Drainage system Drainage, it is the artificial or natural removal of surface and sub-surface water from an area.

The agricultural soil requires the drainage for improving production and to manage the water supplies. The design of drainage system refers to geomorphology drainage system, agriculture drainage system and sustainable urban drainage system. Tile drainage Tile drainage (in agriculture) is an agriculture practice that removes excess water from soil subsurface. Whereas irrigation is the practice of adding additional water when the soil is naturally too dry, drainage brings soil moisture levels down for optimal crop growth. While surface water can be drained via pumping and/or open ditches, tile drainage is often the best recourse for subsurface water. Too much subsurface water can be counterproductive to agriculture by preventing root development, and inhibiting the growth of crops. Too much water also can limit access to the land, particularly by farm machinery. In terms of access, most modern agriculture depends on the usage of large machinerytractors and implementsto prepare the seedbed, plant the crop, carry out any cultivation and applications during the growing season, and ultimately, to harvest the crop. Operating most machinery in excessively wet

conditions may result in soil degradation because of excessive soil compaction, and inhibit the operation of the machinery (i.e., "getting stuck" Horizontal Drainage Nilex Horizontal Drainage systems are used to improve drainage and replace or reduce natural aggregate drainage materials in horizontal applications such as plaza decks, Green Roofs, patios and planters. Prefabricated drains provide protection for waterproofing systems as well as positive drainage in the minimum amount of space (elevation) and weight, both critical elements in roof and deck applications. In planters, planting soil is retained while water passes into the drainage core and is then conveyed into the collection system.Nilexs NuDrain series of drainage materials is available in a range of compressive strengths to accommodate varying loading conditions. Please contact us for assistance in determining a suitable material for your project. Vertical Drainage

Application of method

Increase water permeability to accelerate drainage and thereby accelerate foundation settlements Due to accelerated dissipation of excess pore pressures, increase shear strength and thereby improve bearing capacity This allows for example a faster application of fill stages to embankment fills over clayey soils.

Suitability of method Vertical drains are suitable in all soils where the drainage of pore water shall be accelerated but the soil itself does not need reinforcement and total settlements do not need to be reduced. This reduces the application of vertical drains mostly to embankment fills over cohesive soil. In recent years the method has also found application in combination with Stone Columns to further improve soil drainage

SUFACE DRAINS In areas of heavy rainfall or low soil percolation, it is necessary to employ surface drainage systems to get rid of surplus surface water from

the land. Commonly used surface drainage systems include shallow ditches, open channels, grassed waterways and sloped banks. These drainage systems drain away surface water quickly and efficiently, but do not make much of a difference to groundwater. If there are land drainage problems due to groundwater, they will need other solutions. Surface drainage needs to be carefully planned by taking into account the land's topography, the amount of rainfall received, and the type of soil. In some cases, shallow ditches following the land contour may be enough, in others the ditches may need to be deeper or the land may need to be graded or sloped to facilitate soil drainage. The ditches may follow a random pattern or a parallel pattern. Large fields with a good many depression areas do well with randomly patterned field ditches. These shallow ditches follow the land contours, do not impede the movement of farm machinery and drain away water from depressed areas. Parallel field ditches are excellent for agricultural drainage on flatter types of lands, and are also used as to prevent erosion on sloping farm lands. Water from the field ditches is drained away into side ditches. The side ditches then carry water to an outlet channel

