Review pages for the AP CS Exam

NOTE: Sections that are not considered part of the Java Subset for the AP CS exam are not included in these pages, for example Scanners. Taken from the UW 143 Review Building Java Programs: Ch. 1-10
Subset of the Supplement Lesson slides from: Building Java Programs, Chapter 1-10 by Stuart Reges and Marty Stepp (http://www.buildingjavaprograms.com/ )
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List of Items not included in the AP CS exam, but we covered in class to build projects.
So these items are not included in these pages

char: Chapter 4.4 Scanners Drawing Panel & Graphics Random Class (5.1) Reading Files (6.1) Input Tokens (6.2) Output to Files (6.4) PrintStream

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A Java program (1.2)

public class name { public static void main(String[] args) { statement; statement; method: a named group ... of statements statement; } } statement: a command to be executed class: a program

Every executable Java program consists of a class,

that contains a method named main,

that contains the statements (commands) to be executed.

3

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System.out.println
A statement that prints a line of output on the console.
pronounced "print-linn" sometimes called a "println statement" for short

Two ways to use System.out.println :

System.out.println("text");

Prints the given message as output.

System.out.println();

Prints a blank line of output.

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Static methods (1.4)

static method: A named group of statements.

denotes the structure of a program eliminates redundancy by code reuse

n n n

class method A statement statement statement method B statement statement method C statement statement statement
5

procedural decomposition:

dividing a problem into methods

Writing a static method is like

n n

adding a new command to Java.

n n n
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Declaring a method
Gives your method a name so it can be executed
Syntax:
public static void name() { statement; statement; ... statement; }

Example:
public static void printWarning() {
System.out.println("This product causes cancer"); System.out.println("in lab rats and humans.");

}
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Calling a method
Executes the method's code
Syntax:
name();
You can call the same method many times if you like.

Example:
printWarning();
Output:

This product causes cancer in lab rats and humans.

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Control flow
When a method is called, the program's execution... "jumps" into that method, executing its statements, then "jumps" back to the point where the method was called.
public class MethodsExample { public static void main(String[] args) { public static void message1() { message1(); System.out.println("This is message1.");
}

message2();

public static void message2() { System.out.println("This is message2."); message1();

System.out.println("Done System.out.println("Done with main."); with message2."); } ... }

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} public static void message1() { System.out.println("This is message1."); }

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Java's primitive types (2.1)

primitive types: 8 simple types for numbers, text, etc.
Java also has object types, which we'll talk about later

Name
int double char boolean

Description integers real numbers single text characters logical values

Examples 42, -3, 0, 926394 3.1, -0.25, 9.4e3 'a', 'X', '?', '\n' true, false

Why does Java distinguish integers vs. real numbers?

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Expressions
expression: A value or operation that computes a value.
Examples:

1 + 4 * 5 (7 + 2) * 6 / 3 42

The simplest expression is a literal value. A complex expression can use operators and parentheses.

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Integer division with /

When we divide integers, the quotient is also an integer. 14 / 4 is 3, not 3.5
3 4 ) 14 12 2 4 10 ) 45 40 5 52 27 ) 1425 135 75 54 21

More examples: 32 / 5 is 6 84 / 10 is 8 156 / 100 is 1

Dividing by 0 causes an error when your program runs.
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Integer remainder with %

The % operator computes the remainder from integer division.
14 % 4 218 % 5

is 2 is 3
43 5 ) 218 20 18 15 3

3 4 ) 14 12 2

What is the result? 45 % 6 2 % 2 8 % 20 11 % 0

Applications of % operator:
Obtain last digit of a number: Obtain last 4 digits: See whether a number is odd:

230857 % 10 is 7 658236489 % 10000 is 6489 7 % 2 is 1, 42 % 2 is 0

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Precedence
precedence: Order in which operators are evaluated. Generally operators evaluate left-to-right. 1 - 2 - 3 is (1 - 2) - 3 which is -4
But */% have a higher level of precedence than +-

1 + 3 * 4 6 + 8 / 2 * 3 6 + 4 * 3 6 + 12

is 13

is 18

Parentheses can force a certain order of evaluation:

(1 + 3) * 4 1+3 * 4-2
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is 16 is 11
13

Spacing does not affect order of evaluation

String concatenation
string concatenation: Using + between a string and

another value to make a longer string.

