Comprehensive Notes

Contents
1 Mechanics 3
1.1 Rotations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 SHO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 Special Relativity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2 Waves 5
2.1 Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2 Diraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.3 Refraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3 Quantum Mechanics 7
3.1 Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.2 Observables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.3 Scattering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.4 Potential Wells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.5 Harmonic Oscillator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4 Electromagnetism 10
4.1 Maxwells Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4.2 Electrostatic Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4.3 Poynting Vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4.4 Electromagnetic Waves in a Vacuum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
4.5 Waves in Dielectric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4.6 Waves in Conductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4.7 EM Waves in a Waveguide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
5 Thermodynamics And Statistical Physics 15
5.1 The Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
5.2 Equations of State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
5.3 Reversibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
5.4 Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
5.5 Entropy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
5.6 Functions of State Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
5.7 Classical Statistical Physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
5.8 Bose-Einstein and Fermi-Dirac Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1
5.9 Black Body Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
6 Atomic Physics 21
6.1 Spectral Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
6.2 Hydrogen Atoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
6.3 Pertubation Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
6.4 Zeeman Eect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
6.5 Molecules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
7 Electrons in Solids/Solid State Physics 26
7.1 Free Electron Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
7.2 Carriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
7.3 Semiconductor Transitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
7.4 pn Junctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
8 Particle And Nuclear Physics 30
8.1 Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
8.2 Nuclear Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
8.3 Decays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
8.4 Nuclear Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
9 Probability And Statistics 33
9.1 Properties of distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
9.2 Binomial Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
9.3 Poisson Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
9.4 Gaussian Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
9.5 Propagation of Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2
1 Mechanics
1.1 Rotations
L = I
Moments of Inertia:
I
xx
=

_
y
2
+x
2
_
dm
Thin Rod length l
I =

x
2
dm dm = dv = Adx
=
l
2

l
2
x
2
Adx =
1
12
ml
2
Sphere of uniform density, radius R
I =

_
x
2
+y
2
_
dm dm = dv = r
2
sin () drdd
=
2
5
mR
2
Disc of radius R
I =

R
0
r
2
dm dm = dv = 2r
=
1
2
mR
2
1.2 SHO
m x = kx
solution is oscillatory with frequency
2
=
k
m
x = Asin (t) +Bcos (t)
For a damped oscillator
m x x +kx = 0
solution of form
3
x(t) = Aexp (pt) +Bexp (pt)
where p is found by
mp
2
p +k = 0
p =

_

2
4mk
2m
3 distinct cases,
Overdamped:
2
> 4mk , The system returns to equilibrium exponentially
without oscillating.
Critically Damped:
2
= 4mk, The system returns to equilibrium exponen-
tially in the shortest possible time, without oscillating.
Under Damped:
2
< 4mk, p C, The system oscillates about equilibrium
with exponentially decaying amplitude.
Q Factor: Dened as
Q = 2
Energy Stored
Power loss per cycle
or in the high Q limit Q =

.
1.3 Special Relativity
Lorentz Transforms for a boost into a frame S

with aligned x axes moving at

c relative to S
x

= (x ct)
ct

= (ct x)
y

= y
z

= z
where =
_
1
2
_

1
/2
Length contraction - an observer in S will see a moving object whose rest
frame is S

contract to l =
l

Time dilation - an observer in the moving frame S

will record a time

period t in the stationary frame S as t

= t
4
Relativistic Kinematics:
E
rest
= mc
2
E
total
= mc
2
E
2
= p
2
c
2
+m
2
c
4
p = mv
=
pc
E
v transform
v

=
dx

dt

=
dx

dt
1
dt

dt
= c
_
1
v
c
_
_
v
c

_
Kinetic Energy: In the non-relativistic limit
E = mc
2
1 +
1
2

2
E mc
2
+
1
2
mv
2
. .
KE
2 Waves
2.1 Properties
Travelling waves of the form
cos (kx t) sin (kx t) exp (i [kx wt])
Standing waves require L =

2
k =

L
, where L is the length of the
medium in which the wave is set up.
Superposition: Dierent beats as sin (
1
t)+sin (
2
t) = 2 sin
_
1+2
2
t
_
sin
_
12
2
t
_
Velocities: Phase velocity v
p
=

k
, Group velocity v
g
=

k
- the group veloc-
ity is the ow of physical quantities
Doppler eect: Classical waves f
source
=
_
v+vo
v+vs
_
f
observer
, where v is the
speed of waves in the medium, and v
o
, v
s
are the speeds of the observer and
source relative to the medium, respectively.
The relativistic doppler eect is slightly dierent and arises from time dila-
tion, as t

= t this leads to f
s
=

1+

1
f
o
.
5
2.2 Diraction
Innitesimal Youngs Slits:
The path dierence between the two slits is n = d sin () . So for x than
the distance to the screen we can also approximate sin () = , this gives us
d = m
thus the angular spacing between fringes is
=

d
we can nd the verticle distance between fringes as
x = R = R

d
Grating Equation: To have constructive interference at a point we must
impose d sin () = m, generalising to N slits in a grating Nd sin () = Nm,
called the grating equation.
Innitesimal Grating: The transmission function is given by T (y) = Rect (
y
/
d
/2)
(y nd)
Finite Width Grating: The transmission function for the diraction grating
can be expressed as the product of the grating width and the convolution of each
slit with a dirac comb.
T (y) = Rect (
y
/
d
/2) (y nd) Rect (
y
/
a
/2)
A Dirac comb transforms to another comb where the width is
2
k

1
d
=

d
,
the transform of the single slit gives A
0
sin()

and the transform of the width

of the grating gives another sinc function, as in reciprocal space small features
from real space result in larger features we can see that the sinc generated by
the individual slits will be much wider in the diraction pattern than the sinc
generated by the size of the grating. Thus taking the comb and multiplying by
the small grating width generated sinc and then we can use the individual slit
width generated sinc as an envelope.
6
2.3 Refraction
By Fermats Principle, Light travels takes the shortest optical path between 2
points, where optical path length is given by d = ln where l is the physical
distance and n is the refractive index of the media. From this Snells law can
be derived
n
1
sin (
i
) = n
2
sin (
r
)
3 Quantum Mechanics
De Broglie Relations:
p = k E =
3.1 Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
Position-Momentum:
px

2
For a particle travelling through a nite width slit the HUP imposes a posi-
tion restriction on the particle in the plane of the obstruction, this results in a
momentum uncertainty in that plane which gives rise to diraction.
A conned particle has a nite x and thus a nite uncertainty in its mo-
mentum.
Energy-time:
Et

2
This gives rise to line widths in atomic spectra due to short level lifetimes.
3.2 Observables
Represented by Hermitian operators

