On the Origin of the 60 Base and the 21600’ of a Circle

K. Chandra Hari1
Abstract

Present paper is an attempt to understand the origin of the sexagesimal number system
regarded as an enigma by modern historians of Mathematics. A review is presented of the
various explanations existing along with discussion as to what has prevented a consensus
in the matter. As a better and more convincing theory it is proposed that the sexagesimal
system arose out of the practice of counting breaths employed to keep a measure of time.
It is suggested that the time structure apparent in breathing led the ancient sages to
conceive the sexagesimal system and the ecliptic accordingly got divided into 21600, the
number of breaths in a day. Attestation to the above is shown as available in
Sūryasiddhānta and Āryabhatīya which describe the diurnal rotation of Earth in terms of
21600 Prana.
Sexagesimal notation also facilitated the fixing of precession effect in terms of the mystic
numbers as 50/60 minute in a year and with the aid of astronomical observations various
solar year lengths and the length of lunation could be calculated precisely. It is likely that
the accuracy of Babylonian time keeping and astronomical observations arose out of their
measurement of time in terms of the number of breaths.
Key Words:
Sexagesimal system, Number, 21600, Breath, Babylonian, Sumerian, Sūryasiddhānta,
Āryabhatīy, Prāna, Yoga, Precession

Introduction

The phenomenal basis of the ancient world conceptions underlying astronomy and
mathematics had been a topic of interest to modern society and much headway could be
made in this direction by researchers during the last 200 years. Babylonian, Greek and the
Indian theatres of ancient wisdom had been under detailed examination by both western
and indigenous scholars to understand the origin and evolution of the basic conceptions
we have inherited through the knowledge corpus of astronomy and mathematics. To spell
out a marvelous few with which we are accustomed –
1. Decimal Number System
2. Sexagesimal Number System
3. Division of the Circle into 60 based units like 360 and 21600’
4. Division of the Day into 24 hours and also into 60 based Units
5. Weekdays numbering seven

1
Superintending Geophysicist (Wells), IRS, ONGC, Ahmedabad-5
1
All these conceptions can be traced to mathematical cuneiform texts of the Old
Babylonian period viz. 1900 – 1650 BCE and in later times in the Greek and Indian texts
of Astronomy. Most important of the above are the sexagesimal base and the associated
divisions of time (Earth’s rotation) and Ecliptic into 60 based Units which have defied the
comprehension of the modern minds. In the history of Mathematics, the sexagesimal
number system is ascribed to Sumerians but the reasons which led to such a choice
remain an enigma to date.
Review of the Explanations1
1. Divisors of 60 and the resultant ease in arithmetical applications
Theon of Alexandria (AD400), J.Wallis (AD 1700) and E. Lofler (AD 1910) have been
proponents of this thesis at different epochs of history. This explanation demanded
recognition of 60 as the lowest number having maximum divisors and the set of first six
integers among the divisors contributed to ease in application. 60 has altogether 12
subdivisors: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 10, 12, 15, 20, 30, 60 but we do not find the use of 60 in the
area of weights and measures where the role of divisors is more significant. We see the
use of 12 as a base for weights and measures frequently because of the divisors 1, 2, 3, 4,
6 and 12. Further, we need to keep in mind that the weights and measures of which
records came to exist in ancient society may have been the output of a number system
already in vogue.
2. Derivation from the count of 360 days

Formaleoni in 1788 and M. Cantor in 1880 forwarded the explanation that the count of
360 days had been the natural cause of division of the circle into 360 degrees and the
division of a circle into sextants having chords equal to radius led to the choice of 60 as a
unit of reckoning.
This explanation is far too theoretical and scholarly given the fact that the normal
development of a number system like the counting process has to be from lower to higher
units. So it is quite unlikely that the smaller unit of 60 evolved out of the larger count of
360 days which for Babylonians might have been fictitious as they knew the year to be
more than 360 days. For Babylonians the number of days in a year to be taken as 360
demanded alternate significance for 360.
In recent times astronomical explanations have been constructed based on the return of
Jupiter and Saturn which takes a period of 60 years to explain the origin of the
sexagesimal system vis-a-vis the significance of base 60. It is quite unlikely that the
Babylonians sat down to deliberate as with modern times under the banner of a
committee and they choose the 60 based on the astronomical records of hundreds of
years. If we accept that the decimal system arose out of the fingers on hands and the
primitive counting it is likely that the base 60 too had its origin from a quite famiiar daiy
experience than the experience of heavens over hundreds of years. In fact without a
number system and significance to numbers like 60 the experience of the heavens would
not have received much attention to the early astronomers. Correspondence that cosmic

2
bodies stuck with numbers may have been one of the first experience of mystery and
mystic correspondence that the Sumerians had.
3. Origin of base 60 from systems of weights and measures
O. Neugebauer proposed that the decimal number system when combined with the
demands of fractions like ½ and 1/3 in weights and measures led to the derivation of a
new system based on 60. Thesis did not gain recognition as the base 60 is found only in
Sumer even though the weights and measures factor had been universal. Convenient
expression of fractions in the sexagesimal notation is illustrated below in table.
1/2 = 0;30 1/15 = 0;4
1/3 = 0;20 1/16 = 0;3,45
1/4 = 0;15 1/18 = 0;3,20
1/5 = 0;12 1/20 = 0;3
1/6 = 0;10 1/30 = 0;2
1/8 = 0;7,30 1/40 = 0;1,30
1/9 = 0;6,40 1/50 = 0;1,12
1/10 = 0;6 1/1:00 = 0;1
1/12 = 0;5
Even though the convenient use of 60 in expressing fractions is unique it is unlikely that
Sumerians made 60 as the base with a table of the above kind in their thinking.
Possibility of base 12 given the shadows we see of duodecimal units like 12 and 24 hours
that we see in cuneiform records makes the above proposition untenable.
4. From 30 to 60 and Geometrical Considerations
E. Hope explained that normally 30 would have met the needs but the Sumerians chose
60 as it was divisible also by 4. He also claimed that if the sextant of a circle was
configured in terms of 10 ‘degrees’ as per the decimal system, the circle had to be 60 and
thus the choice of 60.
This explanation for the base 60 needs the base of 10 for survival and is thus not
complete in itself and also assumes much geometry and abstraction in the development.
5. Fusion of two counting systems and civilizations
G. Kewitsch (AD1904) suggested the fusion of a 10-based and 6-based counting as a
result of the fusion of two civilizations. But the theory could not receive acceptance as a
6-based counting is not known anywhere in the world. Scholars have also pointed out the
possible origin from a 12-based duodecimal system or from religious and mystic
significance of the number 60.
Origin of the decimal system from finger counting has inspired scholars to forward an
explanation involving the count of phalanges on fingers which could have resulted in a
count of 60 with some unique practice.