"hello" + 42 1 + "abc" + 2 "abc" + 1 + 2 1 + 2 + "abc" "abc" + 9 * 3 "1" + 1 4 - 1 + "abc" is is is is is is is "hello42" "1abc2" "abc12" "3abc" "abc27" "11" "3abc"

Use + to print a string and an expression's value together.

System.out.println("Grade: " + (95.1 + 71.9) / 2); Output: Grade: 83.5
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Variables (2.2)
variable: A piece of the computer's memory that is given a

name and type, and can store a value.

A variable can be declared/initialized in one statement. Syntax: type name = value;
double myGPA = 3.95; int x = (11 % 3) + 12;

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myGPA

3.95

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Type casting
type cast: A conversion from one type to another. To promote an int into a double to get exact division from / To truncate a double from a real number to an integer

Syntax:
(type) expression Examples: double result = (double) 19 / 5; int result2 = (int) result; int x = (int) Math.pow(10, 3);

// 3.8 // 3 // 1000

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Increment and decrement

shortcuts to increase or decrease a variable's value by 1
Shorthand variable++; variable--; int x = 2; x++; double gpa = 2.5; gpa--; Equivalent longer version variable = variable + 1; variable = variable - 1;

// x = x + 1; // x now stores 3 // gpa = gpa - 1; // gpa now stores 1.5

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Integer methods
intValue(value) Integer.MIN_VALUE Integer.MAX_VALUE Integer(value) Returns value as an int A constant holding the minimum value an int can have A constant holding the maximum value an int can have Constructs a newly allocated Integer object that represents the specified int value.

Part of the java.lang.Integer NOTE: these are the only List methods used in the AP CS Exam.

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Modify-and-assign operators
shortcuts (NOT REQUIRED for AP CS A)
Shorthand variable += variable -= variable *= variable /= variable %= x += 3; gpa -= 0.5; number *= 2; value; value; value; value; value; Equivalent longer version variable = variable + value; variable = variable - value; variable = variable * value; variable = variable / value; variable = variable % value; // x = x + 3; // gpa = gpa - 0.5; // number = number * 2;
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for loops (2.3)

for (initialization; test; update) { statement; statement; ... statement; } header body

Perform initialization once. Repeat the following:

Check if the test is true. If not, stop. Execute the statements. Perform the update.

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System.out.print
Prints without moving to a new line allows you to print partial messages on the same line
int highestTemp = 5; for (int i = -3; i <= highestTemp / 2; i++) { System.out.print((i * 1.8 + 32) + " "); }
Output:

26.6

28.4

30.2

32.0

33.8

35.6

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Nested loops
nested loop: A loop placed inside another loop.
for (int i = 1; i <= 4; i++) { for (int j = 1; j <= 5; j++) { System.out.print((i * j) + "\t"); } System.out.println(); // to end the line }

Output:
1 2 3 4 2 4 6 8 3 6 9 12 4 8 12 16 5 10 15 20

Statements in the outer loop's body are executed 4 times. The inner loop prints 5 numbers each time it is run.
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Variable scope
scope: The part of a program where a variable exists. From its declaration to the end of the { } braces

A variable declared in a for loop exists only in that loop. A variable declared in a method exists only in that method.

public static void example() { int x = 3; for (int i = 1; i <= 10; i++) { System.out.println(x); } // i no longer exists here } // x ceases to exist here

i's scope

x's scope

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Class constants (2.4)

class constant: A value visible to the whole program. value can only be set at declaration value can't be changed while the program is running Syntax:

public static final type name = value;

name is usually in ALL_UPPER_CASE Examples:

public static final int DAYS_IN_WEEK = 7; public static final double INTEREST_RATE = 3.5; public static final int SSN = 658234569;
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Parameters (3.1)
parameter: A value passed to a method by its caller.
Instead of lineOf7, lineOf13, write line to draw any length.