Hdx =

_

H
_

dx
Operators have a set of eigenfunctions and eigenvalues
Hermitian operators non-degenerate eigen-functions are orthogonal and
their eigenvalues real
Energy operator is the hamiltonian

H =
p
2
2m
+

V (x)
7
Representations:
x-rep
x = x p = i
p-rep
x = i p = p
Schrodinger Equations:
Time Dependant
i

t
=

H
Time Independant

H = E
3.3 Scattering
Particles will scatter o potential steps and barriers. Unlike classically there
will be a reection coecient for a potential step down.
Separating the total into componets to the left and right of the step

L
= Aexp (ik
l
x) +Bexp (ik
l
x)

R
= C exp (ik
r
x)
by
p
2
2m
= E k
l
=
_
2mE
/
2
, k
r
=
_
2m(EV0)
/
2
. For a particle with
E < V
0
the wavefunction within the step is exponentially decaying, Classically
this is a forbidden region. As and

must be continuous everywhere except

at an innite discontinuity
L
=
R
,

L
=

R
at the barrier. This leads to
conditions on the amplitudes such that
A+B = C
k
l
(B A) = k
r
C
8
The expressions for the transmission and reection coecients are given by,
where the wavevectors are introduced to keep the ux of particles constant
T =
[C[
2
k
r
[B[
2
k
l
R =
[A[
2
k
l
[B[
2
k
l
For a nite length barrier the expontentially decay component within the
barrier will give rise to another free particle wavefunction at the other side of
the barrier. The amplitude of
R
at the other side of the barrier dictates the
probability of the particle tunnelling through the classically forbidden barrier.
3.4 Potential Wells
Innite Well: A well, half width a, with innite potential at a, a and no
potential within the well. The boundary conditions dictate that any must be
zero at both edges of the well, solving the TISE under these conditions yields
the general solution
= Asin (kx) +Bcos (kx)
Where k =
_
2mE
/
2
is the free particle wavevector. From the application
of the boundary conditions k is quantised for 2 cases
A = 0 k =
n
2a
n = 2, 4, 6
B = 0 k =
n
2a
n = 1, 2, 3
So we arrive at the solution
=
_
cos (
nx
/2a) n odd
sin (
nx
/2a) n even
With E =

2

2
n
2
8ma
2
.
Finite Well: Using a similar argument to the potential step, split up the
total into 3 components wavefunctions
L
,
C
,
R
. The boundary conditions
are now that the wavefunction is continuous over the potential steps these lead
to the 2 simultaneous conditions
k tan (ka) =
k cot (ka) =
where k =
_
2mE
/
2
, =
_
2m(EV0)
/
2
. These can be solved graphically to
yield the energy levels allowed.
9
3.5 Harmonic Oscillator
A particle conned to a potential well dened by V (x) =
1
2
Kx
2
. So the TISE
becomes

2
2m

2
u
x
2
+
1
2
Kx
2
u = Eu
The solution is the set of Hermite polynomials denoted H
n
(x). The energy
levels are given by E
n
=
_
n +
1
2
_
. note that this system has a minimum
energy, called the zero-point energy when n = 0.
4 Electromagnetism
4.1 Maxwells Equations
Integral form Dierential Form
Gauss Law for E

s
E ds =
1

d E =

o
Gauss Law for B

s
B ds = 0 B = 0
Faradays Law

c
E dl = =
d
B
dt
E =
B
t
Amperian Maxwell Law

c
B dl =
0
I +
0

0
d
E
dt
B =
0
j
f
+
0

0
Displacement and Demagnetizing eld:
D = E+P H =
B

M
Where P, M are the polarisation and magnetisation respectivly and =

0
,
r

0
. In an HIL medium
D = E B = H
These lead to alternate forms of Maxwells equations containing H and D.
Force on a particle: The force on a charged particle due to Electric and
magnetic elds is given by the Lorentz Force
F = q(E+v B)
In a uniform magnetic eld this leads to cyclotron motion, as F v, B the
particle exhibits circular motion. Equating the Lorentz force to the required
centripetal force the frequency of rotation can be determined as
10

cyc
=
qB
m
4.2 Electrostatic Potential
Potential energy of a discrete charge distribution is given by U =
q0
40

i
qi
ri
or U =
q0
40

dq
r
in the continuous case. The Electrostatic potential is the
potential energy per unit charge thus V =
U
q0
. The work done by/against a
force is dened as W
ab
=

b
a
F dl, this can be used to work out V for a given
E
V
a
V
b
=

b
a
E dl V =

E dl
Notice that the value is only dependant on the starting and end points not
the path taken. Conversley the Electric eld can be calculated by a known
potential
E = V
Method of Images: There can be no electric elds within a conductor as free
charges will move to counter it. This can be used to nd the charge distribution
on a conducting surface, there can be no component of E tangential to the
surface. If another charge is placed near this surface, the charge distribution
of the surface will change to obey this condition. By placing fake charges in
the conductor such that there is only a component of E perpendicular to the
surface the charge distribution can be found.
4.3 Poynting Vector
EM Energy:
Energy Density in an Electric Field
u
E
=
1
2
E D
u
E
=
1
4
Re E D

Energy Density in a Magnetic Field

u
B
=
1
2
B H
u
B
=
1
4
Re B H

11
Poyntings Theorem:
Poynting Vector
N = EH
Using energy conservation we know the EM energy initially in a volume
must either
Converted by ohmic heating
1
Stay Stored in the elds
2
Leave the volume
3
Which leads to the condition that any energy leaving the eld must escape the
volume or be converted by ohmic heating.

1
2
(E D+B H) d
. .
2
+

s
N ds
. .
3
+

E j
f
d
. .
1
= 0
this can be expressed as a dierential

t
1
2
(E D+B H) + N+E j
f
= 0
Useful Properties of the Poynting Vector:
Energy Flux
N = c u

k
Momentum Density
=
N
c
2
Radiation Pressure
Pressure
absorb
=
N
c

k =
1
2
Pressure
reflect
4.4 Electromagnetic Waves in a Vacuum
Complex Notation:
Faradays law
H =
k E

Amperes law
E =
Hk

12
Product Averages
AB =
1
2
Re [AB

]
Wave Equation: From Maxwells equations we can derive wave equations for
both E, H

2
E =
0

2
t
2
E

2
H =
0

2
t
2
H
Where the speed of propagation is c =
1

00
, the solution for E is given
by E = E
0
e
i(krt)
, H can be found by Faradays law and it thus always
perpendicular to E. For elds of this form can use a simple, complex notation
to express Maxwells equations.
Wave Properties:
Wave Impedence: From Faradays law the ratio of E,H is constant, for a
wave propagating in the x direction
[E[
[H[
=
_

