulding sand depends on properties of ingredients and binders. III) Flowability: Flowability of a moulding sand refers to its ability to flow, under externally applied forces (ramming), into deeper sections of the pattern and uniformly fill the flask. IV) Collapsibility: Collapsibility is the property of sand that permits it to collapse (break) easily during its knockout from the sand that permits from castings. This property depends on amount of the sand and clay and type of binder used. V) Adhesiveness: Adhesiveness is the ability of a moulding sand to adhere to the surface of moulding boxes. This enables the mould to retain in a box during handling. VI) Cohesiveness: Cohesiveness is the ability of sand particles to stick to each other. It refers to the strength of moulding sand to hold the grains together. The strength depends on grain size (decreases with grain size) and clay content (increases with clay) of sand. The strength of sand in its moist state is known as green strength and in the dry state is known as dry strength. VII) Refractoriness: Refractoriness is the ability of a moulding sand to withstand the heat of molten metal without softening or fusion. This property depends on the Ingredients. The higher the contents of impurities in the sand mixture the lower the refractoriness of moulding sand.

3.5 Sand Conditioning:

In general, the natural and long used sands are not suitable for moulding. Thus, there is a need for conditioning the sand mixture for better results. The process of sand conditioning consists of preparing the moulding sand suitable for production of mould in which molten metal is poured. The basic steps are as follows: (i) The first step is the removal of fines, hard sand lumps and metal particles from used sand. A conventional riddler or a mobile screen is used to separate out the hard sand lumps; and metal particles are removed by magnetic separators.

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(ii)

The second step is maxing of ingredients. Proper amounts of pure sand, clay and other additives are mixed and moisture is uniformly spread over the entire volume (The process of adding moisture to moulding sand is known as tempering). Sand preparation stations use mixers and mullers for this purpose. Properly mixed sand shows high strength and permeability. In the third step the sand is passed through a mechanical aerator to separate the sand grains from each other. The operation is called aerating or fluffing. It is performed to increase the flowability of sand.

(iii)

3.6 Cores:
Cores are defined as bodies of sand, designed to from holes and cavities in castings. Cores are placed in the mould cavity before pouring to form the interior surface of the casting and removed from finished part during shakeout and further processing. Purposes of cores: Core serves the following purposes: 1. Intricate casting may be produced by using core when it is not possible with pattern. 2. Core may be used as a part of mould. 3. It improves the strength of mould surface, and 4. It may be used as a part of gating system.

Desired properties of cores: Cores are subjected to severe conditions in the mould and therefore should have: (i) Sufficient strength to withstand the force of molten metal (ii) High permeability to allow gas to escape (iii) Good collapsibility so that the core can be disintegrated easily after solidification (iv) High refractoriness to withstand high temperature of molten metal.

3.7 Types of cores:

Cores may be classified as under: 1. According to the material used for cores:

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a) Green-sand cores, and b) Dry-sand cores a) Green-sand cores are formed by the pattern and made from the same sand as the rest of the mould. They require no core prints. But green sand has a relatively low strength. For more complex shapes, green sand cores are not used, because it is not possible to withdraw patterns from the mould. b) Dry sand cores are formed separately and inserted in the mould after pattern is withdrawn. These are held and positioned at a proper seat in the mould. 2) According to the position of cores: (i) Horizontal and vertical cores: These cores are usually in cylindrical form. Horizontal cores are laid down horizontally at the parting line of the mould. Vertical cores are placed vertically in cope and drag of the mould. Taper is provided at top (i.e. a cope core print) and bottom (i.e. at drag core print). The amount of taper a the top is about 10 to 15 and at the bottom 3 Horizontal and vertical cores of different sizes are frequently used in foundry work and therefore are kept in stock. (ii) Balanced core: a balanced core has a single core print in the mould and is used to make a casting with blind hole. To support long cores in the mould cavity, chaplets are often used. (iii) Cover and hanging cores: These are used when the pattern is rammed in the drag. A core having its support at the drag is called cover core and a core hanging from the cope and does not have any support at the bottom is called hanging core. (iv) Wing core (Stop-off core): It may be used when a hole is desired in the casting either above or below the parting line. A part of the core that is placed in the seat becomes a stop-off (i.e. prevents the flow of metal into a cavity) and forms a surface casting. (v) Ram-up scores: Ram-up core is the mould along with pattern before ramming. It is used to make details in inaccessible positions of casting. (vi) Kiss core: when the pattern is not provided core prints (i.e. no seat is available in the mould), the core is held between cope and drag by the cope. It is known as kiss core and male holes in the casting in which the relative location of holes is not important.