WATER LOGGING AND SALINITY

Water logging, salinity, and non-agricultural uses are squeezing Pakistan's precious arable lands and posing serious threat to the agriculture sector and nation's foodsecurity.They estimate that everyday approximately 500 acres (1 acre = 4,840 squareyards) of farmland is taken out of agriculture by the expansion of settlements, roads,factories and many other non-agricultural activities in the country They predict that if this trend continues then after every decade approximately amillion acre or more of crop land would be taken out of agriculture in our country whichis far more than other countries of the region.They say that arable land is a basic and major resource for the production of human food. But it seems that the expansion of human population and human activitiesare reducing the availability of land, suitable for food production at an alarming rate.Expanding population demands more food on one side and devours agriculturalland on the other side, which is a matter of great concern for everyone. They say that outof total lands area, 80 million hectares, 21 million hectares is cultivable. On the one hand,the nation needs more food to fulfill the demands of its increasing population while onthe other hand, each year the cultivable commanded area (CCA) is decreasing due to thistwin menace of water logging and salinity.According to the estimates made by Soil Survey of Pakistan, the total extent of salt affected soils in the Indus Plain is more than 15 million acres out of which 7.8million acres exist

within the cultivable area.This problem has destroyed millions of acres of farmland in the country. Water logging and deposition of whitish crust of salts are changing farmland into unproductiveland and many areas; the crop fields are reduces considerably

RIVER TRAINING

River training is an age-old practice resulting in incessant development and application of human ingenuity to correct vagaries of the rivers. It requires deep and precise study of river mechanism and behaviour discussed heretofore. River training has assumed considerable significance in India due to huge annual recurring damage caused by the floods; 80 per cent of which accounts for loss of crops. River training, in its broad aspects, covers all engineering works constructed on a river to guide and confine the flow to the river channel, and to control and regulate the river bed configuration for effective and safe movement of floods and river sediments. In essence, river training envisages training and stabilising a river within a suitable waterway and along a certain alignment for a variety of purposes. River training works involve large outlays and it is essential to select the type of the training work and materials of construction so as to make optimum

utilisation of funds, and effective and economical utilisation of the available construction materials. Disposal of drainage water Drainage water management is normally concerned with reducing the amount of drainage water and with managing its disposal. However, this aim is more complex than it appears. Drainage is practised to maintain aeration in waterlogged rootzone and/or to leach excess soil salinity to sustain agricultural production. The drainage water generated must then be managed for reuse purposes where it is of suitable quality and finally discharged or disposed of. The discharge of drainage waters in watercourses may have impacts ranging from beneficial to deleterious. The disposal of drainage water into wetlands, lakes, rivers and coastal waters entails considerations about the quantity and quality allowable and indeed sometimes required to maintain desirable ecological conditions and functions of that given water body 13.2 Sediment measurement While the underlying theory is well known, the measurement of sediment transport requires

that many simplifying assumptions are made. This is largely because sediment transport is a dynamic phenomenon and measurement techniques cannot register the ever-changing conditions that exist in water bodies, particularly in river systems. Some of the sources of extreme variability in sediment transport are discussed below. 13.2.1 Particle size Knowledge of the size gradient of particles that make up suspended load is a prerequisite for understanding the source, transportation and, in some cases, environmental impact of sediment. Although particles of sizes ranging from fine clay to cobbles and boulders may exist in a river, suspended load will rarely contain anything larger than coarse sand, and in many rivers 50-100 per cent of the suspended load will be composed only of silt + clay-sized particles (<62 m). The size of particles is normally referred to as their diameter although,

since few particles are spherical, the term is not strictly correct. Particle size is determined by passing a sample of sediment through a series of sieves, each successive sieve being finer than the preceding one. The fraction remaining on each sieve is weighed and its weight expressed as a percentage of the weight of the original sample. The cumulative percentage of material retained on the sieves is calculated and the results are plotted against the representative mesh sizes of the sieves. A series of eight sieves can be used for sediment analysis, with mesh sizes from 1.25 mm to 63 m or less. Further details of these methods are available in the appropriate literature (see section 13.6). Table 13.2 Particle size classification by the Wentworth Grade Scale Particle description Particle size (mm) Cohesive properties Cobble 256-64 Non-cohesive Gravel 64-2 Very coarse sand 2-1 Non-cohesive sediment

