Discrete and Combinatorial Mathematics, 5th ed., Ralph P.

Grimaldi

Chapter 3 Set Theory

z A set is a well-defined collection of objects. These objects are called elements and are said to be members of the set. z For a set A, we write x A if x is an element of A; y A indicated that y is not a member of A. z A set can be designated by listing its elements within set braces, e.g., A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}. Another standard notation for this set provides us with A = {x | x is an integer and 1 x 5}. Here the vertical line | within the set braces is read such that. The symbols {x |} are read the set of all x such . The properties following | help us determine the elements of the set that is being described. z Example 3.1: page 123. z Example 3.2: page 124. z From the above example, A and B are examples of finite sets, where C is an infinite set. For any finite set A, |A| denotes the number of elements in A and is referred to as the cardinality, or size, of A, e.g., |A| = 9, |B| = 4. z Definition 3.1: If C, D are sets from a universe U, we say that C is a subset of D and write C D, or D C, if every element of C is an element of D. If, in addition, D contains an element that is not in C, then C is called a proper subset of D, and this is denoted by C D or D C. z Note: 1) For all sets C, D from a universe U,

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Discrete and Combinatorial Mathematics, 5th ed., Ralph P. Grimaldi

if C D, then x [x C x D], and if x [x C x D], then C D. That is, C D x [x C x D]. 2) For all subsets C, D of U, C D C D. 3) When C, D are finite, CD |C||D|, and CD |C|<|D|. z Example 3.3: page 125. z Example 3.4: page 125. z Definition 3.2: For a given universe U, the sets C and D (taken from U) are said to be equal, and we write C = D, when C D and D C. z Note: Some notions from logic: in the bottom of page 125. z Example 3.5: page 126. z Theorem 3.1: Let A, B, C U, a) If AB and BC, then AC. b) If AB and BC, then AC. c) If AB and BC, then AC. d) If AB and BC, then AC. z Example 3.6: page 127. z Definition 3.3: The null set, or empty set, is the (unique) set containing no elements. It is denoted by or { }. (Note that ||=0 but {0}. Also, {} because {} is a set with one element, namely, the null set.) z Theorem 3.2: For any universe U, let AU. Then A, and
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Discrete and Combinatorial Mathematics, 5th ed., Ralph P. Grimaldi

if A, then A. z Example 3.7: page 128. z Definition 3.4: If A is a set from universe U, the power set of A, denoted (A), is the collection (or set) of all subsets of A. z Example 3.8: page 128. z Lemma: For any finite set A with |A| = n 0, we find that A was 2n subsets and that |(A)| = 2n. For any 0 k n, there are subsets of size k. Counting the subsets of A k according to the number, k, of elements in a subset, we have the combinatorial identity
n n n n n n n 0 + 1 + 2 + ... + n = k = 2 , for n 0. k =0

z Example 3.9: pages 128~129. z Example 3.10: page 130. z Example 3.11: pages 130~131. z Example 3.12: pages 131~132 (Note:
n + 1 n n ) = r + r 1 r

z Example 3.14: page 133. (Pascals triangle) z A list of some useful sets in pages 133~134.

3.2

Set Operations and the Laws of Set Theory

z Definition 3.5: For A, B U we define the followings: a) A B (the union of A and B) = {x | x A x B }.

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Discrete and Combinatorial Mathematics, 5th ed., Ralph P. Grimaldi

b) A B (the intersection of A and B) = {x | x A x B }. c) A B (the symmetric difference of A and B) = {x | (xA xB) xAB} = {x | xAB xAB}. z Note: If A, B U, then A B, A B, A B U. Consequently, , , and are closed binary operations on (A), and we may also say that (A) is closed under these (binary) operations. z Example 3.15: pages 136~137. z Definition 3.6: Let S, T U. The sets S and T are called disjoint, or mutually disjoint, when S T = . z Theorem 3.3: If S, T U, then S and T are disjoint if and only if S T = S T. z Definition 3.7: For a set A U, the complement of A denote U A, or A , is given by {x | xU xA}. z Example 3.16: page 138. z Definition 3.8: A, B U, the (relative) complement of A in B, denoted B A, is given by {x | xB xA}. z Example 3.17: page 138. z Theorem 3.4: For any universe U and any sets A, B U, the following statements are equivalent: a) A B c) A B = A b) A B = B d)