3.8 Core making:

Cores are made either hand or machines. It is common practice (for small production) to make cores manually in core boxes. Core boxes may be a simple knock-out type. The below Fig illustrate a

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method of making a core from split wooden box. The two halves of box are clamped together and kept in vertical position. Core sand is rammed into the box. Wires (to provide venting) and meal rods (to strengthen the core are reinforced in the core. The core is removed from the box and backed. Backing is done in an oven, preferably with circulating air at about 230C. It is extremely that proper backing temperature and time should be maintained. The machines are used for rapid production of high quality cores. In this case a core blowing machine forces core sand by air pressure into a core box.

4.0 Metal process classification : 1. Expendable Mould Casting

a) Sand Casting b) Shell Moulding c) Investment Casting

2. Permanent Mould Casting

a) Pressure Die Casting b) Gravity Die Casting c) Centrifugal Casting Expendables moulds are made of sand, plaster, ceramics and similar materials which are generally mixed with various binders. After the casting has solidified, the mould in these processes is broken to remove the casting. Permanent moulds are repeatedly and are designed in such a way that the casting can be easily removed and the mould used for the next casting. These moulds are made of metals that maintain their strength at high temperature i.e. heat resisting materials

4.1 Sand Casting:

A sand casting or a sand moulded casting is a cast part produced by forming a mould with the help of a model or pattern pressed into a sand mixture and then removed, after which molten liquid metal is poured into the cavity in the mould. The mould is then cooled until the metal has solidified. In the last stage, the casting is separated from the mould. Sand casting is a very old technique but with improved methods it can still compete with other production process. Roughly 75%of the total output of the casting is made in sand moulding though they do not fully satisfy the required surface finish and accuracy. Therefore most advanced methods such as shell moulding, investment castings, die castings; centrifugal castings etc. are finding wider application.

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4.2 Sequence of Operations:

The sequence of operations involved in casting are : Place a pattern in sand to create a mold. Incorporate the pattern and sand in a gating system. Remove the pattern. Fill the mold cavity with molten metal. Allow the metal to cool. Break away the sand mold and remove the casting

Fig 22. components of two part sand casting mould

Fig 23: Metal Casting procedure

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There are two main types of sand used for molding. Green sand (the name is due to its unfired or green state, not its colour); it is a mixture of silica or olivine sand, clay, moisture and other additives. The air set method uses dry sand bonded with materials other than clay, using a fast curing adhesive. The latter may also be referred to as no bake mold casting.

