FundamentalsofMultimedia,Chapter7

7.1 Introduction
Iran University of Science and Technology, Computer Engineering Department,

Chapter 7 Lossless Compression Algorithms

7.1 Introduction 7.2 Basics of Information Theory 7.3 Run-Length Coding 7.4 Variable-Length Coding (VLC) 7.5 Dictionary-based Coding 7.6 Arithmetic Coding 7.7 Lossless Image Compression

Fall 2008 (1387)

Compression: the process of coding that will effectively reduce the total number of bits needed to represent certain information.

w w.jntuworld.com

Fig. 7.1: A General Data Compression Scheme.

Multimedia Systems (eadeli@iust.ac.ir)

FundamentalsofMultimedia,Chapter7

FundamentalsofMultimedia,Chapter7

Introduction (contd)
If the compression and decompression processes induce no information loss, then the compression scheme is lossless; otherwise, it is lossy. Compression ratio:
compression ratio = 0B B1

7.2 Basics of Information Theory

The entropy of an information source with alphabet S = {s1, s2, . . . , sn} is:

= H (S ) =

p log
n i i =1 n i =1

1 pi

(7.2) (7.3)

(7.1)

= pi log 2 pi pi probability that symbol si will occur in S.

B0 number of bits before compression B1 number of bits after compression

Multimedia Systems (eadeli@iust.ac.ir) 3

log 1 indicates the amount of information ( self2 pi information as defined by Shannon) contained in si, which corresponds to the number of bits needed to encode si.
Multimedia Systems (eadeli@iust.ac.ir)

FundamentalsofMultimedia,Chapter7

FundamentalsofMultimedia,Chapter7

Distribution of Gray-Level Intensities

Entropy and Code Length

As can be seen in Eq. (7.3): the entropy is a weighted-sum of terms log 2 pi ; hence it represents the average amount of

Fig. 7.2 Histograms for Two Gray-level Images. Fig. 7.2(a) shows the histogram of an image with uniform distribution of gray-level intensities, i.e.,i pi = 1/256. Hence, the entropy of this image is: log2256 = 8 (7.4)

The entropy specifies the lower bound for the average number of bits to code each symbol in S, i.e.,

(7.5)

Fig. 7.2(b) shows the histogram of an image with two possible values. Its entropy is 0.92.
Multimedia Systems (eadeli@iust.ac.ir)

l - the average length (measured in bits) of the codewords produced by the encoder.

Multimedia Systems (eadeli@iust.ac.ir)

FundamentalsofMultimedia,Chapter7

FundamentalsofMultimedia,Chapter7

7.3 Run-Length Coding

Memoryless Source: an information source that is independently distributed. Namely, the value of the current symbol does not depend on the values of the previously appeared symbols. Instead of assuming memoryless source, Run-Length Coding (RLC) exploits memory present in the information source. Rationale for RLC: if the information source has the property that symbols tend to form continuous groups, then such symbol and the length of the group can be coded.

7.4 Variable-Length Coding (VLC)

Shannon-Fano Algorithm a top-down approach 1. Sort the symbols according to the frequency count of their occurrences. 2. Recursively divide the symbols into two parts, each with approximately the same number of counts, until all parts contain only one symbol. An Example: coding of HELLO
SymbolHE

Count

Frequency count of the symbols in HELLO.

Multimedia Systems (eadeli@iust.ac.ir) Multimedia Systems (eadeli@iust.ac.ir)

information contained per symbol in the source S.

w w.jntuworld.com

FundamentalsofMultimedia,Chapter7

FundamentalsofMultimedia,Chapter7

Table 7.1: Result of Performing Shannon-Fano on HELLO

Symbol L H E O Count 2 1 1 1 1 Log2 pi 1.32 2.32 2.32 2.32 Code 0 10 110 111 TOTAL#ofbits: #ofbitsused 1 2 3 3 10

w w.jntuworld.com

Fig. 7.3: Coding Tree for HELLO by Shannon-Fano.

9 Multimedia Systems (eadeli@iust.ac.ir) 10 Multimedia Systems (eadeli@iust.ac.ir)

FundamentalsofMultimedia,Chapter7

FundamentalsofMultimedia,Chapter7

Table 7.2: Another Result of Performing Shannon-Fano on HELLO (see Fig. 7.4)
Symbol L H E O Count 2 1 1 1 Log2 1 pi 1.32 2.32 2.32 2.32 Code 00 01 10 11 TOTAL#ofbits: #ofbitsused 4 2 2 2 10

Fig. 7.4 Another coding tree for HELLO by ShannonFano.