= z
The energy density for the electric and magnetic components are equal
thusu
E
= u
H
=
1
2
u, giving the time average energy density of the EM eld
as
u =
[E[
2
2
=
[H[
2
2
Wave Polarisation: For a wave propagating in the x direction, linear po-
larisation is where the direction of the E eld is at a constant angle to the y
axis. Circular polarisation is where the Eand H elds rotate around the axis of
propagation maping out a circle in the y z plane.
4.5 Waves in Dielectric
The speed of light in a medium is given by c
m
=
1

< c and thus the refractive

index of a material is dened as n =
c
cm
> 1. Maxwells equations give us
conditions for how waves act as they cross a boundary between two dielectric
media these result in some familiar laws
Angle of Incidence = Angle of Reection

I
=
R
13
Law of Refraction
k
T
=
n2
n1
k
I
Snells Law
Sin(
I
) =
n2
n1
Sin(
T
)
Brewster Angle
Tan(
B
) =
n2
n1
At this angle there is no reected wave, all the energy is transmitted
across the boundary.
Total Internal Reection: If
_
n1
n2
_
2
Sin
2
(
I
) > 1then the x component of
k
T
is complex, the
I
that results in
_
n1
n2
_
2
Sin
2
(
I
) = 1 is called the critical
angle,
c
. This results in an exponential decay envelope in the second medium
and the wave does not propagate but is totally reected. note the above con-
dition can only be satised if n
1
> n
2
. Transmitted wave is descibed as being
evanescent, oscillatory with a quickly decaying amplitude.
E = E
T0
e
i(ktzzt)
e
|ktx|x
y
4.6 Waves in Conductors
Free charge is given by Ohms law j
f
= E which alters the dispersion relation of
the waves to k
2
=
2

_
1 +
i

_
, as k is complex the wave within the conductor
is evanescent.
Good Conductors: In a good conductor Electric Current Displacement
Current . k can be expressed as
k = (1 +i)
_

2
= k
c
(1 +i)
This leads to the skin depth of a good conductor, the depth at which the
amplitude of the transmitted wave has fallen by e as
=
1
k
c
=
_
2

14
4.7 EM Waves in a Waveguide
The Transverse Electric Wave, Electric eld in waveguide(Width a, Height b)
of form. By Maxwells equations for a conducting waveguide, the electric eld
tangential to the surface of the conductor and the magnetic eld normal to the
conductor must be zero. This means we need to quantise the wave such that
E
t
= 0 at z = 0, b.
E = E
0y
Sin
_
m
b
z
_
e
i(kxt)
y
Wave Equation leads to the dispersion law,

2
= k
2
c
2
+
_
m
b
c
_
2
From Faradays Law the H Field can be determined,
H =
_
E
0

_
__
i
m
b
_
Cos
_
m
b
z
_
x +kSin
_
m
b
z
_
z
_
e
i(kxt)
For wave to propagate down waveguide k
2
> 0, if

c
<
m
b
>
2b
m
wave cannot propagate. Long wavelengths cannot propagate along waveguide.
Wave Velocities
v
p
=
c
_
1
_
m
b
c
_
2
v
g
=
c
2
v
p
5 Thermodynamics And Statistical Physics
5.1 The Laws
Zeroth Law: If A is in thermal equilibrium with B and B is in thermal equilib-
rium with C then A is in thermal equilibrium with C. Can use this to construct
isotherms from the ideal gas law.
First Law: Conservation of energy states that, The change in internal energy
of a system is the sum of total heat energy in less the work performed by the
system. For nite changes this is given as U = W + Q and for inntesimal
changes as
dU = dW +dQ
15
Second Law: Entropy of a system and its surroundings must increase for
any process
S
AB

B
A
dQ
T
Third Law: The entropy of a system approachs 0 as T 0.
5.2 Equations of State
Ideal Gas
PV = Nk
B
T U =
3
2
Nk
B
T
Van de Waals Gas
_
P +a
N
2
V
2
_
(V Nb) = Nk
B
T U =
3
2
Nk
B
T a
N
2
V
where a characterises the inter-particle attractive force and b is the volume
of a particle.
5.3 Reversibility
A process is reversible if once done can be undone without aecting anything
outside the system. Any real process is irreversible, this can be explained sta-
tistically: for any system consisting of N particles there are a multitude more
ways that they can be congured which dier to the original conguration that
it is a statistical impossiblity that they will recongure unaided.
Quasi-Static Process: A Process which evolves slowly so that at each stage
the system is in thermodynamic equilibrium.
Adiabatic Process: Any process for which Q = 0 is called an adiabatic
process, in this case the rst law is dU = PdV
Work: For a system with dissapative forces any process is irreversible thus
the work done by an ideal gas is given by
W
rev
=

PdV W
irr
>

PdV
Resevoirs: A system which is in contact with the system under analysis but
has many more particles such that its temperature and pressure are eectively
xed.
16
Constant Volume: For a system at constant volume the rst law becomes
dU = dQ dene the heat capacity at constant volume dQ = C
V
dT thus at
constant volume reversible heating can take place.
5.4 Engines
A Heat Engine: A cyclic process which produces work by using heat ow
from a hot resevoir to a cold resevoir. The eciency of a heat engine is dened
as the useful work produced per heat energy used
=
W
out
Q
in
A Heat Pump/Fridge: A cyclic process which heats a hot object/cools a
cold object by using work. As the goal of a heat pump and a fridge are dierent
their eciencies are dened slightly dierently

HP
=
Q
out
W
in

F
=
Q
in
W
in
Carnot Cycle: A cyclic process made of two adiabats and two isotherms.
This is a practicle cycle that can be used to create ecient heat engines and
pumps. Since all heating and cooling done at constant temperature only require
one set of heat resevoirs.
Carnot Theorem: No engine operating between two heat resevoirs can be
more ecient than a Carnot engine. All Canot engines have the same eciency
given by
= 1
T
H
T
C
5.5 Entropy
Clausius Inequality: For any cyclic process

dQ
T
0 where the equality is
for a reversible process and the inequality for an irreversible one.
Entropy: We dene another state variable entropy, such that an innitesimal
change in entropy is given by dS =
dQ
T
. For any irreversible path between
two points in state space we can also dene a reversible path, since these are
variables of state this becomes a cyclic process and from Calusius inequality we
arrive at the Entropy form of the second law
S
AB

B
A
dQ
T
17
Changes in Entropy: The entropy change over any process can be split
up into two reversible paths, one isobar and one isochor such that S
AB
=
S
AA
+ S
A