When declaring the method, we will state that it requires a parameter for the number of stars. When calling the method, we will specify how many stars to draw.

main

7 13

line line

******* *************

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Passing parameters
Declaration: public static void name (type name, ..., type name) { statement(s); } Call: methodName (value, value, ..., value); Example: public static void main(String[] args) { sayPassword(42); // The password is: 42 sayPassword(12345); // The password is: 12345 }
public static void sayPassword(int code) { System.out.println("The password is: " + code); }

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Java's Math class (3.2)

Method name Math.abs(int value) Math.abs(double value) Math.pow(base, exp) Math.sqrt(value) Math.random() Description returns int absolute value returns double absolute value base to the exp power square root random double, returns value from 0 to 1 exclusive , think from 0 to .999999 (never 1)

These are the only Math Methods required for the AP CS, others can be used for the Free Response Questions (FRQ), but will not be in the Multiple Choice.

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Return (3.2)
return: To send out a value as the result of a method.
The opposite of a parameter:

Parameters send information in from the caller to the method. Return values send information out from a method to its caller.

-42 main 42 2.71 3

Math.abs(42)

Math.round(2.71)

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Returning a value
public static type name(parameters) { statements; ... return expression; }

Example:
// Returns the slope public static double double dy = y2 double dx = x2 return dy / dx; } of the line between the given points. slope(int x1, int y1, int x2, int y2) { y1; x1;

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Method Overloading (3.1)

method overloading: The ability to define two different or

more different methods with the same name but different number and/or type of parameters.

public static void drawBox() { // no parameters // has code that creates a standard sized box ... } public static void drawBox(int height, int width) { // code that draws the box based on the height and // width parameter values ... } Which method used is based on how it is called: drawBox(); // uses the first drawBox method drawBox(10,20); // uses second drawBox method
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Strings (3.3)
string: An object storing a sequence of text characters. String name = "text"; String name = expression;
Characters of a string are numbered with 0-based indexes:

String name = "P. Diddy"; index char 0 P 1 . 2 3 D 4 i 5 d 6 d 7 y

The first character's index is always 0 The last character's index is 1 less than the string's length The individual characters are values of type char
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String methods
Method name indexOf(str) length() substring(index1, index2) or substring(index1) compareTo(String other) Description index where the start of the given string appears in this string (-1 if it is not there) number of characters in this string the characters in this string from index1 (inclusive) to index2 (exclusive); if index2 omitted, grabs till end of string returns <0 if this is less than other returns 0 if this is equal to other returns >0 if this is greater than other

These methods are called using the dot notation:

String gangsta = "Dr. Dre"; System.out.println(gangsta.length()); // 7

Note: These are the only String methods required for the AP CS...
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The equals method

Objects are compared using a method named equals.
Scanner console = new Scanner(System.in); System.out.print("What is your name? "); String name = console.next(); if (name.equals("Barney")) { System.out.println("I love you, you love me,"); System.out.println("We're a happy family!"); }

Technically this is a method that returns a value of type boolean,

the type used in logical tests.

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Cumulative sum (4.1)

A loop that adds the numbers from 1-1000:
int sum = 0; for (int i = 1; i <= 1000; i++) { sum = sum + i; } System.out.println("The sum is " + sum);

Key idea:
Cumulative sum variables must be declared outside the loops

that update them, so that they will exist after the loop.

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if/else (4.2)
Executes one block if a test is true, another if false
if (test) { statement(s); } else { statement(s); }

Example:
double gpa = console.nextDouble(); if (gpa >= 2.0) { System.out.println("Welcome to Mars University!"); } else { System.out.println("Application denied."); }
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Relational expressions
A test in an if is the same as in a for loop.
for (int i = 1; i <= 10; i++) { ... if (i <= 10) { ...
These are boolean expressions, seen in Ch. 5.