11

Multimedia Systems (eadeli@iust.ac.ir)

12

Multimedia Systems (eadeli@iust.ac.ir)

FundamentalsofMultimedia,Chapter7

FundamentalsofMultimedia,Chapter7

Huffman Coding
ALGORITHM 7.1 Huffman Coding Algorithm a bottom-up approach 1. Initialization: Put all symbols on a list sorted according to their frequency counts. 2. Repeat until the list has only one symbol left:
(1) From the list pick two symbols with the lowest frequency counts. Form a Huffman subtree that has these two symbols as child nodes and create a parent node. (2) Assign the sum of the childrens frequency counts to the parent and insert it into the list such that the order is maintained. (3) Delete the children from the list.

w w.jntuworld.com

3. Assign a codeword for each leaf based on the path from the root.

Fig. 7.5: Coding Tree for HELLO using the Huffman Algorithm.

13

Multimedia Systems (eadeli@iust.ac.ir)

14

Multimedia Systems (eadeli@iust.ac.ir)

FundamentalsofMultimedia,Chapter7

FundamentalsofMultimedia,Chapter7

Huffman Coding (contd)

In Fig. 7.5, new symbols P1, P2, P3 are created to refer to the parent nodes in the Huffman coding tree. The contents in the list are illustrated below:
After initialization: After iteration (a): After iteration (b): After iteration (c): L L L P3
15 Multimedia Systems (eadeli@iust.ac.ir)

Properties of Huffman Coding

1. Unique Prefix Property: No Huffman code is a prefix of any other Huffman code - precludes any ambiguity in decoding. 2. Optimality: minimum redundancy code - proved optimal for a given data model (i.e., a given, accurate, probability distribution):
The two least frequent symbols will have the same length for their Huffman codes, differing only at the last bit. Symbols that occur more frequently will have shorter Huffman codes than symbols that occur less frequently. The average code length for an information source S is strictly less than + 1. Combined with Eq. (7.5), we have:

H P1 P2

E H

l<+1
16

-63(7.6)
Multimedia Systems (eadeli@iust.ac.ir)

FundamentalsofMultimedia,Chapter7

FundamentalsofMultimedia,Chapter7

Extended Huffman Coding

Motivation: All codewords in Huffman coding have integer bit lengths. It is wasteful when pi is very large and hence 2 pi close to 0.
log 1

Extended Huffman Coding (contd)

is

It can be proven that the average # of bits for each symbol is:
l<+1 k

w w.jntuworld.com
(7.7)

Why not group several symbols together and assign a single codeword to the group as a whole? Extended Alphabet: For alphabet S = {s1, s2, . . . , sn}, if k symbols are grouped together, then the extended alphabet is:
k symbols ) {s1s1 S ( k=

An improvement over the original Huffman coding, but not much. Problem: If k is relatively large (e.g., k 3), then for most practical applications where n 1, nk implies a huge symbol table impractical.
18 Multimedia Systems (eadeli@iust.ac.ir)

s1 , s1s1 s2 , , s1s1 sn , s1s1 s2 s1, , sn sn sn}.

the size of the new alphabet S(k) is nk.

17

Multimedia Systems (eadeli@iust.ac.ir)

FundamentalsofMultimedia,Chapter7

FundamentalsofMultimedia,Chapter7

Adaptive Huffman Coding

Adaptive Huffman Coding: statistics are gathered and updated dynamically as the data stream arrives.
ENCODER ------Initial_code(); while not EOF { get(c); encode(c); update_tree(c); DECODER ------Initial_code(); while not EOF { decode(c); output(c); update_tree(c);

Adaptive Huffman Coding (Contd)

Initial_code assigns symbols with some initially agreed upon codes, without any prior knowledge of the frequency counts. update_tree constructs an Adaptive Huffman tree. It basically does two things: (a) increments the frequency counts for the symbols (including any new ones). (b) updates the configuration of the tree. The encoder and decoder must use exactly the same initial_code and update_tree routines.