B
=

A
C
P
dT
T
+

B
A

C
V
dT
T
. Which for an ideal gas leads to
S
ideal gas
= C
V
ln
_
T
T
0
_
+Nk
B
ln
_
V
V
0
_
5.6 Functions of State Variables
Fundamental Equation of Thermodynamics: Using the equalities for in-
nitesimal changes in W and Q we can rewrite the rst law as
dU = TdS PdV
Since this is a link between innitesimal changes in state variables for any
irreversible process we can build a reversible process that starts and ends at
the same points in state variable space. Thus we can calculate entropy changes
over any process using dS =
dU+PdV
T
. Interpreting the FETD as the perfect
dierential of U (S, V ) we see
_
U
V
_
S
= P
_
U
S
_
V
= T
Free Energy: For a system in contact with a heat resevoir at T = T
0
the
rst law becomes (U T
0
S) W, dene F U TS as the free energy.
Thus the work produced by a system is less than its drop in free energy, for a
irreversible process or equal to the drop, in a reversible process.
Gibbs Function: The gibbs function has its application in determining if a
phase change is energetically viable. For a given set of state variables the phase
with the smallest value for the Gibbs function will be the stable state. The
gibbs function is given by G = U +PV TS.
Enthalpy: The enthalpy is related to the heat exchange during a thermody-
namic process and is given by H = U +PV .
Maxwell Relations: By examining inntesimal changes in F, G and H and
by use of the FETD dierential relations between state variables can be derived.
As an example for F we rst notice that expressing F as a total dierential,
dF = dU TdS SdT
FETD
= dF = PdV SdT
thus S =
_
F
T
_
V
and P =
_
F
V
_
T
. As mixed, second partial derrivatives
are equal we arrive at
_
S
V
_
T
=
_
P
T
_
V
Similar relations can be derived for G and H.
18
5.7 Classical Statistical Physics
Microstate: The state of all the individual particles corresponding to a sys-
tem
Macrostate: The state as described by state variables, there are many mi-
crostates that correspond to the same macrostate.
Statistical Denition of Entropy: The Boltzmann denition of entropy
is given by
S = k
B
ln ()
where is the multiplicity of the system, the multiplicity for choosing M dis-
tinguishable objects from N is given by (M) =
N!
M!(NM)!
.
Microcanonical Ensemble: All macrostates, denoted by , are equiprobable
the microcanonical ensemble is dened by p

=
1

. The system is contrained

from losing particles or energy to its surroundings thus M =

N
i
r
i
, where
M = U/
0
and the energy of each particle is =
0
r for N distinguishable
particles.
Canonical Ensemble: The system is now allowed to exchange energy with
its surroundings but the total particle number is still constrained. The prob-
ability distribution for this ensemble is found to relate to the energy of the
microstate in questions and to have the form of the Boltzmann distribution
p

=
1
Z
exp (

/k
B
T)
Where Z is the canonical partition function and is naively introduced so that
the distribution is normalised and is thus given by Z =

. The partition
function can be used as a link to the macroscopic thermodynamic state variables.
The internal energy of a system is given by
U =
[ln Z]

= k
B
T
2
[ln Z]
T
The statistical physics equivalent to the free energy is given by F = UTS =
k
B
T ln (Z) where the usual thermodynamic relations can be used to nd other
state variables.
Generalised Entropy: The statisical physics generalised form of S is given
by S = k
B

ln (p

).
19
Density of states: Examining momentum states in 3D we see that each state
in each dimension is spaced by p =
h
2L
, where L is the connement in a given
dimension. For the partion function, the summation over all momentum states
becomes
Z
tr
=
1
(p)
3

nx
p

ny
p

ny
p exp [ (p)]
which can be taken to integrals and integrated in polar coordinates to yield
Z
tr
=
L
3
h
3
4

0
p
2
exp [ (p)] dp
this integral depends on if the particles in question are non-relativistic,
(p) =
p
2
2m
, or ultra-relativistic, = pc. The full partition function also contains
a degeracy factor g which relates to the non-internal degrees of freedom.
Grand Canonical Ensemble: The system is allowed to exchange both en-
ergy and particles with the surroundings, the probability of a given microstate
is given by
p

=
1
:
exp [ (

)]
where = T
_
S
N
_
V
. Similarly to the Canonical ensemble we can draw a
link to thermodynamics, this time by the Grand Potential Function
= k
B
T ln (:) = U TS N
5.8 Bose-Einstein and Fermi-Dirac Statistics
The Grand Partition Function is most simply expressed as a sum over all possible
values of all occupation numbers
: =
_

n0

n1
...
_
exp
_

r
n
r
(
r
)
_
this factorises out as a product of the individual state occupation sums
: =

r
_
nr
exp [n
r
(
r
)]
_
where we express this as a product of in-
dividual single particle state partition functions : =

r
:
r
. As possible oc-
cupancy numbers depend on what type of particles the system is made up of
there are two separate distributions for occupancy. For bosons the occupancy
sum runs from 0 , and for fermions, by the PEP, it runs from 0 1. The
average occupancy can then be determined from these partition functions by
n
r
=

nr
n
r
p
r,nr
=
1

ln(Zr)
r
resulting in,
n
BE/FD
=
1
exp [ (
r
)] 1
20
From these distributions we can see that if (
r
) 1 the 1 in the de-
nominator of the distributions becomes insignicant and thus these distributions
both converge on the classical boltzmann distribution n
B
= exp [ (
r
)].
In this limit n
r
1 therefore we expect the dierent properties of bosons and
fermions to be less evident. n
BE
diverges for so we must impose
<
min
5.9 Black Body Radiation
Modelling the system as a photon gas, photons are spin 1 and are thus bosons,
massless and thus always ultrarelativistic. They have a degeneracy of g = 2 due
to two orthogonal polarisation states. The chemical potential of a photon gas
is = 0 as partcles are not conserved. The occupancy distribution becomes
n
BE
n =
1
exp [
r
] 1
We can nd the internal energy of this system by U =

r
n
r

r
, it is more
insightful to change the integration variable to nd the spectral energy density
want in the form u =
U
V
=

u
s
() d by evaluating the integral we see the
energy density of the photon gas is given by
u =

2
k
4
B
15
3
c
3
T
4
6 Atomic Physics
6.1 Spectral Lines
When electrons make transitions between energy states the energy decit must
be absorbed or emitted, usually as EM radiation. A transition between 2 levels
with energy E
1
and E
2
emits or abosrbes a photon of frequency =
E2E1
h
any
given atoms has a myriad of energy levels and allowed transitions. These emis-
sion spectra from atoms are used to classify atoms by their unique ngerprint
of avaliable transitions. The emitted photons arent at a single frequency but
rather the emission lines are broadened by various eects.
Radiative Transitions: A transition between 2 levels happens at a rate/probability
given by Fermis Golden Rule which states that the transition rate is propor-
tional to the matrix element of the interaction with the initial and nal states.
1

if
[f [H

[ i[
2
For an incident, oscillating electric eld on an electric dipole the perturba-
tion is given by H