z The Laws of Set Theory: page 139. z Definition 3.9: Let s be a (general) statement dealing with the equality of two set expressions. Each such expression may involve one or more occurrences of sets (such as A,
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Discrete and Combinatorial Mathematics, 5th ed., Ralph P. Grimaldi

A , B, B , etc.), one or more occurrences of and U, and only the set operation symbols and . The dual of s, denoted sd, is obtained from s by replacing (1) each occurrence of and U (in s) by U and , respectively; and (2) each occurrence of and (in s) by and , respectively.
z Theorem 3.5: The Principle of Duality. Let s denote a theorem dealing with the equality of two set expressions (involving only the set operations and as described in Definition 3.9). Then sd, the dual of s, is also a theorem. z Venn diagram is constructed as follows: U is depicted as the interior of a rectangle, while subsets of U are represented by the interiors of circles and other closed curves. (See Fig 3.6 and 3.7, page 142.) z Membership table: We observe that for sets A, B U, an element xU satisfies exactly one of the following four situations: a) xA, xB c) xA, xB b) xA, xB d) xA, xB.

When x is an element of a given set, we write a 1 in the column representing that set in the membership table; when x is not in the set, we enter a 0. (See Table 3.2 and 3.3, pages 143~144.) z (1) A Venn diagram is simply a graphical representation of a membership table. (2) The use of Venn diagrams and/or membership tables may be appealing, especially to the reader who presently does not appreciate writing proofs. z Example 3.20: page 144.
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Discrete and Combinatorial Mathematics, 5th ed., Ralph P. Grimaldi

z Example 3.21: page 145. z Definition 3.10: Let I be a nonempty set and U a universe. For each i I let Ai U. Then I is called an index set (or set of indices), and each i I is called an index. Under these conditions,
i I
i I

U Ai = {x | x Ai
I Ai = {x | x Ai

for at least one i I }, and

We may rephrase Definition 3.10 by using quantifiers:

x I Ai i I ( x Ai )
i I

z Example 3.23 and 3.24: page 146. z Theorem 3.6: Generalized DeMorgans Laws. Let I be an index set where for each i I, Ai U. Then a) U Ai = I Ai
i I i I

b) I Ai = U Ai .
i I i I

3.3

Counting and Venn Diagrams

z Fig

(page 148) demonstrates A A = U and A A = , so by the rule of sum, |A| + | A | = |U| or | A | = |U| |A|. If the sets A, B have empty intersection, Fig 3.10 shows |A B| = |A| + |B|; otherwise, |A B| = |A| + |B| | A B| (Fig 3.11).
|A B| = |A| + |B| | A B|. Consequently, finite sets A and B are (mutually) disjoint if

z Lemma: If A and B are finite sets, then

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Discrete and Combinatorial Mathematics, 5th ed., Ralph P. Grimaldi

and only if |A B| = |A| + |B|. In addition, when U is finite, from DeMorgans Law we have | A B | = | A B | = |U||A B| = |U||A||B|+|A B|.
z Lemma: If A, B, C are finite sets, then
A B C = A + B + C A B AC B C + A B C .

From the formula for |A B C| and DeMorgans Law, we find that if the universe U is finite, then
A B C = A B C = U A B C = U A B C + A B + AC + B C A B C

z Example 3.27: pages 149~150.

3.4

A Word on Probability

z Lemma: Under the assumption of equal likelihood, let be a sample space for an experiment . Any subset A of is called an event. Each element of is called an elementary event, so if || = n and a , A , then

1 {a} Pr(a) = The probability that a occurs = = , and n

A n

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