19

Multimedia Systems (eadeli@iust.ac.ir)

Multimedia Systems (eadeli@iust.ac.ir) 20

FundamentalsofMultimedia,Chapter7

FundamentalsofMultimedia,Chapter7

Notes on Adaptive Huffman Tree Updating

Nodes are numbered in order from left to right, bottom to top. The numbers in parentheses indicates the count. The tree must always maintain its sibling property, i.e., all nodes (internal and leaf) are arranged in the order of increasing counts. If the sibling property is about to be violated, a swap procedure is invoked to update the tree by rearranging the nodes. When a swap is necessary, the farthest node with count N is swapped with the node whose count has just been increased to N +1 +1. Fig. 7.6: Node Swapping for Updating an Adaptive Huffman Tree

w w.jntuworld.com

21

Multimedia Systems (eadeli@iust.ac.ir)

22

Multimedia Systems (eadeli@iust.ac.ir)

FundamentalsofMultimedia,Chapter7

FundamentalsofMultimedia,Chapter7

Another Example: Adaptive Huffman Coding

This is to clearly illustrate more implementation details. We show exactly what bits are sent, as opposed to simply stating how the tree is updated. An additional rule: if any character/symbol is to be sent the first time, it must be preceded by a special symbol, NEW. The initial code for NEW is 0. The count for NEW is always kept as 0 (the count is never increased); hence it is always denoted as NEW:(0) in Fig. 7.7.
23 Multimedia Systems (eadeli@iust.ac.ir)

Table 7.3: Initial code assignment for AADCCDD using adaptive Huffman coding.
InitialCode --------------------NEW:0 A:00001 B:00010 C: 00011 D: 00100 .. .. ..

Multimedia Systems (eadeli@iust.ac.ir) 24

FundamentalsofMultimedia,Chapter7

FundamentalsofMultimedia,Chapter7

w w.jntuworld.com

Fig. 7.7 Adaptive Huffman tree for AADCCDD.

25 Multimedia Systems (eadeli@iust.ac.ir)

Fig. 7.7 (contd) Adaptive Huffman tree for AADCCDD.

26 Multimedia Systems (eadeli@iust.ac.ir)

FundamentalsofMultimedia,Chapter7

FundamentalsofMultimedia,Chapter7

Table 7.4 Sequence of symbols and codes sent to the decoder

SymbolNEWAANEWDNEWCCDD Code00000110001000000011001101101

7.5 Dictionary-based Coding

LZW uses fixed-length codewords to represent variablelength strings of symbols/characters that commonly occur together, e.g., words in English text. the LZW encoder and decoder build up the same dictionary dynamically while receiving the data. LZW places longer and longer repeated entries into a dictionary, and then emits the code for an element, rather than the string itself, if the element has already been placed in the dictionary.
28 Multimedia Systems (eadeli@iust.ac.ir)

It is important to emphasize that the code for a particular symbol changes during the adaptive Huffman coding process. For example, after AADCCDD, when the character D overtakes A as the most frequent symbol, its code changes from 101 to 0.
27 Multimedia Systems (eadeli@iust.ac.ir)

FundamentalsofMultimedia,Chapter7

FundamentalsofMultimedia,Chapter7

ALGORITHM 7.2 - LZW Compression

BEGIN s = next input character; while not EOF { c = next input character; if s + c exists in the dictionary s = s + c; else { output the code for s; add string s + c to the dictionary with a new code; s = c; } } output the code for s;

Example 72 LZW compression for string ABABBABCABABBA Lets start with a very simple dictionary (also referred to as a string table), initially containing only 3 characters, with codes as follows:
Code 1 2 3 String A B C

Now if the input string is ABABBABCABABBA, the LZW compression algorithm works as follows:
Multimedia Systems (eadeli@iust.ac.ir) Multimedia Systems (eadeli@iust.ac.ir)

FundamentalsofMultimedia,Chapter7 S C Output Code 1 2 3 A B A AB B BA B C A B A B B A B C A B 1 2 4 5 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 String A B C AB BA ABB BAB BC CA

FundamentalsofMultimedia,Chapter7

ALGORITHM 7.3 LZW Decompression (simple version)

BEGIN s = NIL; while not EOF { k = next input code; entry = dictionary entry for k; output entry; if (s != NIL) add string s + entry[0] to dictionary with a new code; s = entry; }

AB

10

ABA

END

AB ABB A

B A EOF

6 1

11

ABBA

Example 7.3: LZW decompression for string ABABBABCABABBA. Input codes to the decoder are 1 2 4 5 2 3 4 6 1. The initial string table is identical to what is used by the encoder.