3
 6. Mystical significance of numbers
It is well attested that numbers played an important role in the Mesopotamian
conceptions of the structure of the Universe. In many respects the Sumerian conceptions
of 2nd Millennium BC meets a parallel in the later Indian notions of time and cosmos. To
cite a few:2
(a) Šaros = 3600 represented the Cosmos and one complete rotation of Earth on its
axis. We can see the Indian time notion of the division of a day into 60 Ghatis and
3600 Vighatis as reflective of the Mesopotamian notion.
(b) Mesopotamin conceptions of Ki-Šar and An-Šar, the lower and upper worlds or
microcosm and macrocosm have their parallel in the Indian notions of Pindāndam
and Brahmāndam. Number 60 (Geš) and 1/360 of a circle, both have the same
name in Mesopotamian terminology and the symbol of Geš is Phallus and the sign
also represented Man and the masculine upper world while number 50 represented
Earth or the feminine lower world. We can see corresponding speculations in
Tantra where Siva and Sakti signify the mating upper and lower worlds from
which the Gods are born. Number 60 is therefore credited to the supreme God
‘Anu’ and so its acceptance as the base for the number system.
Most of these explanations are theoretical and presupposes geometry, world, and mystic
etc conceptions before the adoption of 60 as the base of the number system. As for
example nothing prevented the Babylonians from crediting 60 to God ‘Anu’ as 60 was
important as the base of the number system. This proposition is more plausible than 60
having mystical significance and association with Anu before the origin of the
sexagesimal system. It is widely accepted that our efforts to understand the past is prone
to the danger of imposing the present on the past and thus utmost caution is called for in
the efforts to understand and interpret the ancient conceptions.
60-base Notions in Indian Astronomy
In explaining the Mesopotamian origin of the sexagesimal system, we can find some
quite valuable information preserved in Indian astronomical texts like Sūryasiddhānta3
and Āryabhatīya 4 which have been dated to 5th century AD. Indian borrowing from
Mesopotamian astronomy had been the subject of serious researches in history of
astronomy and stands universally accepted. Against such background of a Mesopotamian
legacy of the Indian astronomical notions, we see in Sūryasiddhānta –
|ÉÉhÉÉÊnù& EòÊlÉiÉÉä ¨ÉÚkÉÇ& jÉÖ]õ¬ÉtÉ䃨ÉÚkÉǺÉÆYÉEò&
¹ÉÎbÂ÷¦É&|ÉÉhÉèÌ´ÉxÉÉb÷ÒºªÉÉiÉ iÉi¹É¹]õ¬ÉxÉÉÊb÷Eòɺ¨ÉÞiÉÉ (11)
Time in units of prāna is real and experienced and those like truti are imaginary. Six prānas
make a Vinādī, sixty of which is one nādī.
Also, we can find in Gītikā 6 of Āryabhatīya - |ÉÉhÉäxÉèÊiÉEò±ÉÉÆ ¦ÉÚ& i.e., the earth rotates one
minute of arc in one breath. Pauliśa siddhānta too aired the same notion as is evident
from Alberuni5.

4
If we extend the above notion to one diurnal rotation of Earth, we can see that 21600
minutes of arc had its origin from the number of breaths in a day. A day had also units in
terms of 60s like the 60 Ghatikas and 3600 Vighatikas with the Ghatikā made up of 360
and Vighatikā of 6 breaths. Obviously, one degree rotation of Earth (1/360) was
equivalent to 60 breaths and we find this experience or observation reflected in the
Mesopotamian notion cited above i.e. Number 60 (Geš) and 1/360 of a circle, both have
the same name in Mesopotamian terminology and the symbol of Geš is Phallus and the
sign also represented Man and the masculine upper world An-Šar.
It is also well attested in cuneiform texts of the Seleucid era that the day had a division
into 360 units called uš (meaning originally length) and thus each uš had to be of the
duration of 60 breaths.6
Thus the correlation that we see in Mesopotamian notions of the Number 60 and 1/360 of
a circle or 10 rotation of Earth arose out of the 60 breaths during the interval. This
observation leads us to a new theory on the origin of the sexagesimal system as well as
the ancient astronomical conceptions like 21600 arc minutes of a circle as arising from
the human experience and observation as well as count of breathing as a measure of time.
Evidences for the ‘Breath Number’ theory
We can find a number of supporting facts in other Mesopotamian astronomical
conceptions which support the above Breath Number theory of the origin of sexagesimal
system.
First and most fundamental aspect is the practice of 'body counting' which gave one-to-
one correspondence for numbers with fingers and other body parts.7 Such practices are
well attested in all primitive societies. Given such body origin of counting and numbers,
it is quite likely that the count of breaths became a tool for the time reckoning by means
of counting in the ancient civilizations.
Breathing as the sign of life obviously may have at the centre of attention for the ancient
occult schools and the count of breaths as such may have been the best time machine
available to them.
Breath gave them the smallest possible unit of time which they could have measured and
the count could have easily led them to bigger units like 360 counts in 24 minutes or
1/60th of a day.
The fact that no other time measurement like sun-dial or water clock or flower clocks
could have been more efficient than breathing also explains the use of sexagesimal
system in astronomy where all observations had to be associated with time.
Existence of mystic thought among Sumerians also suggests the possibility of breathing
exercises like Prānāyāma in antiquity and thus the number of breaths as a measure of
time based on '60' may have been a significant factor that inspired abstract notions about
numbers. One of the six Indian schools of Philosophy (Darśanam) viz., Sāmkhya,8 owes
its name to numbers or enumeration. Sāmkhya is well known as an abstractive effort and
is often construed as the theoretical side of Yoga to which Prānāyama is a part. The fact