= P
d
E which to rst order gives the Electric Dipole
21
approximation H

eE
0
r. The rate is given by the product of the radial and
angular integrals
e
2
[E
0
[
2

0
R

n
f
l
f
rR
nili
r
2
dr

2
0

0
Y

n
f
l
f
r e
rad
Y
nili
sin () dd
The angular integral evaluates to 0 unless selection rules are obeyed. Since
the parity of Y
nl
is given by (1)
l
the angular integral must have a parity change
between the states this gives the selection rule that L = 1.
Intrinsic Broadening: Electrons in excited states have a nite lifetime gov-
erned by the Einstein coecients such that =
1
A21
, where A
21
is the coecient
for spontaneous decay of an energy level with no incident EM eld. By the HUP
anything with a nite connement in time must also have a nite uncertainty
in energy given by tE thus =
A21
2
. Thus transitions with shorter
lifetimes are broader than comparitvely long lived levels. The actual intensity
prole is given by
I () = I
0
_

2
_
2
(
0
)
2
+
_

2
_
2
In a real atom there are many levels and both the higher and lower levels
are broadend, so the total broadening of the spectral line is given by

21
=
1
2
2
+
1
2
1
Doppler Width: This has a greater broadening eect than the quantum
mechanical eect of the HUP. An eect due to the thermal velocity of the
emitting particles, an emitter approaching an observer with velocity v
x
sees a
shifted wavelength of

0
=

0
=
x
. Using the Boltzman distribution to nd
the number of atoms at a given velocity,P
v
(), the velocity distribution describes
a gaussian about the thermal velocity, and thus the doppler broadening given
by the FWHM of the P
v
() can be shown to be

0
=
2
c
_
2KT ln (2)
m
which can easily be linked to a change in by
d
0
=
d
0
6.2 Hydrogen Atoms
The hydrogenic wavefunctions are valid for hydrogen and, with certain per-
turbations, for other 1 electron system. They can be split up into radial and
angular parts as
tot
= R
nl
(r) Y
l
m
(, ). The 3D radial distribution is given
by

0
4 [
nl
[ dr where
nl
= rR
nl
.For a hydrogen atom the principle quantum
22
number n determines the energy of the unperturbed state. The angular mo-
mentum l is under the constraint that n > l. The spectroscopic notation for a
state of l = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4... is given by s, p, d, f, g... continuing alphabetically as l
gets larger. The projection of l onto the z axis is given by the quantum number
m
l
which can take values under the constraint [m
l
[ < l. For the unperturbed
hydrogenic wavefunction the energy is uniquely determined by n and thus there
is a

i<n
g
s
[2i + 1] degeneracy, where g
s
= 2 for the spin degeneracy. Various
perturbations lift this degeneracy, Spin-orbit interactions to a 2j +1 degeneracy
in m
j
where j is the total angular momentum j = l + s and the Zeeman eect
somewhat lifts this m
j
degeneracy.
6.3 Pertubation Theory
If a small change in the hamiltonian results in a small change in the observed
energies and s perturbation theory can be used. For H
total
= H
0
+H

, where
H

is a small perturbation to the unperturbed hamiltonian H

0
the rst order
change in energy is given by
E
(1)
i
=

u
(0)
i
H

u
(0)
i
d
where u
(0)
i
is the unperturbed eigenfunction of state i and E
total
i
= E
(0)
i
+E
(1)
i
.
The rst order perturbation to the wavefunction is given by
u
(1)
i
=

k=i

u
(0)
k
H

u
(0)
i
d
E
(0)
i
E
(0)
k
u
(0)
k
where u
total
i
= u
(0)
i
+u
(1)
i
.
Relativistic Mass Variation: As the electrons gain momentum their mo-
tion becomes relativistic and the non-relativistic approximation of KE =
P
2
2m
becomes invalid. The rst order correction is given by
H

mv
=
1
8
P
4
m
3
e
c
2
Spin Orbit Interaction: The interaction between the magnetic moment gen-
erated by the electrons intrinsic spin and its motion about the nucleus. The
energy change is given by H

SO
= B, when calculating for an electron under
the inuence of a nuclear potential becomes
H

SO
=
1
m
2
e
c
2
1
r
3
Ze
2
4
0
[L S]
Where l s is found by introducing j as a new quantum number, j =
[l +s[ , l + s 1... [l s[. Since J is a angular momentum generator we know
that J
2
= j (j + 1) so J
2
= [L +S]
2
thus L S =
1
2
_
J
2
L
2
S
2

. The
selection rule between levels is given as J = 0, 1 but not J = 0 0.
23
Stark Eect: In a external electric eld, , the electron orbitals about an
atom will be distorted, this eect can be described by the pertubation H

=
d , so for an electric eld in the zdirection the pertubation is given by
H

= e
z
z
6.4 Zeeman Eect
The Zeeman eect is the observed splitting of electronic levels, lifting the de-
generacy on the magnetic quantum number, in the prescence of an external
magnetic eld. The perturbation is given by the magnetic interaction between
a magnetic moment and the applied B eld. Considering spin the perturbation
becomes H

mag
= B = 2

S B. For a magnetic eld only in the zdirection

we have
E = 2m
s

B
B
z
as a result the degeneracy in m
Sz
is lifted. The electrons orbit also produces
a magnetic moment where the perturbation is given by H

mag
=

B

L B. Again
considering a eld in the z direction
E = m
l

B
B
z
as a result m
lz
is no longer a degenerate quantum number. The total mag-
netic interactions for an electron is thus the addition of these two eects and
the Spin-Orbit interaction. There are two distinct regimes depending on the
strength of the external eld.
Strong External Field: We ignore H
SO
, thus j is not a good quantum
number, as the L and S do not interact, and the Zeeman eect aects the
intrinsic and orbital magnetic moments individually. For a 2p e

which has
l = 1, s =
1
2
, there are 6 states for all possible combinations of m
l
= 1, 0 and
m
s
=
1
2
.
Weak External Field: j is still a good quantum number as E
SO
E
zeeman
,
thus can use m
j
to give the Zeeman shift as E = g
J