Coarse sand 1-0.5 Medium sand 0.5-0.25 Fine sand 0.125-0.063 Silt 0.062-0.004 Cohesive sediment Clay 0.004-0.00024 Clay particles are plate-like in shape and have a maximum dimension of about 4 m. Silt particles, like sand, have no characteristic shape; their size is between those of clay and sand with diameters ranging from 4 m to 62 m. Since the smallest mesh size of commercially available sieves is about 40 m, the sizes of clay and small silt particles cannot be determined by sieving, and sedimentation techniques are used instead. The sedimentation rate of the particles is measured and their diameter calculated from the semiempirical equation known as Stokes Law. There is no universally accepted scale for the classification of particles according to their

sizes. In North America, the Wentworth Grade Scale (see Table 13.2) is commonly used; elsewhere, the International Grade Scale is preferred. There are minor differences between the two scales and it is, therefore, important to note which scale has been selected and to use it consistently. The boundary between sand and silt (62 m) separates coarse-grained sediments (sand and larger particles) from fine-grained sediments (silt and clay particles). Coarse-grained sediments are non-cohesive, whereas fine-grained sediments are cohesive, i.e. the particles will stick to one another as well as to other materials. Particle cohesiveness has important chemical and physical implications for sediment quality. Sedimentology and water quality programmes have adopted a convention that considers particulate matter to be larger than 0.45 m in diameter; anything smaller is considered to be

dissolved. This boundary is not entirely valid because clay particles and silt can be much smaller than 0.45 m. For practical purposes, however, the boundary is convenient, not least because standard membrane filters with 0.45 m diameter pores can be used to separate suspended particles from dissolved solids. A general procedure for the measurement of total dissolved solids (TDS) is described in Chapter 7, section 7.24. 13.2.2 Composition of sediment The amount and nature of suspended load in a water body is affected by the availability of sediment as well as by the turbulent forces in the water. The sand component of the suspended load in a river originates mainly from the river bed. As discharge increases, so do the turbulent forces that cause the sand to be taken into suspension. Sand particles tend to settle quite rapidly because of their shape, density and size. Therefore, the concentration of

sand is highest near the bed of a river and lowest near the surface. The curves for medium and coarse sand in Figure 13.1 show this variation of concentration with depth. In lakes, coarser material is deposited rapidly at the point where the river enters the lake and is only resuspended and redeposited under highly turbulent conditions (such as generated by high winds). Figure 13.1 Variations in concentration of suspended sediment with water depth for sand, silt and clay as measured at one field site The bed sediment of a river contributes only a small portion of the clay and silt-sized particles (<62 m) present in the suspended load. Most of this fine material, which may be 50-100 per cent of the suspended load in many rivers, is eroded and carried to the river by overland flow during rainstorms. This fraction does not easily sink in the water column, and slight turbulent

forces keep it in suspension for long periods of time. As a consequence, the silt + clay fraction tends to be fairly evenly distributed throughout the depth of a river as illustrated by the vertical profile for silt + clay in Figure 13.1. In lakes and reservoirs, fine suspended material originates from river inputs, shoreline and lake bed erosion and organic and inorganic material generated within the lake by biological activity. In eutrophic waters the latter source can be quite significant. Fine material can be repeatedly resuspended by lake currents (generated by wind stress) until it is eventually deposited in an area where water movements are insufficient to resuspend or remobilise it. Such depositional basins in lakes or reservoirs are important for sediment quality studies because they can indicate the history of anthropogenic influences on the composition of the sediment. 13.2.3 Hysteresis effects