Tests use relational operators:

Operator == != < > <= >= equals does not equal less than greater than less than or equal to greater than or equal to Meaning Example
1 + 1 == 2 3.2 != 2.5 10 < 5 10 > 5 126 <= 100 5.0 >= 5.0

Value true true false true false true

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Logical operators: &&, ||, !

Conditions can be combined using logical operators:
Operator Description && || ! and or not Example
(2 == 3) && (-1 < 5) (2 == 3) || (-1 < 5)

Result false true true

!(2 == 3)

"Truth tables" for each, used with logical values p and q:

p true true q true p && q true false p || q true true true false
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p true

!p false

false false

false true

false true

false false false

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Type boolean (5.2)

boolean: A logical type whose values are true and false. A test in an if, for, or while is a boolean expression.
You can create boolean variables, pass boolean parameters,

return boolean values from methods, ...

boolean minor = (age < 21); boolean expensive = iPhonePrice > 200.00; boolean iLoveCS = true; if (minor) { System.out.println("Can't purchase alcohol!"); } if (iLoveCS || !expensive) { System.out.println("Buying an iPhone"); }
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De Morgan's Law
De Morgan's Law:

Rules used to negate or reverse boolean expressions.

Useful when you want the opposite of a known boolean test.

Original Expression Negated Expression Alternative a && b a || b

Example:

!a || !b !a && !b

!(a && b) !(a || b)

Original Code if (x == 7 && y > 3) { ... }

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Negated Code if (x != 7 || y <= 3) { ... }

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if/else Structures
Exactly 1 path: (mutually exclusive)
if (test) { statement(s); } else if (test) { statement(s); } else { statement(s); } if (test) { statement(s); } if (test) { statement(s); } if (test) { statement(s); }
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0 or 1 path:
if (test) { statement(s); } else if (test) { statement(s); } else if (test) { statement(s); }

0, 1, or many paths: (independent tests, not exclusive)

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Fencepost loops (4.1)

fencepost problem: When we want to repeat two tasks,

one of them n times, another n-1 or n+1 times.

Add a statement outside the loop to place the initial "post." Also called a fencepost loop or a "loop-and-a-half" solution. Algorithm template:

place a post. for (length of fence - 1) { place some wire. place a post. }

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Fencepost method solution

Write a method printNumbers that prints each number

from 1 to a given maximum, separated by commas. For example, the call:

printNumbers(5);

should print:
1, 2, 3, 4, 5

Solution: public static void printNumbers(int max) { System.out.print(1); for (int i = 2; i <= max; i++) { System.out.print(", " + i); } System.out.println(); // to end the line }
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while loops (5.1)

while loop: Repeatedly executes its
while (test) { statement(s); }

body as long as a logical test is true.

Example: int num = 1; while (num <= 200) { System.out.print(num + " "); num = num * 2; }
OUTPUT:

// initialization // test // update

1 2 4 8 16 32 64 128
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do/while loops (5.4)

do/while loop: Executes statements repeatedly while a condition is true, testing it at the end of each repetition.
do { statement(s); } while (test);
Example:

// prompt until the user gets the right password String phrase; do { System.out.print("Password: "); phrase = console.next(); } while (!phrase.equals("abracadabra"));

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"Boolean Zen"
Students new to boolean often test if a result is true:
if (bothOdd(7, 13) == true) { ... } // bad

But this is unnecessary and redundant. Preferred:

if (bothOdd(7, 13)) { ... } // good

A similar pattern can be used for a false test:

if (bothOdd(7, 13) == false) { if (!bothOdd(7, 13)) {
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// bad // good
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"Boolean Zen", part 2

Methods that return boolean often have an

if/else that returns true or false:

public static boolean bothOdd(int n1, int n2) { if (n1 % 2 != 0 && n2 % 2 != 0) { return true; } else { return false; } }

Observation: The if/else is unnecessary. Our logical test is itself a boolean value; so return that!
public static boolean bothOdd(int n1, int n2) { return (n1 % 2 != 0 && n2 % 2 != 0); }
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The throws clause

throws clause: Keywords on a method's header that state

that it may generate an exception.