B
m
j
B
z
.
6.5 Molecules
For single electron molecules can use LCAO(Linear Combination of Atomic Or-
bitals) to create single electron molecular wavefunctions. By using the hydrogen
wavefunctions can construct two superpositional states for the molecular wave-
functions
24

g
(r, R) =
1

2
[
1s
(r
a
) + (r
b
)] gerade even

u
(r, R) =
1

2
[
1s
(r
a
) (r
b
)] ungerade odd
where r
a
, r
b
are the distances of the electrons from nucleus A, B respectivly.
Where
g
corresponds to a bonding state where the electron has a ninite
probablility of being between the two nuclei,
u
corresponds to an anti-bonding
state where the electron has a low probability of being between the nuclei and
a zero probablility directly at the mid-point between the two. In molecules
= [m
l
[ is an important quantum number where states with = 0, 1, 2, 3 are
labelled , , , states respectivly.
Vibrational Modes: The form of the potential for intermolecular bonds can
be approximated by the morse potential V (x) = D
eq
(1 exp [ax])
2
. Expand-
ing the exponential to rst order gives a SHO potentials. Modelling vibrations
as SHO the energy is given by E
v
=
0
_
v +
1
2
_
, where v is the vibrational
quantum number
v
=
Ev
hc
=
osc
where
osc
=
0
2c
. This is a valid approxi-
mation for heteronuclear molecules.
For a more accdurate model the morse potential gives energies of
v
=

e
_
v +
1
2
_
x
e

e
_
v +
1
2
_
2
. This can be expressed in a similar form to SHO
but with a v depenedant frequency,

v
=
e
_
1 x
e
_
v +
1
2
__ _
v +
1
2
_
The selection rules state v = 1, 2, 3... where 1 is called the fundamental
transition, and higher are called the n
th
overtones. The fundamental transition
is by far the most important. At room temperature heternuclear molecules
undergo IR vibrational transitions, homonuclear molecules do not absorb.
Rotational States: Classically rotational energy is given by E =
L
2
2I
, where
I = R
2
0
. The quantum mechanical operator is thus given by H
rot
=
L
2
2I
, calling
the rotational quantum number J we see H
rot
=

2
J(J+1)
2I
.

J
= BJ (J + 1)
Where B =

2
2hcI
, can use B to nd I and thus R
0
. The selection rule for
these transitions is given by J = 1. Pure rotational spectra are not seen in
homonuclear molecules.
Rotation Coupled Spectra: For a fundamental vibrational transition V =
0 1, =
v

_
B
u
J
u
(J
u
+ 1) B
l
J
l
_
J
l
+ 1
_
. J = J
u
J
l
splits the
total transition into two branches, the P J = 1 and the R J = +1
branch.
25
Rotational transitions also couple to electronic transitions where the selec-
tion rules become J = 0, 1 but not J = 0 0.
7 Electrons in Solids/Solid State Physics
7.1 Free Electron Model
Density of States: The FEA gives a k quantisation condition k
n
=
n
L
so
the size of a k state in d dimesnional space is k =
_

L
_
d
. Find the number
of e

states which can t between k k + dk this gives D(k) dk which can

be changed into the density of states at a given energy by a change of vari-
ables D(k) dk = D(k)
dk
dE
. .
D(E)
dE. This method yields to following results for 1,2,3
dimensional Density of States
D
1d
(E) =
_
8mL
2
h
2
1

E
D
2d
(E) =
4mL
2
h
2
D
3d
(E) =

2
_
8mL
2
h
2
_3
/2

E
Can use these to determine the
f
, The Fermi Energy - the energy of the
highest occupied state/lowest unoccupied state at 0K, and the internal energy
at 0K, U
0
by
N =

f
0
D(E) dE U
0
=

f
0
ED(E) dE
Fermi Wavevector: The wavevector of an free electron with Energy equal
to the Fermi Energy k
f
=

2m
f

Bloch Theorem: The energy states of a 1e

in a periodic potential can be

chosen to have the form of a plane wave modulated by a function with the
periodicity of the lattice.

k
(r) = u
k
(r) exp (ik r)
where u
k
(r) = u
k
(r +R) [
k
(r)[
2
= [ (r +R)[. The probability of the
particle particles position is equally distributed in any cell.
26
Formation of Bands:
The Kronig-Penny model yields a band structure by enforcing boundary
conditions on Bloch electrons in a periodic potential dened by cells of no
potential with delta potentials bounding each cell.
by the LCAO(Linear Combination of Atomic Orbitals) we see that bring-
ing two atoms close to each other results in energy states being split into
two the so called Bonding and Anti-Bonding states, extending this to
N atoms in a solid we can qualitatively see a bands of states forming.
What type of solid depends on the location of the Fermi level relative to this
band structure.
Metal -
f
is in a band - conduction states just above valence states.
S/C -
f
lies in a gap between bands but
gap
is small
Insulator - same as an S/C but
gap
is large
Laue Condition: This is equivalent to the Bragg condition but in k space
G = k

k
where k, k

are the incidient and scattered ks respectvely. P = G

momentum transfered to the lattice.
Brillouin Zones: The locus of all points which obey the Laue condition and
thus can be scattered by the crystal.The n
th
BZ is the locus of all points which
can reach the origin by crossing (n 1) Bragg Planes/BZ surfaces. At BZ
surfaces electrons scatter - cannot travel through the crystal.
Observations of K-P Dispersion:
1. E (k) is discontinuous at ka = n
2. Near k = 0, E = 0 is not allowed
3. At zone boundaries E (k)has zero slope
7.2 Carriers
Electrons and Holes: When electrons are excited across a band gap they
leave behind an empty state, it is valid to model this empty state as a particle
in itself called a hole. A is a not electron and thus has m
h
= m
e
, q
h
= +e.
Particles which exhibit the Bloch wavefunction can be modelled as travelling
through the solid as a free particle but with a modied and k dependant mass,
called the eective mass. From the group velocity
27
v
g
=
d
dk
=
1

dE
dk
F = m

dv
g
dt
=
2
_
d
2
E
dk
2
_
1
. .
m

dv
g
dt
At BZ zone boundaries as E (k) has zero slope m

= , carriers cannot
travel through the crystal with these values of k and are thus scattered into free
states.
Carrier Density: The eective Density of States near the band edges is given
by
N
C/V
= 2
_
m

n/p
k
B
T
2
2
_3
/2
And the carrier density at the band edges is given by
n/p = N
C/V
exp
_