5
that Sāmkhya had its origin out of the sphere of Vedic influence suggests the possibility
of the doctrine as a development of the Dravidian or Sumerian mysticism which before
the advent of the Āryans extended over the vast geographical areas between Egypt and
India. Mystical significance to numbers arose out of the intellectual efforts to understand
the phenomena of life in terms of its origin as well as evolution and we can see such
trends in the development of the various schools of mysticism in India. Even though now
known only through the Sanskrit texts, the Indian schools of Tantra are perhaps the
nearest approximations that we can find for the ancient Sumerian schools of mysticism. It
is quite likely that mysticism and notions like weekdays, hours and zodiacal symbolism
etc which became universal in later times had their origin in the cultural unity of Indo-
Mediterranean proto-history.9
Astronomical Evidence
1. Hitherto we have been explaining the 360 degrees as arising from a day count
rounded off to 360, a multiple of 60. A better explanation shall be the origin of
60(Geš) and 360 from the diurnal rotation and breathing and evolution of the day
count of 360 from the same. But the Solar return demanded completion of the 3600
sojourn and the evolution of solar year.
2. An independent observational origin of 60 as a unit from the count of breaths, also
explains the Unit of 30 lunar days for the synodic circuit of Moon. It is important
to note here that Indian astronomy even today carry the vestige of a half-lunar day
called ‘Karana’ which perhaps reflect the ancient conception of lunar circuit in
terms of the base 60.
3. Breath Number theory also renders satisfactory explanation to the Saros, 3600
years (60x 60) in which the precession amounted to 50 degrees. 602 Years = 500
rotation of Earth’s axis reflected the mystical importance of number 60 as credited
to Anu and 50 to Earth. Degrees that remained in a quadrant 90 – 50 = 40 got
credited to the God of netherworld. 21600 minutes of arc also gave rise to the
higher number 1296000” and its fractions like 432000, 864000 etc which are well
attested in Mesopotamian records as well as in Indian astronomical and Puranic
texts.
4. Division of day based on breaths also explains the origin of the 1hour/1080 unit
available in Babylonian cuneiform texts. 21600’ or 1296000” divided by 24 hours
gives 54000” = 1 hour and 1 hour/1080 = 50” seconds of arc. Origin of this unit
can be explained in terms of precession and also the Babylonian units of length še
and shu-si (yavam and angulam in Indian texts).
5. In terms of breaths, the tropical and sidereal year differed by 50/60 = 0.8333
equivalent to 50” of arc and this factor alone shall provide explanation for the
Mesopotamian mysticism associated with numbers. Precession through 21600
breath units therefore required 21600/0.8333 = 25920 years. It must be noted here
that 60 was the number of Man and thus represented breath while 50 was the
number of Earth and thus represented the seasons.

6
 It becomes apparent that the number of breaths equal to 21600 and the
sexagesimal system facilitated the cognizance of precession in terms of 50/60
minutes and the sidereal length of the year could be computed simply using the
mystic numbers from the length of the well known Metonic cycle.
19 years = 235 lunations gave the year as 6939.688/19 = 365.24675
365.24675 + (50/60)/60 = 365.26063 which is the length of the Babylonian
sidereal year traceable to the cuneiform records (the period relation 3;45 years =
46;23 synodic months i.e.225y = 2783m.10
Further, the above anomalistic value could be used for deriving the tropical year
length as 365.26063 – (60/3600) = 365.2439 or 365.259 giving 365.2423.
Sexagesimal system and the numbers 50 and 60 thus rendered a cosmic experience
in numbers.
6. Explicit mention of the length of any solar year cannot be found in Cuneiform
texts. But Al-Birunī has described the value of 365;15, 30 as Babylonian and this
value matches well with the Indian Siddhāntic value of 365.25875 days
(365;15,31,30). When compared with the seasonal year this value is in excess by
358 breaths ≈ 360 and thus a shift of 1 seasonal day in 60 years and year in 21600
years. Further, if we look at the Babylonian System A lunar theory we can
understand that the period relation 3;45 years = 46;23 synodic months (225y =
2783m) can be true only for an anomalistic year that exceeds the seasonal by 360
breaths or 6 uš in a year11. We must note here that the number of years 3;45 = 225
is specifically chosen to have a shift of 3.75 degrees just as 3600 years = 60;0y
causes a shift of 60 degrees when the year is in excess of seasonal year by 360
breaths or 6 uš in a year.
Babylonian cuneiform records have evidence for their knowledge of the Metonic
cycle of 19 years (19y =3;55m) which leads to an year of 12;22,6,20 instead of the
greater value of 12:22, 8 synodic months and thus the latter choice of a larger
value must be inspired by special reasons.
7. Even though scholars have rejected the possibility of a 6-based system as the
cause of the 60-base, it can be seen that the number 6 had been playing very
important role in Babylonian astronomy. Lunar theory considered the latitudes as
±60 and the Zodiac was conceived as a belt of 120 width and each lunar day
amounted to 120.
Evidence from measurements of Lengths
Above derivations of numbers and the 50/60 (=5/6) relationship finds support in the
Babylonian units of lengths adapted to angular measurements.
(a) Ancient units of length such as barleycorn (še), known in Indian texts as
‘yavam’
6 še or Yavam = 1 shu-si (Angulam or Ring-finger)