Syntax: public static type name(params) throws type {
Example:

public class ReadFile { public static void main(String[] args) throws FileNotFoundException {
Like saying, "I hereby announce that this method might throw

an exception, and I accept the consequences if it happens."

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Arrays (7.1)
array: object that stores many values of the same type. element: One value in an array. index: A 0-based integer to access an element from an array.

index

2 -2

3 26

4 5

5 17

6 -6

9 3

value 12 49

84 72

element 0

element 4

element 9

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Array declaration
type[] name = new type[length];
Example:

int[] numbers = new int[10];

index value

0 0

1 0

2 0

3 0

4 0

5 0

6 0

7 0

8 0

9 0

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Accessing elements
name[index] name[index] = value;
Example:

// access // modify

numbers[0] = 27; numbers[3] = -6; System.out.println(numbers[0]); if (numbers[3] < 0) { System.out.println("Element 3 is negative."); } index 0 1 0 2 0 3 -6 0 4 0 5 0 6 0 7 0 8 0 9 0
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value 27 0

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Out-of-bounds
Legal indexes: between 0 and the array's length - 1. Reading or writing any index outside this range will throw an ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException. Example: int[] data = new int[10]; System.out.println(data[0]); System.out.println(data[9]); System.out.println(data[-1]); System.out.println(data[10]);
index value 0 0 1 0 2 0 3 0 4 0 5 0 6 0 7 0

// // // //

okay okay exception exception 8 0 9 0

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The length field

An array's length field stores its number of elements.
name.length for (int i = 0; i < numbers.length; i++) { System.out.print(numbers[i] + " "); } // output: 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
It does not use parentheses like a String's .length().

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Quick array initialization

type[] name = {value, value, value};
Example:

int[] numbers = {12, 49, -2, 26, 5, 17, -6};

index

2 -2

3 26

4 5

5 17

6 -6

value 12 49

Useful when you know what the array's elements will be. The compiler figures out the size by counting the values.

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The Arrays class

Class Arrays in package java.util has useful static

methods for manipulating arrays:

Method name

Description

binarySearch(array, value) returns the index of the given value in a sorted array (< 0 if not found) equals(array1, array2) returns true if the two arrays contain the same elements in the same order sets every element in the array to have the given value arranges the elements in the array into ascending order returns a string representing the array, such as "[10, 30, 17]"
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fill(array, value) sort(array) toString(array)

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Arrays as parameters
Declaration: public static type methodName(type[] name) {
Example:

public static double average(int[] numbers) { ... }

Call: methodName(arrayName);
Example:

int[] scores = {13, 17, 12, 15, 11}; double avg = average(scores);
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Arrays as return
Declaring: public static type[] methodName(parameters) {
Example:

public static int[] countDigits(int n) { int[] counts = new int[10]; ... return counts; }

Calling: type[] name = methodName(parameters);

Example:

public static void main(String[] args) { int[] tally = countDigits(229231007); System.out.println(Arrays.toString(tally)); }

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Value semantics (primitives)

value semantics: Behavior where values are copied when

assigned to each other or passed as parameters.

When one primitive variable is assigned to another,

its value is copied. Modifying the value of one variable does not affect others. int int y = x = x = 5; y = x; 17; 8;

// x = 5, y = 5 // x = 5, y = 17 // x = 8, y = 17

x y

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Reference semantics (objects)

reference semantics: Behavior where variables actually

store the address of an object in memory.

When one reference variable is assigned to another, the object

is not copied; both variables refer to the same object. Modifying the value of one variable will affect others.

int[] a1 = {4, 5, 2, 12, 14, 14, 9}; int[] a2 = a1; // refer to same array as a1 a2[0] = 7; System.out.println(a1[0]); // 7 a1 a2
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index value

0 7 4

1 5

2 2

6 9
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12 14 14

Null
null : A reference that does not refer to any object.
Fields of an object that refer to objects are initialized to null. The elements of an array of objects are initialized to null.

String[] words = new String[5]; DrawingPanel[] windows = new DrawingPanel[3]; index words 0 1 2 3 4

value null null null null null index 0 1 2

windows

value null null null

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Null pointer exception

dereference: To access data or methods of an object with

the dot notation, such as s.length().