When these are used, they are collectively called "air set" sand castings to distinguish them from "green sand" castings. Two types of molding sand are natural bonded (bank sand) and synthetic (lake sand); the latter is generally preferred due to its more consistent composition. With both methods, the sand mixture is packed around a master pattern, forming a mold cavity. If necessary, a temporary plug is placed in the sand and touching the pattern in order to later form a channel into which the casting fluid can be poured. Air-set molds are often formed with the help of a two-part mold having a top and bottom part, termed the cope and drag. The sand mixture is tamped down as it is added around the pattern, and the final mold assembly is sometimes vibrated to compact the sand and fill any unwanted voids in the mold. Then the pattern is removed along with the channel plug, leaving the mold cavity. The casting liquid (typically molten metal) is then poured into the mold cavity. After the metal has solidified and cooled, the casting is separated from the sand mold. There is typically no mold release agent, and the mold is generally destroyed in the removal process. The accuracy of the casting is limited by the type of sand and the molding process. Sand castings made from coarse green sand impart a rough texture to the surface, and this makes them easy to identify. Air-set molds can produce castings with much smoother surfaces. Surfaces can also be later ground and polished, for example when making a large bell. After molding, the casting is covered with a residue of oxides, silicates and other compounds. This residue can be removed by various means, such as grinding, or shot blasting. During casting, some of the components of the sand mixture are lost in the thermal casting process. Green sand can be reused after adjusting its composition to replenish the lost moisture and additives. The pattern itself can be reused indefinitely to produce new sand molds. The sand molding process has been used for many centuries to produce castings manually. Since 1950, partiallyautomated casting processes have been developed for production lines.

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4.3 Design requirements:

The part to be made and its pattern must be designed to accommodate each stage of the process, as it must be possible to remove the pattern without disturbing the molding sand and to have proper locations to receive and position the cores. A slight taper, known as draft, must be used on surfaces perpendicular to the parting line, in order to be able to remove the pattern from the mold. This requirement also applies to cores, as they must be removed from the core box in which they are formed. The sprue and risers must be arranged to allow a proper flow of metal and gasses within the mold in order to avoid an incomplete casting. Should a piece of core or mold become dislodged it may be embedded in the final casting, forming a sand pit, which may render the casting unusable. Gas pockets can cause internal voids. These may be immediately visible or may only be revealed after extensive machining has been performed. For critical applications, or where the cost of wasted effort is a factor, non-destructive testing methods may be applied before further work is performed.

4.4 The Gating System:

Fig 24: Gating system

The gating system serves many purposes, the most important being conveying the liquid material to the mold, but also controlling shrinkage, the speed of the liquid, turbulence, and trapping dross. The gates are usually attached to the thickest part of the casting to assist in controlling shrinkage. In especially large castings multiple gates or runners may be required to introduce metal to more than one point in the mold cavity. The speed of the material is important because if the material is traveling too slow it can cool before completely filling, leading to misruns and cold shuts. If the material is moving too fast then the liquid material can erode the mold and contaminate the final casting. The shape and length of the gating system can also control how quickly the material cools; short round or square channels minimize heat loss.The gating system may be designed to minimize turbulence, depending on the material being cast. For example, steel, cast iron, and most copper alloys are turbulent insensitive, but aluminium and magnesium alloys are turbulent sensitive.

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The turbulent insensitive materials usually have a short and open gating system to fill the mold as quickly as possible. However, for turbulent sensitive materials short sprues are used to minimize the distance the material must fall when entering the mold. Rectangular pouring cups and tapered sprues are used to prevent the formation of a vortex as the material flows into the mold; these vortices tend to suck gas and oxides into the mold. A large sprue well is used to dissipate the kinetic energy of the liquid material as it falls down the sprue, decreasing turbulence. The choke, which is the smallest cross-sectional area in the gating system used to control flow, can be placed near the sprue well to slow down and smooth out the flow. Note that on some molds the choke is still placed on the gates to make separation of the part easier, but induces extreme turbulence. The gates are usually attached to the bottom of the casting to minimize turbulence and splashing. The gating system may also be designed to trap dross. One method is to take advantage of the fact that some dross has a lower density than the base material so it floats to the top of the gating system. Therefore long flat runners with gates that exit from the bottom of the runners can trap dross in the runners; note that long flat runners will cool the material more rapidly than round or square runners. For materials where the dross is a similar density to the base material, such as aluminium, runner extensions and runner wells can be advantageous. These take advantage of the fact that the dross is usually located at the beginning of the pour, therefore the runner is extended past the last gate(s) and the contaminates are contained in the wells. Screens or filters may also be used to trap contaminates. It is important to keep the size of the gating system small, because it all must be cut from the casting and remelted to be reused. The efficiency, or yield, of a casting system can be calculated by dividing the weight of the casting by the weight of the metal poured. Therefore, the higher the number the more efficient the gating system/risers Riser: An extra void in the mold that fills with molten material to compensate for shrinkage during solidification. A riser, also known as a feeder, is a reservoir built into a metal casting mold to prevent cavities due to shrinkage. Most metals are less dense as a liquid than as a solid so castings shrink upon cooling, which can leave a void at the last point to solidify. Risers prevent this by providing molten metal to the casting as it solidifies, so that the cavity forms in the riser and not the casting. Risers are not effective on materials that have a large freezing range, because directional solidification is not possible. They are also not needed for casting processes that utilized pressure to fill the mold cavity. A feeder operated by a treadle is called an under feeder.