7
 7.2 Yavams = 1 Thumb
1 Ring-finger = 5/6 = 0.8333 of Thumb
60 Ring-fingers = 50 Thumbs
50 Thumbs = 360 Yavams (še)
1 finger = 5 mins of arc
4 fingers = 1 Palm
1 cubit = 30 fingers = 2.50
12 cubit = 1 sign
12 sign = 3600

(b) Considering the application of the above units in astronomy, 10 = 12 fingers = 72

še or yavam and 3600 = 25920 še = 4320 shu-si (angulam) and thus the hours
credited to Horus had 1080 še units of rotation per hour. In the absence of the
number 25920 = 24x1080, there is no logic in conceiving a unit like 1080 še in 1
hour.
(c) Quadrant = 900 = 18 Units is also attested in antiquity12 and with 10 = 12 fingers =
72 še, we get a quadrant as 900 = 90x12 = 1080fingers =18x60=36x30=36 cubits.
(d) We can thus see the shadows of a 6-based, 12-based and 60-based number system
emerging as a result of the measurement of time interval in terms of the number of
breaths which made up to a total of 21600 = 5x6x12x60 in a day. 5 x 60 = 30 and
5x6x12 = 360 were implicit in 21600 as to become later the lunar day count and
also to be the solar day count in a year.
It is apparent therefore that the two systems of unit viz., the count of breaths or
prāna for the measure of time and the yavam or angulam for the measurement had
given rise to the mystic properties of the base numbers of Mesopotamia.
(e) As noted by Neugebauer, the inaccuracy of time measurements using sundials or
water clocks had no noticeable influence on the great accuracies achieved in
Babylonian astronomy. Such progress was made possible by the concept of time-
degrees i.e. rotation of Earth in 360 units called uš consisting of 60 breaths. Unit
of uš based on the diurnal rotation of the Earth is another pointer towards the
original of the sexagesimal system and the 21600’ of arc from the number of
breaths as we find recorded in Indian astronomical treatises.

Units and the Astronomical Phenomena

Above units of breaths and fingers display interesting correlations to the astronomical
phenomena and parameters like the sidereal year, tropical year and anomalistic year
which are well known in Mesopotamian astronomy. sidereal and tropical years differed
by 300 breaths while anomalistic and tropical years differed by 360 breaths to make the
difference between anomalistic and sidereal years equal to 60 breaths. 1 day or 21600
breaths differed between sidereal and tropical years in 72 years and with anomalistic year
the 1 day difference occurred in 60 years as we see in Siddhāntic astronomy. Considering
for example the modern year lengths:
8
Sidereal year = 365.2563624 days
Tropical year = 365.24219 days
Difference = 0.01417 days = 306 breaths
Siddhāntic year = 365.25875 days
Difference with modern tropical = 358
Difference with modern sidereal year = 52
The Babylonian difference of 300 breaths between sidereal and tropical years differed
only by 6 breaths or 24 secs in a year when compared to the difference in modern values.
Scholars like O. Neugbauer13 have opined that the precession of equinoxes came to be
discovered around the time of Hipparchus and thus the longitudinal measurements came
to be effected with vernal equinox fixed as the zero pointƒ. Given the fact that the 80 and
100 norms are very popular in cuneiform texts corresponding to System B and System A,
it is likely that precession was known to Babylonians and also they had arithmetical
methods as above to compute and refix the cardinal points with the passage of time. This
is somewhat obvious from the fact that the observable year was tropical or seasonal and
had been known to them in terms of the eclipse cycle Saros and related 19 years and 235
lunations. Acceptance of longer periods like 225 years in luni-solar theory with years
having the anomalistic value could have been possible as a result of some arithmetical
methods with which they may have been accounting for precession. Babylonian period
relations for Planets with large periods like 46, 1151, 284, 427, 265 also suggests that
Babylonians computed planets relative to the shifting cardinal points. Various norms of
Aries 8, 10, 12, 15 etc are attested in literature and in Neugebauer14 an account of the
same is available.

Correlation to Yoga precepts on Prāna

Discussion given above on the Mesopotamian units of time and length bear some
interesting correlation to the yoga precepts on Kāla and Prāna. What we see in Sanskrit
texts of medieval times can be the compilation of ancient wisdom in Sanskrit as the
Tantra and Yoga schools became more popular in India. Svacchanda Tantra described the
phenomenon of time and breathing in the following words:
1. EòɱÉÉä ÊuùvÉÉjÉ Ê´ÉV\ÉäªÉ& ºÉÉè®ú¶SÉÉvªÉÉÎi¨ÉEò& Ê|ɪÉä15 – Commentary by Kshemarāja explains that
‘Time even though one only it is experienced as the external, macrocosmic solar
time and the internal or microcosmic time experienced through the successive
breaths or prāna.
2. |ÉÉhÉÉ{ÉÉxɨɪÉ& |ÉÉhÉÉä ʴɺÉMÉÉÇ{ÉÚ®úhÉÆ |ÉÊiÉ16 – Breath as the unit Prāna is described in terms of
exhalation and inhalation which are known by the names ‘prāna’ and ‘apāna’.