 The output codes are: 1 2 4 5 2 3 4 6 1. Instead of sending 14 characters, only 9 codes need to be sent (compression ratio = 14/9 = 1.56).
Multimedia Systems (eadeli@iust.ac.ir)

7.2

Multimedia Systems (eadeli@iust.ac.ir)

w w.jntuworld.com

END

29

30

31

32

FundamentalsofMultimedia,Chapter7

FundamentalsofMultimedia,Chapter7

TheLZWdecompressionalgorithmthenworksasfollows:
S K Entry/output Code 1 2 3 NIL A B AB BA 1 2 4 5 2 A B AB BA B 4 5 6 7 String A B C AB BA ABB BAB

ALGORITHM 7.4 LZW Decompression (modified)

BEGIN
s = NIL; while not EOF { k = next input code; entry = dictionary entry for k; /* exception handler */ if (entry == NULL) entry = s + s[0];

B C AB ABB A

3 4 6 1 EOF

C AB ABB A

8 9 10 11

BC CA ABA ABBA }

output entry; if (s != NIL) add string s + entry[0] to dictionary with a new code; s = entry;

END Apparently, the output string is ABABBABCABABBA, a truly lossless result!

Multimedia Systems (eadeli@iust.ac.ir)

Multimedia Systems (eadeli@iust.ac.ir)

w w.jntuworld.com
FundamentalsofMultimedia,Chapter7 FundamentalsofMultimedia,Chapter7

LZW Coding (contd)

In real applications, the code length l is kept in the range of [l0, lmax]. The dictionary initially has a size of 2l0. When it is filled up, the code length will be increased by 1; this is allowed to repeat until l = lmax.
33

7.6 Arithmetic Coding

Arithmetic coding is a more modern coding method that usually out-performs Huffman coding. Huffman coding assigns each symbol a codeword which has an integral bit length. Arithmetic coding can treat the whole message as one unit. A message is represented by a34half-open interval [a, b) where a and b are real numbers between 0 and 1. Initially, the interval is [0, 1). When the message becomes longer, the length of the interval shortens and the number of bits needed to represent the interval increases.
Multimedia Systems (eadeli@iust.ac.ir)

When lmax is reached and the dictionary is filled up, it needs to be flushed (as in Unix compress, or to have the LRU (least recently used) entries removed.
Multimedia Systems (eadeli@iust.ac.ir)

35

36

FundamentalsofMultimedia,Chapter7

FundamentalsofMultimedia,Chapter7

ALGORITHM 7.5 Arithmetic Coding Encoder

BEGIN
low = 0.0; high = 1.0; range = 1.0;

Example: Encoding in Arithmetic Coding

Symbol B Probability 0.2 0.1 0.2 D 0.05 03 0.05 G 0.1 Range [0,0.2) [0.2,0.3) [0.3,0.5) [0.5,0.55) [0.55,0.85) [0.85,0.9) [0.9,1.0)

while (symbol != terminator) { get (symbol); low = low + range * Range_low(symbol); high = low + range * Range_high(symbol); range = high - low;

(a) Probability distribution of symbols.

output a code so that low <= code < high;

Fig. 7.8: Arithmetic Coding: Encode Symbols CAEE$

Multimedia Systems (eadeli@iust.ac.ir) Multimedia Systems (eadeli@iust.ac.ir)

FundamentalsofMultimedia,Chapter7

FundamentalsofMultimedia,Chapter7

Example: Encoding in Arithmetic Coding

Symbol C A

Low 0 0.3 0.30 0.322 0.3286

High 1.0 0.5 0.34 0.334 0.3322

Range 1.0 0.2 0.04 0.012 0.0036

0.33184 0.33220 0.00036

(c) New low, high, and range generated.

Fig. 7.8(b) Graphical display of shrinking ranges.
Multimedia Systems (eadeli@iust.ac.ir)

Fig. 7.8 (contd): Arithmetic Coding: Encode Symbols CAEE$

A C E F 0.3
Multimedia Systems (eadeli@iust.ac.ir)

w w.jntuworld.com

END
37 38

E E $

39

40

FundamentalsofMultimedia,Chapter7

FundamentalsofMultimedia,Chapter7

PROCEDURE 7.2 Generating Codeword for Encoder

BEGIN
code = 0; k = 1; while (value(code) < low) { assign 1 to the kth binary fraction bit if (value(code) > high) replace the kth bit by 0 k = k + 1;

ALGORITHM 7.6 Arithmetic Coding Decoder

BEGIN
get binary code and convert to decimal value = value(code); { find a symbol s so that Range_low(s) <= value < Range_high(s); output s; low = Rang_low(s); high = Range_high(s); range = high - low; value = [value - low] / range; } Until symbol s is a terminator