The activity of planning of how a casting will be gated and risered is called foundry methoding or foundry engineering

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Fig 25: Risers 4.5 Procedure for casting of Impeller:

The first step in sand moulding is the preparation of sand. The sand in required proportion is prepared by mixing it with required additives in Sand Muller. Then the cope box is placed on the moulding board and the first piece of the pattern is placed exactly at the centre of the moulding board. Graphite powder is then applied on the pattern and over the entire moulding board to facilitate easy removal of the pattern. After the application of graphite powder the next step is to place the runner and riser in position. The main function of runner and riser is to provide a slot for entry of molten metal into the moulding cavity and to indicate the filling condition of the molten metal. The cope box is then filled with the moulding sand followed by simultaneous ramming with a peen rammer. The mould should not be rammed very hard because it may displace the position of pattern. Once the mould is filled completely then the excess sand is removed by using strike of bar. The runner and riser are then removed from the moulding flask and the mould is then smoothened. Vent holes are made in the moulding sand by using vent rod. The holes are made in order to pass the CO2 gas under pressure into the moulding sand through the holes. Passing of CO2 gas into the mould cavity makes the moulding sand tight i.e. increases the strength of the mould cavity. This gives better strength than ramming with butt hammer. Then the cope box is reversed and gates are made to the mould using gate cutter. The second piece of the pattern is placed over the first piece and drag box is placed over the cope box. The parting sand and graphite powder are applied over the cope box and the pattern. Then the moulding sand filled in the drag box by gradual ramming. The Vent holes are made in the moulding sand by using vent rod. Again the CO2 gas is passed into the mould cavity to strengthen the moulding sand. The drag box is removed from the cope box , and the gates are made to it. The patterns are slowly removed from both the moulds such that the mould cavity does not get disturbed. There after the drag box is placed over the floor followed by core print and cope.

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 The gap between the two boxes is covered with the wet clay to cover the clearance between the boxes and also to prevent the leakage of molten metal. Then the molten metal is poured into the runner until it comes out of the riser to facilitate the complete filling of the mould cavity. Then the molten metal is left to solidify. The cope and the drag are then dismantled. The casting is removed from the moulding sand after breaking it. The core print inside the casting is removed and the Impeller is sent to machining.

4.6 Applications of Impeller:

The following are some of the applications of impellers: Rushton turbine Fluid couplings Chopper pumps Turbocharger Gas compressors Liquid ring pumps Wheel speed sensors etc.

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Fig 26: Impeller

Fig 27: Cross section of Impeller

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5.0 Advantages and Disadvantages of Casting methods:

Casting is the shortest route of obtaining finished parts(castings) from raw material(molten metal). Casting process allows a great deal of versatility in part shape and size, and are preferred over other manufacturing process because of following.

Advantages :
Size is not limitation. Intricate components with cavities can be made with accuracy and good surface finish. There are several metals ( e.g. grey cast iron)which can only be cast. Metal casting can be adopted for job work as well as for batch production. Castings, in general, resists creep under high temperatures. Very complex shapes may be produced with comparative ease. Thin sections can be cast, and holes may be cored accurately. Excellent mechanical performance. Porosity free. Easily automated, consistent, production rates are equal to or better than die casting rates, no air entrapment, low shrinkages rates, and a uniform microstructure.