ƒ
“The reckoning in the Almagest of the 360 degrees of longitude, beginning at the vernal
equinox, called Aries 00, is of course, related to discovery of precession and the resulting
decision to define the solar “year” as the tropical year”
9
3. Units of time as enumerated and explained in this work is typical of the Tantra
doctrines –
¨ÉÉxÉÖ¹ÉÉÊIÉÊxɨÉä¹ÉºªÉ +¹]õ¨ÉÉƶÉ& IÉhÉ& º¨ÉÞiÉ&
IÉhÉuùªÉÆ iÉÖÊ]õ®úYÉäªÉÉ iÉnÂùuùªÉÆ iÉÖ ±É´É& º¨ÉÞiÉ& (11-201)
±É´ÉuùªÉÆ ÊxɨÉä¹ÉºiÉÖ YÉÉiÉ´ªÉÉä MÉÊhÉiÉGò¨ÉÉiÉÂ
nù¶É{É\SÉ ÊxɨÉä¹ÉɶSÉ Eòɹ`öÉ SÉè´É |ÉEòÒÌiÉiÉÉ (11-202)
ËjɶÉiÉ Eòɹ`öÉ& Eò±ÉÉ& YÉäªÉÉ ¨ÉÖ½ÚþÑk®ú¶Énäù´É iÉÉ&
¨ÉÖ½ÚþiÉǺiÉÖ {ÉÖxÉ&ϺJé¶Énù½þÉ®ä úÉjɺiÉÖ ¨ÉÉxÉÖ¹É& (11-203)17

Here we see the minutest unit of time as Ksana =1/8th of an eye-lash, Tuti = 1/4th
of an eye-lash, Lavam = 1/2th of an eye-lash, Nimesam = eye-lash = 2 Lavam, 15
Nimesam = Kāsthā, 30 Kāsthā = 1 Kalā, 30 Kalā = 1Muhūrttam, 30 Muhūrttam =
1 Ahorātram. i.e. 1 Ahorātram = 900 Kalā = 27000 Kāsthā and 1 Kalā = 4
Vighatis, 15 Kalā = 1 Ghati, 3600 Vighatis = 1 Ahorātram = 60 Ghatis.
4. Interelationship of the external and internal times are described as –
iÉÖ]ªÉ& ¹ÉÉäb÷¶É |ÉÉhÉä {ÉÚ´ÉÈ Ê½þ EòÊlÉiÉÉ ¨ÉªÉÉ
¤ÉÉÁäxÉè´É iÉÖ EòɱÉäxÉ iÉä ±É´ÉÉ& {ÉÊ®úEòÒÌkÉiÉÉ& (7-27)
iÉÉʦɶSÉiɺÉÞ̦É&næùÊ´É |ÉÉhÉÉä ªÉɨÉÉä Ê´ÉvÉÒªÉiÉä
iÉè®äú´É |ɽþ®èúnæùÊ´É SÉiÉÖ̦ɺiÉÖ ÊnùxÉÆ ¦É´ÉäiÉ (7-28)
+ÉvªÉÉÎi¨ÉEòɽþÉ®ä úÉjÉähÉ ¤ÉÉÁä Eòɹ`öÉ Ê´ÉvÉÒªÉiÉä
¨ÉɺÉäxÉÉvªÉÉÎi¨ÉEäòxÉè´É ¤ÉÉÁä SÉè´É Eò±ÉÉ ¦É´ÉäiÉ (7-50)
iÉjÉ ËjɶÉnù½þÉ®ä úÉjÉÉ ¨ÉɺɺiÉÖ ´É®ú´ÉÌhÉxÉÒ
18
¨ÉɺÉèuùÉnÇ ù¶ÉʦɶSÉè´É ¤ÉÉÁä lÉ PÉÊ]õEòÉ ¦É´ÉäiÉ (7-51)
16 Tutis of Prāna which is 2 Lavam of Prāna is 1 Lavam of Sūrya. 4 of these or 8
Lavams make 1 Yāmam of Prāna and 4 Yāmams constitute the Day of Prāna (and
equal is the Night). 64 Lavams or 32 Nimesams of Prāna thus make 1 Kāsthā of
Sūrya or 1 Ahorātra of Prāna. 1 Nimesam of Prāna is thus apparently 1/10 of the
second of external time. External day and night are thus 432000 Nimesams of
Prāna to yield the Ahorātram as 864000 Nimesam of Prāna.
Internal year is equated to be the solar Ghatikā = 24 mins = 1440s = 12 months =
360 breaths. 1 month = 120 secs. 1 day = 4 secs. 1 Ahorātra of the Prāna thus gets
equated to a breath or unit of Prāna.
5. Further the external (bāhya) Ghatikā is equated to internal (ānthara) year.
PÉÊ]õEòÉ& ¹Éι]õºi´É½þÉ®ä úÉjÉä ¤ÉÉÁä iÉÖ |ɴɽþÎxiÉ ´Éè
iÉÉ B´ÉÉxiÉ®úSÉÉ®äúhÉ ¹Éι]õ& ºÉÆ´ÉiºÉ®úÉ& º¨ÉÞiÉÉ& (7-53)
Here we see the experience of 60 in the breathing phenomenon and also 360
appear as the number of breaths in 1 external Ghatikā.
6. Number of breaths in a Day
¹É]Âõ¶ÉiÉÉÊxÉ´É®úÉ®úɽä äþ ºÉ½þ»ÉÉhªÉäEò˴ɶÉÊiÉ&
10
 +½þÉ®ä úÉjÉähÉ ¤ÉÉÁäxÉ +vªÉÉi¨ÉÆ iÉÖ ºÉÖ®úÉÊvÉ{Éä (7-54)
Verse gives the number of breaths as 600 + 21000 = 21600 which is the minutes
of arc through which the Earth rotates.