It is illegal to dereference null (causes an exception). null is not any object, so it has no methods or data.

String[] words = new String[5]; System.out.println("word is: " + words[0]); words[0] = words[0].toUpperCase(); Output: word is: null Exception in thread "main" java.lang.NullPointerException at Example.main(Example.java:8)
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Classes and objects (8.1)

class: A program entity that represents either: 1. A program / module, or 2. A template for a new type of objects.
The DrawingPanel class is a template for creating

DrawingPanel objects.

object: An entity that combines state and behavior. object-oriented programming (OOP): Programs that perform their behavior as interactions between objects.

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Fields (8.2)
field: A variable inside an object that is part of its state. Each object has its own copy of each field. encapsulation: Declaring fields private to hide their data. With few exceptions ALWAYS Make fields private in Objects. Declaration syntax:
private type name;
Example:

public class Student { private String name; private double gpa; }

// each object now has // a name and gpa field

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Instance methods
instance method: One that exists inside each object of a

class and defines behavior of that object.

public type name(parameters) { statements; }

same syntax as static methods, but without static keyword

Example: public void shout() { System.out.println("HELLO THERE!"); }

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A Point class
public class Point { private int x; private int y; // Changes the location of this Point object. public void draw(Graphics g) { g.fillOval(x, y, 3, 3); g.drawString("(" + x + ", " + y + ")", x, y); } }
Each Point object contains data fields named x and y. Each Point object contains a method named draw that draws

that point at its current x/y position.

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The implicit parameter

implicit parameter:

The object on which an instance method is called.

During the call p1.draw(g);

the object referred to by p1 is the implicit parameter.

During the call p2.draw(g);

the object referred to by p2 is the implicit parameter.

The instance method can refer to that object's fields.

We say that it executes in the context of a particular object. draw can refer to the x and y of the object it was called on.

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Kinds of methods
Instance methods take advantage of an object's state. Some methods allow clients to access/modify its state. accessor: A method that lets clients examine object state. Example: A distanceFromOrigin method that tells how far a Point is away from (0, 0). Accessors often have a non-void return type. mutator: A method that modifies an object's state. Example: A translate method that shifts the position of a Point by a given amount.

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Constructors (8.4)
constructor: Initializes the state of new objects.
public type(parameters) { statements; }
Example:

public Point(int initialX, int initialY) { x = initialX; y = initialY; }

runs when the client uses the new keyword does not specify a return type; implicitly returns a new object If a class has no constructor, Java gives it a default constructor

with no parameters that sets all fields to 0.

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toString method (8.6)

tells Java how to convert an object into a String public String toString() { code that returns a suitable String; }
Example:

public String toString() { return "(" + x + ", " + y + ")"; }

called when an object is printed/concatenated to a String: Point p1 = new Point(7, 2); System.out.println("p1: " + p1); Every class has a toString, even if it isn't in your code.
Default is class's name and a hex number: Point@9e8c34
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this keyword (8.7)

this : A reference to the implicit parameter.
implicit parameter: object on which a method is called

Syntax for using this:

To refer to a field:

this.field
To call a method:

this.method(parameters);
To call a constructor from another constructor:

this(parameters);
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Static methods
static method: Part of a class, not part of an object. shared by all objects of that class
good for code related to a class but not to each object's state does not understand the implicit parameter, this;

therefore, cannot access an object's fields directly

if public, can be called from inside or outside the class

Declaration syntax:
public static type name(parameters) { statements; }
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Inheritance (9.1)
inheritance: A way to form new classes based on existing

classes, taking on their attributes/behavior.

a way to group related classes

a way to share code between two or more classes

One class can extend another, absorbing its data/behavior. superclass: The parent class that is being extended. subclass: The child class that extends the superclass and inherits its behavior.