END The final step in Arithmetic encoding calls for the generation of a number that falls within the range [low, high). The above algorithm will ensure that the shortest binary codeword is found.
Multimedia Systems (eadeli@iust.ac.ir)

END

Multimedia Systems (eadeli@iust.ac.ir)

FundamentalsofMultimedia,Chapter7

FundamentalsofMultimedia,Chapter7

Table 7.5 Arithmetic coding: decode symbols CAEE$

7.7 Lossless Image Compression

Approaches of Differential Coding of Images:
Given an original image I(x, y), using a simple difference operator we can define a difference image d(x, y) as follows: d(x, y) = I(x, y) I(x 1, y) (7.9) or use the discrete version of the 2-D Laplacian operator to define a difference image d(x, y) as d(x, y) = 4 I(x, y) I(x, y 1) I(x, y +1) I(x+1, y) I(x 1, y) (7.10)

Value 0.33203125 0.16015625 0.80078125 0.8359375 0.953125

Output Symbol C A

Low 0.3 0.0 0.55 0.55 0.9

High 0.5 0.2 0.85 0.85 1.0

Range 0.2 0.2 03 0.3 0.1

 Due to spatial redundancy existed in normal images I, the difference image d will have a narrower histogram and hence a smaller entropy, as shown in Fig. 7.9.
Multimedia Systems (eadeli@iust.ac.ir) Multimedia Systems (eadeli@iust.ac.ir)

Do

w w.jntuworld.com

41

42

E E $

0.3

43

44

FundamentalsofMultimedia,Chapter7

FundamentalsofMultimedia,Chapter7

Lossless JPEG
Lossless JPEG: A special case of the JPEG image compression. The Predictive method 1. Forming a differential prediction: A predictor combines the values of up to three neighboring pixels as the predicted value for the current pixel, indicated by X in Fig. 7.10. The predictor can use any one of the seven schemes listed in Table 7.6.
Fig. 7.9: Distributions for Original versus Derivative Images. (a,b): Original gray-level image and its partial derivative image; (c,d): Histograms for original and derivative images. (This figure uses a commonly employed image called Barb.)
45 Multimedia Systems (eadeli@iust.ac.ir) 46 Multimedia Systems (eadeli@iust.ac.ir)

w w.jntuworld.com

2. Encoding: The encoder compares the prediction with the actual pixel value at the position X and encodes the difference using one of the lossless compression techniques we have discussed, e.g., the Huffman coding scheme.

FundamentalsofMultimedia,Chapter7

FundamentalsofMultimedia,Chapter7

Table 7.6: Predictors for Lossless JPEG

Predictor P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 Prediction A B C A+BC A+(BC)/2 B+(AC)/2 (A+B)/2

Fig. 7.10: Neighboring Pixels for Predictors in Lossless JPEG. Note: Any of A, B, or C has already been decoded before it is used in the predictor, on the decoder side of an encode-decode cycle.
Multimedia Systems (eadeli@iust.ac.ir) Multimedia Systems (eadeli@iust.ac.ir)

47

48

FundamentalsofMultimedia,Chapter7

FundamentalsofMultimedia,Chapter7

Table 7.7: Comparison with other lossless compression programs

CompressionProgra m LosslessJPEG OptimalLosslessJPEG Compress(LZW) Gzip(LZ77) Gzip-9(optimalLZ77) Pack(Huffmancoding) CompressionR atio F-18 LenaFootball 1.45 1.54 2.29 1.49 0.86 1.08 1.08 1.02 1.67 1.24 1.36 1.36 1.12 2.71 2.21 3.10 3.13 1.19

7.8 Further Exploration

Text books: The Data Compression Book by M. Nelson Introduction to Data Compression by K. Sayood Web sites: Link to Further Exploration for Chapter 7 including: An excellent resource for data compression compiled by Mark Nelson. The Theory of Data Compression webpage. The FAQ for the comp.compression and comp.compression.research groups. A set of applets for lossless compression. A good introduction to Arithmetic coding Grayscale test images f-18.bmp, flowers.bmp, football.bmp, lena.bmp

Flowers 1.26 1.33 0.87 1.05 1.05 1.00

w w.jntuworld.com

49

Multimedia Systems (eadeli@iust.ac.ir)

50

Multimedia Systems (eadeli@iust.ac.ir)