7. Measurement of Space in Breathing

¿nùªÉÉäv´Éæ iÉÖ Eòh`öÉvÉÉä ªÉÉ´Éuèù |ɴɽäþiÉ Ê|ɪÉä
+RÂóMÉÖ±ÉäxÉ Ê´É½þÒxÉä iÉÖ |ÉlɨÉ& |ɽþ®ú& º¨ÉÞiÉ& (7-33)
ÊuùiÉÒªÉ >ðræù Ê´ÉYÉäªÉÉä ¨ÉvªÉɼxɺiÉɱg¨ÉvªÉiÉ&
+jÉ ½þɨä ÉÉä VÉ{ÉÉä vªÉÉxÉÆ EÞòiÉÆ ´Éè ¨ÉÉäIÉnÆù ¦É´ÉäiÉ (7-34)
xÉɺÉÉOªÉjɪªÉÆbÂ÷MÉÖ±ÉÉäv´Éæ iÉÖ ªÉÉ´Éi|ÉÉ{iɺiÉÖ ºÉÖµÉiÉä
|ɽþ®úºiÉÖ iÉÞiÉÒªÉÉä ºÉÉè ¦É´ÉänÂù ´Éè ´É®ú´ÉÌhÉxÉÒ (7-35)
SÉiÉÖlÉÉÇxiÉä iÉÖ näù´Éä¶ÉÒ |ÉÉhɺÉÚªÉÇ& ºÉnùɺiÉMÉ& -
In these verses we can find the ancient wisdom which equated the breath with the
diurnal rotation. The path of prānārka or prāna-sūrya had 4 divisions in exhalation
with the 9 aňgulas from the heart to the throat-end and 9 aňgulas from throat-end
to the zenith (tālu-madhyam) – at the end of this 18 aňgulas is the mid-day for
prāna. Then from zenith to the nose-tip via forehead 6 aňgulas and from nose-tip
to dvādaśāntham makes 12 aňgulas of the total of 36 aňgulas that make up the
exhalation. At 12 aňgulas below the nose-tip sunset is conceived and the smallest
unit of time Tuti is the time lapse between the exhalation and inhalation.
Prāna or breath is thus measured in units of angula and 72 angulas make 360
degrees. Thus 432 yavams make 360 degrees or 10 = 1.2 yavam or 1 yavam = 50’
= 50 breaths. 1 angulam = 5 degrees = 300 breaths or prāna.
Air flow gets divided into 6 stages of 12 aňgulams each and the origin of Prāna is
at 12 aňgulams below the nose-tip and is named as ‘dvādaśāntham’.
8. Association with sidereal Zodiacal Signs
¿nÂù{Éi¨ÉÉnÚùv´ÉÇ{ɪÉÇxiÉÆ ®úɶɪÉ& ¹ÉbÂ÷ ´ªÉ´ÉκlÉiÉÉ&
+RÂóMÉÖ±Éè& ¹ÉÎbÂ÷¦É®äúEèòEòÉä ¿nÂù{Éi¨ÉÉtÉ´É ¶ÉÊHòiÉ& (7-93)
¿nùªÉÉnÖùnùªÉºlÉÉxÉÉiºÉÆGòÉÎxiɨÉÇEò®äú κlÉiÉÉ
¹Éb÷RÂóMÉÖ±ÉÉxªÉvɺiªÉCi´ÉÉ EÖÆò¦Éä ºÉÆGò¨ÉiÉä {ÉÖxÉ& (7-94)
MɱÉÉäv´ÉÉÇtÉ´ÉkÉɱ´ÉxiÉÆ iªÉCi´ÉÉ ¨Éä¹ÉälÉ ºÉÆGò¨ÉäiÉÂ
xÉɺÉÉxiÉÆ ªÉÉ´ÉiºÉÆGòÉÎxiÉ®úRÂóMÉÖ±ÉÉÊxÉ ¹Ébä÷´É ʽþ (7-95)
xÉɺÉÉOÉÆ iÉÖ {ÉÊ®úiªÉVªÉ |ÉÉhɽÆþºÉÉä ´ÉÞ¹Éä SÉ®äúiÉÂ
¹Éb÷RÂóMÉÖ±ÉÉÊxÉ ºÉÆiªÉVªÉ ºÉÆGò¨Éä ʨÉlÉÖxÉä {ÉÖxÉ& (7-97)
These precepts and the continuing discussion in Svacchanda tantra in verses 112-
11419 place the 12 zodiacal signs in the path of breath – 6 aňgulams of the outgoing
breath constitute the signs respectively from Makarādi (sidereal Capricorn00) which is

11
 ‘Hrdaya-kamlam’ of the Yogis and the incoming breath begins at Karkkādi (sidereal
Cancer00) which is named as 'śaktyantham' or ‘dvādaśāntham’.
Outgoing breath is termed as Uttarāyana or the Northern course while the incoming
breath is termed as Daksināyana or the Southern course. Uttarāyana of Yoga is
therefore always from Makarādi to Karkkādi and Daksināyana from Karkkādi to
Makarādi. Midpoints of the outgoing and incoming halves of breath are termed as
Visuvams and correspond to the sidereal Aries00 amd Libra00. These peculiar yoga
conceptions quoted in Indian astronomical texts have caused lot of confusion in
understanding them in relation to the tropical signs.
This occult literature dealing with Japayoga and the experience of the 'mantra-tattva' is
replete with the use of 6 and 12 enunciating the philosophy and practice of Japa. As
for example the Indian notion of time is based on units called 'aksara' or syllable –time
taken to have a syllable uttered.
10 Gurvaksara) = 1 Prāna
6 Prāna = 1 Vinādikā
60 Vinādikās = 1 Nādikā
60 Nādikās =1 Day
Not only that the later Sanskrit texts give Zodiacal or astronomical symbolism but
also we can see that the astronomical and time units Vinādika, Nādikā in works like
Sūryasiddhānta which predates by 1000s of years have their origin from the term
'nādi' which refers to the channel of breath in the human body. It can be found that –
ªÉlÉÉ {ÉhÉÈ {ɱÉɶɺªÉ ´ªÉÉ{iÉÆ ºÉ´ÉÇjÉ iÉxiÉÖʦÉ& Â
¶É®úÒ®Æú ºÉ´ÉÇVÉxiÉÚxÉÉÆ iÉuùnÂù´ªÉÉ{iÉÆ iÉÖ xÉÉÊb÷ʦÉ& (7-97)
Further the precepts are based on the correspondence between the Zodiac and the
physical body which we can trace to the Sumerian occultism.
We can find a real demonstration of the 50/60 correlation that the count of breaths vis-a-
vis sexagesimal system bears to the experience of the Cosmos via precession, the
difference between the sidereal and tropical year. Number of breathings and the
sexagesimal system rendered an obvious computation of the annual rate of precession
amounting to 50" = 50/60 minutes of arc = 300/360 = 21600/25920 where 25920 is the
mean value of the precessional cycle.