C/V

f

k
B
T
_
(1)
the product np is found to be cosntant for a given
f
np = N
C
N
V
exp
_

g
k
B
T
_
Intrinsic S/C: n
i
= p
i
, np = n
2
i
= p
2
i
Extrinsic S/C: In General the bulk S/C is neutral so n
i
+ N
A
= p
i
+ N
d
.
Therefor for an n-type n = p + N
d
, n p and vice versa for p-type. In an
n-type
f
is closer to
c
and vice versa for p-type.
Temperature Dependence:
Intrinsic region - high T - intrinsic carriers dominate
Saturation region - dopants are fully ionised - device operating tempera-
ture
Freeze-out region - extrinsic carriers frozen back to dopant atoms.
7.3 Semiconductor Transitions
Phonons - Horizontal 50 phonons to a vertical transition of
g
Photons - Vertical 1000 Photons to a horizontal transition of a BZ width
28
Direct Gap Semiconductors:
Vertical transitions possible between CB
min
and V B
max
at 300K
emit light
rapid rise in absorption at
g
Indirect Gap Semiconductors:
Vertical transitions not possible between CB
min
and V B
max
transitions require both photons and phonons to be emitted, so have a
much lower probability
dont emit light
slow rise in absorption at
g
7.4 pn Junctions
When p-type and n-type are brought together, an equilibrium state is found
by comptetion between majority carrier diusion across the junction and an
opposing E which is set up as diusion exposes the charged dopant atoms.
At equilibrium junction has a built in potential V
0
,
f
must also be the same
everywhere at equilibrium.
Depletion Region: Region depleted of carriers around the junction, width
W = x
n0
+ x
p0
which are the respective depleted regions ont he n and p sides.
Charge due to exposed dopant atoms on each side given by
n/p
= qN
d/a
.
This charge creates an electric eld
dE (x)
dx
=
(x)

E
n/p
=
e

N
d
x +E
0
E = 0 at the edge of the depletion region E
0
=
e

N
d
x
n0
=
e

N
a
x
p0
.
Can use the eld to nd the potential by V (x) =

Edx.
Junction Under Bias:
Forward bias V ,
f
split between n and p side by eV , barrier height reduced
to e (V
0
V )
If a forward bias of V = V
0
called at band
Reverse bias V = V
r
,
f
split by eV
r
, barrier height increased to
e (V +V
r
). W increased.
29
Shockley Ideal Diode Equation:
I = I
0
_
exp
_
eV
nk
B
T
_
1
_
where n is the idealty factor which varies between 1 &2. Diode follows this
equation between V = 0 and V = V
0
in forward bias, and in reverse bias. For
V > V
0
the equations is no longer valid, and the diode is said to be in the
breakdown region.
8 Particle And Nuclear Physics
8.1 Matter
Generations: In the standard model there are 3 generations of matter par-
ticles, which leads to 6 quarks and 6 leptons. Particles in dierent generations
have the same charge but greater masses for the higher generations, in all other
ways they are identicle. All matter particles are have S =
1
2
and are thus
fermions.
Antimatter: for every matter particle there is also an antimatter particle
which is indenticle but have opposite charge. The anti matter particle is denoted
with a q. So the anti-electron or positron has +e charge, it can be denoted e
but is often given the symbol e
+
.
Quarks: The two sets are u, c, t which have +
2
3
e charge and d, s, b which
have
1
3
e. Quarks cannot exist alone, they can form into two distinct type of
composite particle collectively called the hadrons. Mesons consist of a q q pair
and baryons a qqq or q q q triplet.
8.2 Nuclear Stability
Liquid Drop Model: Combination of a repulsive part to keep nucleons at a
distance from each other and an attractive force which has a short range. For
nuclear stability we want the highest binding energy. The nucleons on the edge
of the nucleus have less bonds, and thus reduce the binding energy relative to a
deeper within the nucleus.
BE = a
v
Aa
s
A
2
/3
Where A is the nucleon number, and a
v
, a
s
are determined experimentally.
Semi Empirical Mass Formula: The liquid drop reproduces the gross fea-
tures of BE but it has no N, Z dependance and doesnt take QM eects into
account. There are 3 extra terms to include.
30
The Coulomb term is the electric potential energy which would be required
to bring the nucleus together from the point of view of 1 proton - BE =
a
c
z(z1)
A
1
/3
.
The p

s and n

s must t into quantum energy levels, each has its own set of
energy levels, by the PEP they must ll up to higher energies. If there are more
neutrons than protons, for the same A the nucleus would have a higher binding
energy if some of those neutrons were protons thus the asymmetry is given by
BE = a
a
(A2Z)
2
A
, note (A2Z) = (N Z).
Again treating the p

s and n

sseparately, the total binding energy will be

more if theres an even number of particles. By the PEP they pair up in the
same spatial states but with opposing spin states, this results in a large overlap
and thus a larger binding energy. The correction is given by BE =
ap
A
1
/2
where
a
p
> 0 if both N, Z are even, a
p
= 0 is one is even and the other odd, and a
p
< 0
if both are odd.
The total SEMF is given by
BE = a
v
Aa
s
A
2
/3
a
c
z (z 1)
A
1
/3
a
a
(A2Z)
2
A
+a
p
1
A
1
/2
Shell Model: The SEMF is good for smooth trends in BE but some values
of N, Z are found to have particularly high BE, these are called the magic
numbers. For N or Z or both = 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, 126... it is observed that
these nuclei are particularly stable. These magic numbers correspond to a lled
energy level, analogous to the inert properties of the noble gases. The form of
V (r) required to solve the TISE to nd what number corresponds to a lled
level is complicated.
Spin orbit coupling splits the 2j + 1 degeneracy in j = l
1
2
states giving
2l + 2 states for j = l +
1
2
and 2l for j = l
1
2
. These have dierent energies as
BE l s, so for j = l +
1
2
, BE l, and for j = l
1
2
BE = (l + 1).
This predicts the experimentally determined magic numbers.
8.3 Decays
Gamma Decay: Due to EM forces and thus cannot change quark avor, only
for energy level decay from nuclear excited state to ground state.
_
X
N
Z
_

X
N
Z
+n
Beta Decay: As this is due to the weak force quark avor can be changed
and thus there are more possible decays. There are 3 process by which beta
decay can make a nucleus more stable.