A rainstorm causes an increase in discharge and an associated increase in turbulence in a river. This turbulence takes bed sediments into suspension leading to relatively high concentrations of suspended material in the water. During prolonged rainstorms, discharge and turbulence may remain high but there is usually a progressive decline in the quantity of suspended material present in the water. This is because the quantity of sediment on a river bed, and which is introduced into the river by erosional processes, is limited and the amount of sediment available to be taken into suspension gradually diminishes during a storm event. When a series of discharge measurements and water samples are taken at intervals throughout a storm event (when flow increases, reaches a peak, and then decreases), the graphical plot of the concentration of suspended sediment against discharge will often take

the form of a hysteresis loop. This is shown in Figure 13.2, where samples 1 and 7 were taken at the same discharge rate but sample 7 (taken late in the discharge event) has a lower concentration of suspended sediment than sample 1. Similar differences in concentration are evident for samples 6 and 2. In Figure 13.2, the inset graph shows the time sequence of sampling in relation to the discharge. Figure 13.2 Typical hysteresis effect observed in suspended sediment. Sample numbers are those noted in the storm hydrograph illustrated in the insert. Hysteresis may also be observed in plots of seasonal data. This reflects periods of the year when sediment may be more readily available than at other times. Higher concentrations may occur, for example, after a long, dry period or in dry months when vegetation is not able to hold back soil particles that are being eroded.

TURBINE SELECTION Selection of turbine type and determination of plant capacity, turbines require the detailed information on head and possible plant discharge be collected accurately of different conditions.

In theoretical sense, the turbine output, E, can be expressed mathematically as,

E= F (h, q, TW, d, n, Hs, Pmax)

It can be seen that there are numerous parameters that can be varied to achieve the best selection. The usual practice is to base selection on the annual energy output of the plant and the cost of the corresponding installation.

The following points should be considered while selecting right type of hydraulic turbines for hydroelectric power plant.

1) Specific speed:

High specific aped is essential where the head is low and output is large, because otherwise the rotational speed will be low which means cost of turbo-generator and powerhouse will be high. On the other hand there is practically no need of choosing a high value of specific speed for high installations, because even with lo specific speed high rotational speed can be attained with medium capacity plants.

2) Rotational speed:

Rotational speed depends upon specific speed. Also the rotational speed of an electrical generator with which the turbine is to be directly coupled depends on the frequency and number of pair of poles. The value of specific speed adopted should be such that it will give the synchronous speed of the generator.

3) Efficiency:

The efficiency selected should be such that it gives the highest overall efficiency of various conditions.

4) Part load operation:

In general the efficiency at part loads and overloads is less than that with rated (design) parameters. For the sake of economy the turbine should always run with maximum possible efficiency to get more revenue.

When the turbine has to run at part or overload conditions Deriaz turbine is employed. Similarly, for low heads, Kaplan turbine will be useful for such purposes in place of propeller turbine.

5) Cavitations:

The installation of water turbines of reaction type over the tailrace is effected by cavitations. The critical values of cavitations indices must be obtained to see that the turbine works in safe zone. Such values of cavitations indices also affect the design of turbine, especially of Kaplan, propeller and bulb types.

6) Deposition of turbine shaft:

Experience has shown that the vertical shaft arrangement is better for large-sized reaction turbines, therefore, it is almost universally adopted, whereas, in case of large size impulse turbines, horizontal shaft arrangement is preferable.

7) Available head and its fluctuation:

a) Very high (350m and above): for heads greater than 350m, Pelton Turbine is generally employed and practically there is no any choice except in very special cases.

b) High heads (150 m to 350 m): in this range either Pelton or Francis turbine may employ. For higher specific needs Francis turbine is more compact and economical than the Pelton turbine that for the same working conditions would have to be much bigger and rather cumbersome.

c) Medium heads (60 m to 150 m): a Francis turbine is usually employed in this range. Whether a high or low specific speed would be used depends on the selection of the speed.

d) Low heads (below 60m): between 30m to 60m both Kaplan and Francis turbines may be used. Francis is more expensive but yields higher efficiency at part loads and over loads. It is therefore preferable for variable loads. Kaplan turbine is generally employed less than 30m. Propeller turbines are however, commonly used for heads up to 15m. They are adopted only when there is practically no load variation.

8) Water quality: (i.e. sand content chemical or other impurities)

Quality of water is more crucial for the reactive turbine the in reaction turbines. Reactive turbine may undergo for rapid wear in high head reactive turbines.