Subclass gets a copy of every field and method from superclass

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Inheritance syntax (9.1)

public class name extends superclass {
Example:

public class Secretary extends Employee { ... }

By extending Employee, each Secretary object now: receives a getHours, getSalary, getVacationDays, and getVacationForm method automatically
can be treated as an Employee by client code (seen later)

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Overriding methods (9.1)

override: To write a new version of a method in a subclass

that replaces the superclass's version.

No special syntax required to override a superclass method.

Just write a new version of it in the subclass.

public class Secretary extends Employee { // overrides getVacationForm in Employee class public String getVacationForm() { return "pink"; } ... }

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super keyword (9.3)

Subclasses can call overridden methods with super
super.method(parameters)
Example:

public class LegalSecretary extends Secretary { public double getSalary() { double baseSalary = super.getSalary(); return baseSalary + 5000.0; } ... }

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Abstract Class
Abstract Class: A Java Class that cannot be instantiated, but that instead serves

as a superclass to hold common code and declare abstract behavior (methods)

Abstract classes are useful when a superclass doesn t correspond to a real thing

but more of an idea abstract classes can t be instantiated (no new) they can have fields they can have concrete methods they generally have abstract methods

public abstract class name { private <type> name; // can have fields //can have abstract and/or concrete methods... public type name(type name, ..., type name); public type name(type name, ..., type name){ ... // statements of method } }
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Interfaces
interface: A list of abstract methods that a class can implement.
Interfaces give you an is-a relationship without code sharing.

abstract method: A header without an implementation.

The actual body is not specified, to allow/force different classes to

implement the behavior in its own way.

public interface name { public type name(type name, ..., type name); public type name(type name, ..., type name); ... } Example: public interface Vehicle { public double speed(); public void setDirection(int direction); }

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Implementing an interface
public class name implements interface { ... }
Example:

public class Bicycle implements Vehicle { ... }

A class can declare that it implements an interface.
This means the class must contain each of the abstract methods in

that interface. (Otherwise, it will not compile.)

An Abstract Class can implement an interface public abstract class name implements interface_name { ... }
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Polymorphism
polymorphism: Ability for the same code to be used with

different types of objects and behave differently with each.

Example: System.out.println can print any type of object.

Each one displays in its own way on the console.

A variable of type T can hold an object of any subclass of T.

Employee ed = new LegalSecretary();
You can call any methods from Employee on ed. You can not call any methods specific to LegalSecretary.

When a method is called, it behaves as a LegalSecretary.

System.out.println(ed.getSalary()); System.out.println(ed.getVacationForm());
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// 55000.0 // pink
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Lists (10.1)
list: a collection storing an ordered sequence of elements each element is accessible by a 0-based index a list has a size (number of elements that have been added) elements can be added to the front, back, or elsewhere in Java, a list can be represented as an ArrayList object

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Idea of a list
Rather than creating an array of boxes, create an object
[]

that represents a "list" of items. (initially an empty list.)

You can add items to the list. The default behavior is to add to the end of the list.
[hello, ABC, goodbye, okay]

The list object keeps track of the element values that have

been added to it, their order, indexes, and its total size.
Think of an "array list" as an automatically resizing array

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object. Internally, the list is implemented using an array and a size field.

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Type Parameters (Generics)

ArrayList<Type> name = new ArrayList<Type>();
When constructing an ArrayList, you must specify the

type of elements it will contain between < and >.

This is called a type parameter or a generic class.

Allows the same ArrayList class to store lists of different

types.

ArrayList<String> names = new ArrayList<String>(); names.add("Marty Stepp"); names.add("Stuart Reges");

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ArrayList methods (10.1)

add(value) add(index, value) indexOf(value) get(index) remove(int index) set(index, value) size() toString() appends value at end of list (returns true boolean) inserts given value just before the given index, shifting subsequent values to the right returns first index where given value is found in list (-1 if not found) returns the value at given index removes & returns value (Object) at given index, shifting subsequent values to the left replaces value at given index with given value & returns the previous Object, if needed returns the number of elements in list returns a string representation of the list such as "[3, 42, -7, 15]"
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class java.util.ArrayList<E> implements java.util.List<E>

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These are the only List methods used in the AP CS Exam.