Precession of 50" meant a deduction of 300 breaths (5/6 of a breath/solar day) in fixing
the zero point and the cumulative decrement in a precessional cycle was 300x25920
when the true sidereal year got considered. Sexagesimal degree-minute-seconds arc units
thus facilitated accounting of precession as 50/60 degree or 50' in 60 years and 1 degree
or 60' in 72 years. Thus it is easy to understand that nature itself displays a sexagesimal
system by way of the rate of precession of 50" or 3600 in 25920 years when the ecliptic is
divided into 3600/21600'/1296000" and the sexagesimal notation is adopted. With an
extra-long sidereal year demanding a deduction of 360 breaths, the precessional cycle for
the computed Sun would have been 21600 years.

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Computational instrument of Siddhāntas was a model of time consisting of the Yugas.
Basic unit of this model was the 21600 years – a concept borrowed from Yogaśastra as
explained above. Kālapurusa of the Siddhāntas had a day of 21600 years as each year
was an exhalation-inhalation sequence beginning with Makara-samkrānti. It’s this
synonymy with breath that made the samkrāntis sacred occasions and the frame of
observance was sidereal zodiac of Siddhāntas. With tropical zodiac synonymy as above
was impossible with 21600 years. Extra-long year was a necessity to incorporate a full
rotation of seasonal cycle in 21600 years or a day of Kālapurusa.

What is said above can be established astronomically using the siddhāntic length of year
that is almost anomalistic. Simple arithmetic tells us that –
21600 siddhāntic years of 365.25875 = 21601 tropical years of 365.242 days
i.e. 21600 siddhānta years = 21601 seasonal years (cycles of seasons)
It is therefore evident that the basis of Siddhāntic astronomy was a precession cycle of
21600 years over an anomalistic zodiac requiring annual precession correction of the
order of 9 seconds of arc in a year. This leads to 30 revolutions of the stellar cage in a
caturyuga of 432,000,0 years, the same as that we find mentioned in Sūryasiddhānta:
Îw̨ÌtFßòt¥ÌÌ ™ÌÙOÌâ —ÌÌÌÌÉZÌFêÉò ÌëÌEÌÍœú¥ÌtÌÊtÌâ (Sūryasiddhānta: ΙΙΙ.9)20
“Wheel of stars make 30 revolutions to the east in a Yuga (of 432,000,0 years)”
In fact with the year length exceeding the true sidereal value, the initial point advanced
towards east by nine seconds of arc in a year and this became 540 in 21600 years and 30
revolutions in 432,000.0 years. Śloka means 30 revolutions of the initial point eastward
very clearly but as the basis of such an interpretation could not be understood, a number
of misinterpretations were invented to suit the known phenomena. Parameśvarācārya has
discussed the verse with his interpretation aimed to suit the precession phenomenon as
known to him.
Sūryasiddhānta attests this fact when we note that –
1. Mean sun of Kaliyugādi (17/18 February 3102 BC) was nearly 3010
2. Precession arc between the tropical and the siddhāntic zodiac was nearly 500 in
3600 years. For the year length of Sūryasiddhānta, the forward movement of the
zero point in 3600 years was nearly 90 as mentioned above. Above factors decided
the zero in AD 500 as 301+50+9 = 360 (coinciding the zero point)
3. Precession correction to the zero point was negligible as long as the sidereal
zodiac of fixed zero was in use in siddhāntic astronomy. But underwent drastic
change with the adoption of vernal equinox as a reference point – annual
correction required increased to nearly fifty seconds (50”) from (-)9 seconds –
necessitated a change of one minute or 60” in siddhāntic computations.

13
 4. We can see the above confusion, ambiguity in respect of ayanāmśa in the
siddhāntas of the period since Āryabhata and Varāhamihira to the times of
Mañjula, Bhāskara-Ι, Haridatta etc. Āryabhata is silent, Mihira speaks of
precession in Pañcasiddhāntikā but he is silent about ayanāmśa, Bhāskara is silent
and only Mañjula had the conviction to redefine the value as nearly one minute of
arc with reference to vernal equinox.
5. In AD 500, the Siddhānta Sun and Equinox coincided at 00. Sūryasiddhānta
computations imagine zero at Kaliyugādi based on the 54-degree progression of
zero point in 21600 years or 9 degree in 3600 years. Going back by 3600 years, in
3102 BC epoch we can see Sun at 3600–90 = 3510, 590 west of the Yugādi equinox.
No other precession cycle bridges the computation across 3600 years so well.
Further, we may note that the smallest Yuga is the minimum period in which the
zero point progresses eastward over complete revolutions. 540 in 21600 years
means 3600 in 6.666 days of Kālapurusa. To avoid the fraction of day in a Yuga,
the Kaliyuga was defined as 3 times 6.666 or 20 days = 432000 years = 3
revolutions of the zero eastward. This meant 30 revolutions or 200 days of
Kālapurusa constituted a mahāyuga. Multiples of the basic unit of 21600 was used
conveniently in deriving the mean longitudes by framing up the concept of Yugas.
Above discussion, satisfactorily answers the conceptual basis of the Siddhāntic
sidereal zodiac of India and the ancient zodiac prevalent in Babylon. Computation
was relative to sun and was based on synodic periods. Model conceived the
precession cycle as 21600 years, each year representing a breath of the cosmic
Man and the precepts on solstices and equinoxes as available in Siddhāntic
treatises cannot be fully understood without this basic conception.