Disadvantages:
Castings do not exhibit directionality of properties. The strength and toughness of castings are usually inferior to forgings. The process is not suitable for the metals having high melting point and low fluidity. High cost of raw material due to a low number of suppliers. Higher die development costs, and operators require a higher level of training.

5.1 Defects in Casting:

Various defects in casting results due to improper sand preparation and process techniques. The defects that commonly occur in castings are explained below. Blow Holes are spherical voids having a clean and smooth surface. They appear near to surface. These defects are due to poor venting and lack of permeability in moulding sand. Proper venting, not too hard ramming and adjusting thje moisture content in the sand may eliminate these defects. Cold Shuts and Misruns are discontinuities in the casting as a result of poor fluidity of the molten metal. Misruns are formed when the entire section is not filled during pouring before solidification. Cold shuts formed when two streams of metal do not fuse together. These defects can be minimized by proper gating system and increasing in pouring temperature (i.e. increasing the fluidity of metal).

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 Hot Tears are cracks in the casting as a result of contraction stresses after solidification. An improvement in the casting design, proper ramming and increasing the collapsibility in the core and the mould may help elimination of hot tears. Mismatch is a shift of the individual parts of a casting with respect to each other. The defect results form mismatching of cope and drag. To eliminate the defects, the flask should be properly closed and secured. Shrinkage Cavities are voids in the casting. They appear as a result of insufficient feeding, poor casting design, incorrect arrangement of gates and risers and high temperatures of pouring metal. The defect can be eliminated by locating the riser at correct place and promoting the directional solidification by using the chills (pieces of metals kept in mould to extract heat in certain location). Fins or Flash are thin projections of metal, not intended as a part of the casting. They commonly appear along the mould joint because of much wear of flask halves or improper clamping of flasks. Slag Inclusions (or slag holes) are cavities filled with slag, and produced when slag gets in to the casting when pouring metal into the mould. These defects are due to poor skimming of metal in the ladle and incorrect gating system. Swell is an expansion of mould cavity by metal pressure. It is due to insufficient ramming and too rapid pouring of molten metal. Scabs are lumps of excess metal (i.e. irregular projections containing embedded sand) on the casting as a result of erosion of mould by the stream of molten metal. The defect can be eliminated by proper ramming, using fine facing sand and controlling the flow of metal.

5.2 Safety Precautions: 1. Keep floor dry and clean to avoid accidents while carrying patterns, core plates etc. 2. Carry shovel with the blade pointing towards the floor. 3. Stick the shovel in the sand when it is not in use. Do not lay it on the floor. 4. Avoid sticking finger or hand with the sharp point of vent wire. 5. Do not attempt to lift excess weight. Ask for assistance when lifting a heavy mould. 6. Wear safety goggles, gloves and safety shoes when handling molten metal. 7. use of exhaust fan is essential. 8. Observe all the safety codes while working in the shop
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6.0 Foundry Layout:

Foundry is a basic manufacturing process which deals eith the melting point of metals and the pouring of molten metal into the mould from twhich castings are obtained. It requires various machines and equipment. Fig shows a typical layout of foundry shop

Fig 28: Sample Foundry layout

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7.0 Conclusion:
By the project on manufacturing of an impeller by sand casting we got a clear view about the various casting techniques and we are able to visualize how the theoretical procedure differs from the practical one besides we acquired practical knowledge about various tools used and methods adopted for casting various products. The live working on pit furnace, sand mullers and pouring of molten metal is the best experience in this industrial oriented project which gave us the complete overview of how castings are been produced in mass quantity.

8.0 Bibliography:
1. Production Technology by R.K Jain. 2. Manufacturing and Fabrication Technology by Pakirappa. 3. Matter collected from wikipedia.org and other encyclopedias.

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