: n p +e

+
e

+
: p n +e
+
+
e
EC : p +e

n +
e
31
For odd A there is a single value with the minimum mass (maximum BE),
a given unstable nucleus will decay towards this with

,
+
and EC. If the
change in mass is too small then there are some decays which lower Z which
can only be achieved by EC and not by
+
. For even A then a loss of a p/n
and thus a gain of a n/p will swap between N, Z being odd and even for each
decay thus there are two curves one for even Z and one for odd Z. The lowest
mass isotope on the odd Z curve can have multiple decay paths avaliable to it
by having more than 1 isotope with less mass than it on the even Z curve. N, Z
changes for the decays are

: X
N
Z
X
N1
Z+1
+e

+
e

+
: X
N
Z
X
N+1
Z1
+e
+
+
e
EC : X
N
Z
+e

X
N+1
Z1
+
e
Alpha Decay: The emisson of a alpha particle from the nucleus to increase
stability. To be possible m
nuc
> m

this is at about A 150, for a decent

m require A > 200. As A = 4 likely to be a decay chain until stability, as
A decreases ratio of
N
Z
1 for stability so decay chains often also include

emission. Consider the alpha particle as a separate entity within the nucleus and
form a potential out of the coulomb repulsion and the Saxon-Woods residual
strong force attraction. The particle has to tunnel through this potential to
escape the nucleus, we can derive a formula which gives good agreement with
data as to decay times. N, Z changes for the decay are
X
N
Z
X
N2
Z2
+
8.4 Nuclear Reactions
Fission: For a ssion reaction to be possible it is required that Q = BE
products

BE
reactant
> 0. Q can be calculated from the SEMF. From the SEMF we see
that for ssion to be possible
Z
2
A
> 0.7
as
ac
18. During a ssion reaction the
nucleus will deform to eject the products, this deformation changes the BE so
for a nucleus to undergo spontaneous ssion the deformation must increase the
BE. Changing from a sphere to an ellipsoid decreases the binding energy as-
sociated with the surface tension and increases the Coulomb term. It can be
derived that for a nucleus to undergo spontaneous ssion
Z
2
A
>
2as
ac
51. Nuclei
for which this is true are very unstable and decay with the speed of a strong
force interaction, nuclei with 51 >
Z
2
A
> 18, ssion is possible but the nucleus
must be given energy. This can be given by s but the cross section for these
reactions is very small, it can also be done by injecting extra nucleons. Neutrons
are the most suited as there is no Coulomb barrier for them to overcome.
Chain Reactions: Fission reactions often produce extra ns, these can be
absorbed by other nuclei to speed up their ssion reactions. the parameter m
32
is used to characterise a possible chain reaction, m is the average number of
neutrons produced per reactions taking into account unwanted reactions and
neutrons escaping the reactive material without interacting. for m > 1 the total
reaction rate will increase - super-critical, m = 1 the reaction rate will stay
constant - critical, m < 0 the reaction rate will decrease - sub-critical.
Fusion: Similar to decay in reverse, for reactions bar addition of a neutron,
reactants both have a net positive charge and thus there is a Coulomb barrier to
overcome. This barrier can be overcome either by tunnelling or by the reactants
having enough KE to overcome the potential. The product is a single nucleus
in an excited state, this decays to the product we see from a fusion reaction.
The energy release associated with the change in binding energy is carrier away
by the products or s.
9 Probability And Statistics
9.1 Properties of distributions
Normalisation: A distribution is normalised if

i
P
i
= 1 for discrete P
i
or

p (x) dx = 1 for continuous p (x).

Expectation Value: For a function on x, f (x) the expectation value of that
function under a distribution P
i
is given by f (x) =

i
f (x
i
) P
i
for the discrete
case and f (x) =

f (x) p (x) dx. Thus the mean x =

i
x
i
P
i
[

xp (x) dx.
Variance: var x =
_
(x )
2
_
=

x
2
_
x
2
, the standard deviation =

var x
Central Limit Theorem: For a large N, the sum X =

N
j=1
x
j
is normally
distributed with X = N x and var X = N var x.
9.2 Binomial Distribution
P (r[N, P) =
N!
r! (N r)!
P
r
(1 P)
Nr
Expectation Value
E (x) =
n

x=0
xP (x) =
n

x=1
x
n!
x! (n x)!
P
x
(1 P)
nx
=nP
n

x=1
x
(n 1)!
(x 1)! [(n 1) (x 1)]!
P
x1
(1 P)
(n1)(x1)
By the normalisation of the binomial distribution
33
=nP
n

x=0
n!
x! (n x)!
P
x
(1 P)
nx
E (x) =nP
Variance

2
= E
_
x
2
_
E (x)
2
= E (x(x 1) +x) E (x)
2
By eectively carrying out the process above twice we arrive at
=nP
n

x=0
n!
x! (n x)!
P
x
(1 P)
nx
E (x) =nP
E (x(x 1)) =
n

x=0
x(x 1) P (n) = n(n 1)

2
=n(n 1) P
2
+nP (nP)
2

2
=nP (1 P)
9.3 Poisson Distribution
P (n) =
(t)
n
n!
e
t
Expectation Value
x
d
dx
e
x
= xe
x
=

k
k
x
k
k!
E (n) =

n=0
n

n
n!
e

= e

E (n) =
Variance
34
x
2
d
dx
e
x
=x
2
e
x
=

k
k (k 1)
x
k
k!

k
k
2
x
k
k!
=x
2
e
x
+xe
x
E
_
n
2
_
=

n=0
n
2

n
n!
e

=
2
+

2
=
9.4 Gaussian Distribution
G(x) =
1

2
exp
_

1
2
_
x x

_
2
_
Expectation Value
Standard Integral
E (G(x)) =

xe
a(xb)
2
dx = b
_

a
=

x
1

2
exp
_

1
2
_
x x

_
2
_
dx =
1

2
x

2
2
= x
Variance
V ar (G(x)) =
2
Multiplication of Gaussian
G

(x) =
N

i=1
G(x) =
N

i=1
1

2
exp
_

1
2
(x x
i
)
2

2
_
=G
0
exp
_

1
2
N

i=0
(x x
i
)
2

2
_
= G
0
exp
_

1
2
2
_
Nx
2
2
N

i=0
x x
i
+
N

i=0
x
2
i
__
=G
0
exp
_

N
2
2
_
x
2
2x x +
1
N
N

i=0
x
2
i
__
Taking

x = N x as the mean of the separate gaussian parameters and absorb-
ing everything not x dependent into the constant
35
G

(x) = G
0
exp
_

1
2
(x x)
2

2
/N
_
The standard deviation of this new Gaussian is =

N
.
9.5 Propagation of Errors
If we have a function, y (x), where we know x = x+
x
, what is error on y ? By
taylor expanding,
E (y) =E
_
y ( x) +
y
x

x= x
(x x)
_
= y ( x) +
y
x

x= x
E (x x) = y ( x)
V ar (y) =E
_
[y (x) E (y (x))]
2
_
= E
_
_
y
x

x= x
(x x)
_
2
_

2
y

_
y
x

x= x
_
2
E
_
[x x]
2
_
=
_
y
x

x= x
_
2

2
x
In general
x =x
1
, x
2
...x
n
, y (x)

2
y
=

2
xi
_
y
x
i

x= x
_
2
Linear
y =ax
1
+bx
2

y
=
_

2
x1
+
2
x2
Product, Ratio
y =x
1
x
2
y =
x
1
x
2

y
y
=

2
x1
x
2
1
+

2
x2
x
2
2
36