Evidence of the Weekdays and a Possible Time Structure of Breathing

We saw above that the sexagesimal system and the 21600’ gave to the Sumerians a feel
of the Cosmos in numbers. If we examine the rationale of hours and weekdays which the
modern civilizations owe to the Sumerians, it can be understood that the notions arose out
of the experienced time structure of breathing. Planetary lordship vis-a-vis zodiacal
symbolism associated with hours in the order of Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, Sun, Venus,
Mercury, and Moon, which repeat in hour cycles point towards a time structure of
breathing that inspired the unit of hour as 1/24 of the day. Rationale is evident in the yoga
precept –
ºÉÉvÉÇÊuùPÉÊ]õEäò YÉäªÉÉ ¶ÉÖC±ÉäEÞò¹hÉä ¶É¶ÉÒ ®úÊ´É&*
´É½þiªÉäEòÊnùxÉäxÉè´É ªÉlÉÉ ¹Éι]õPÉÊ`ö Gò¨ÉÉiÉÂ*
¶ÉÖC±É{ÉIÉä ¦É´Éäi´ÉɨÉÉ EÞò¹hÉ{ÉIÉä SÉ nùÊIÉhÉÉ*
VÉÉxÉÒªÉÉi|ÉÊiÉ{Éi{ÉÚ´ÉÈ ªÉÉäMÉÒ iÉtiɨÉÉxɺÉ&*
“Breath a of Moon or left nostril in light fortnight and breath of Sun or right nostril in
dark fortnight covers the 24 hours of the day, alternately for one hour. Yogis should

14
keenly understand the onset of light and dark fortnights by the occurrence of the breath
in the left and right nostrils respectively”
It is therefore apparent that the observation of breathing and counting may have played an
important role in ancient civilization as an activity that enabled them to have precise
measurement of time. It’s what may be described as the ‘sexagesimal association’ to the
diurnal rotation of Earth gave us time Units which reflect a time structure of breathing.
Conclusions:
1. Modern scientific world is yet to reach a consensus on the origin of the
sexagesimal system. Review presented has brought out the deficiencies in the
prevailing explanations.
2. The 60 base system and the 21600' of the heavenly circuit of Sun is shown to be
the outcome of a time reckoning based on the number of breaths. Indian
astronomical texts like Sūryasiddhānta and Aryabhatiya have preserved this
notion.
3. Ecliptic divided into 21600’ facilitated the computation of precession in terms of
the mystic 50/60 relationship and this led to the different solar year lengths seen in
cuneiform records.
4. Number of breaths as 21600 vis-a-vis the diurnal rotation and the Earth's
revolution round the sun in a year in relation to sidereal and tropical years suggest
a Sumerian experience of the Cosmos through the application of sexagesimal
system to astronomy.
5. It is easy to understand that the mysticism associated with numbers like 50 and 60
and hours, weekdays, the conceptions of the microcosm and macrocosm and their
equivalence etc arose out of the Sumerian experience of the time structure of
breathing which inspired a sexagesimal notation. .
6. More studies are required to bring out a detailed presentation on the Sumerian
basis of Indian astronomy and Yoga.
References:

1
Ifrah Georges, The Universal History of Numbers, pp. 91-95 The Harvill Press,
London, 1998
2
Ibid., p.94
3
Sūryasiddhānta, KS Shukla and Ram Ballabh, Department of Mathematics and
Astronomy, Lucknow University, 1957
4
Āryabhatīya, Gitika 6, Indian National Science Academy, New Delhi-2
5
Ghayasuddin, Varāhamihira, The Best Sanskrit Source of Al-Biruni on Indian Jyotisa,
IJHS 10(2), p.141

15
6
Neugebauer, O., A History of Ancient Mathematical Astronomy, P-I, p.367, Springer
Verlag, New York, 1975
7 7
Ifrah Georges, The Universal History of Numbers, Pp.20-26. The Harvill Press,
London, 1998
8
Bose, DM., Sen, SN., Subbarayappa, BV., p. 28, A Concise History of Science in India,
INSA, N.Delhi-2, 1989
9
Danielou, Alain., Yoga, p.12, Inner Traditions International, Rochester, Vermont, 1991
10
Neugebauer, O., A History of Ancient Mathematical Astronomy, P-I, p.367, Springer
Verlag, New York, 1975
11
Ibid, p.378
12
Ibid, p.590
13
Neugebauer, O., A History of Ancient Mathematical Astronomy, P-II, p.593, Springer
Verlag, New York, 1975
14
Ibid., p.598
15
Svacchanda Tantra, Part-III, p.83., Sampurnanand Sanskrit University, Varanasi, 1992.
16
Ibid., p.91
17
Svacchanda Tantra, Part-V, p.54., Sampurnanand Sanskrit University, Varanasi, 1992.
18
Ibid., Part-III, p.100
19
Ibid., p.115
20
Sūryasiddhānta, as quoted in the History of Indian Astronomy -ΙΙ, SB Dikshit,
Publication Division, Government of India, Civil Lines, New Delhi. A variant of the
above verse can be found in Sūryasiddhānta, edited by KS Shukla and Ram Ballabh,
Department of Mathematics and Astronomy, Lucknow University, 1957.

Address for correspondence

B6-103, ONGC Colony (East)

Chandkheda (P.O), PIN – 382424
Gandhinagar (Dist), Gujarat.

chandra_hari18@yahoo.com

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