India

Definition

India is a country in South Asia whose name comes from the Indus River. The name `Bharata is used as a designation for the country in their constitution referencing the ancient mythological emperor, Bharata, whose story is told, in part, in the Indian epic Mahabharata. According to the writings nown as the !uranas "religious#historical te$ts written down in the %th century &'( Bharata con)uered the whole su*+continent of India and ruled the land in peace and harmony. The land was, therefore, nown as Bharatavarsha "`the su*+continent of Bharata(. ,omonid activity in the Indian su*+ continent stretches *ac over -%.,... years and it is, therefore, one of the oldest inha*ited regions on the planet. Archaeological e$cavations have discovered artifacts used *y early humans, including stone tools, which suggest an e$tremely early date for human ha*itation and technology in the area. /hile the civili0ations of 1esopotamia and 'gypt have long *een recogni0ed for their cele*rated contri*utions to civili0ation, India has often *een overloo ed, especially in the /est, though her history and culture is 2ust as rich. The areas of present+day India, !a istan, and 3epal have provided archaeologists and scholars with the richest sites of the most ancient pedigree. The species Homo heidelbergensis "a proto human who was an ancestor of modern Homo sapiens( inha*ited the su*+continent of India centuries *efore humans migrated into the region nown as 'urope. 'vidence of the e$istence of Homo heidelbergensis was first discovered in 4ermany in 56.7 and, since, further discoveries have esta*lished fairly clear migration patterns of this species out of Africa. Recognition of the anti)uity of their presence in India has *een largely due to the fairly late archaeological interest in the area as, unli e wor in 1esopotamia and 'gypt, /estern e$cavations in India did not *egin in earnest

until the 56-.s &'. Though the ancient city of ,arappa was nown to e$ist as early as 589- &', its archaeological significance was ignored and the later e$cavations corresponded to an interest in locating the pro*a*le sites referred to in the great Indian epics Mahabharata and Ramayana "*oth of the %th or 9th centuries B&'( while ignoring the possi*ility of a much more ancient past for the region. The village of Balathal "near :daipur in Ra2asthan(, to cite only one e$ample, illustrates the anti)uity of Indias history as it dates to 9... B&'. Balathal was not discovered until 56;- &' and e$cavations were not *egun there until the 566.s &'. Archaeological e$cavations in the past fifty years have dramatically changed the understanding of Indias past and, *y e$tension, world history. A 9... year+old s eleton discovered at Balathal in -..6 &' provides the oldest evidence of leprosy in India. !rior to this find, leprosy was considered a much younger disease thought to have *een carried from Africa to India at some point and then from India to 'urope *y the army of Ale$ander the 4reat following his death in <-< B&'. It is now understood that significant human activity was underway in India *y the ,olocene !eriod "5.,... years ago( and that many historical assumptions *ased upon earlier wor in 'gypt and 1esopotamia, need to *e reviewed and revised. The *eginnings of the =edic tradition in India, still practiced today, can now *e dated, at least in part, to the indigenous people of ancient sites such as Balathal rather than, as often claimed, wholly to the Aryan invasion of c. 5%.. B&'. The Indus =alley &ivili0ation dates to %... B&' and grew steadily throughout the lower 4anetic =alley region southwards and northwards to 1alwa. The cities of this period were larger than contemporary settlements in other countries, were situated according to cardinal points, and were *uilt of mud *ric s, often iln+fired. ,ouses were constructed with a large courtyard opening from the front door, a itchen#wor room for the preparation of food, and smaller *edrooms. >amily activities seem to have centred on the front of the house, particularly the courtyard and, in this, are similar to what has *een inferred from sites in Rome, 'gypt, 4reece, and 1esopotamia. The most famous sites of this period are the great cities of 1ohen2o+?aro and ,arappa *oth located in present+day !a istan "1ohen2o+?aro in the Sindh province and ,arappa in !un2a*( which was part of India until the 5697 &' partition of the country which created the separate nation. ,arappa has given its name to the ,arappan &ivili0ation "another name for the Indus =alley &ivili0ation( which is usually divided into 'arly, 1iddle, and 1ature periods corresponding roughly to %...+9... B&' "'arly(, 9...+ -6.. B&' "1iddle(, and -6..+56.. B&' "1ature(. ,arappa dates from the 1iddle period "c. <... B&'( while 1ohen2o+?aro was *uilt in the 1ature period "c. -;.. B&'(. ,arappa was largely destroyed in the 56th century when British wor ers carried away much of the city for use as *allast in constructing the railroad and many *uildings had already *een dismantled *y citi0ens of the local village of ,arappa "which gives the site its name( for use in their own pro2ects. It is therefore now difficult to determine the historical significance of ,arappa save that it is clear it was once a significant Bron0e Age community with a population of as many as <.,... people. 1ohen2o+?aro, on the other hand, is much *etter preserved as it lay mostly *uried until 56-- &'. The name

`1ohen2o+?aro means `mound of the dead in Sindhi. The original name of the city is un nown although various possi*ilities have *een suggested *y finds in the region, among them, the ?ravidian name `@u utarma, the city of the coc , a possi*le allusion to the site as a center of ritual coc +fighting or, perhaps, as a *reeding centre for coc s. 1ohen2o+?aro was an ela*orately constructed city with streets laid out evenly at right angles and a sophisticated drainage system. The 4reat Bath, a central structure at the site, was heated and seems to have *een a focal point for the community. The citi0ens were s illed in the use of metals such as copper, *ron0e, lead and tin "as evidenced *y art wor s such as the *ron0e statue of the ?ancing 4irl and *y individual seals( and cultivated *arley, wheat, peas, sesame, and cotton. Trade was an important source of commerce and it is thought that ancient 1esopotamian te$ts which mention 1agan and 1eluhha refer to India generally or, perhaps, 1ohen2o+?aro specifically. Artifacts from the Indus =alley region have *een found at sites in 1esopotamia though their precise point of origin in India is not always clear. The people of the ,arappan &ivili0ation worshipped many gods and engaged in ritual worship. Statues of various deities "such as, Indra, the god of storm and war( have *een found at many sites and, chief among them, terracotta pieces depicting the Sha ti "the 1other 4oddess( suggesting a popular, common worship of the feminine principle. In a*out 5%.. B&' it is thought another race, nown as the Aryans, migrated into India through the @hy*er !ass and assimilated into the e$isting culture, perhaps *ringing their gods with them. /hile it is widely accepted that the Aryans *rought the horse to India, there is some de*ate as to whether they introduced new deities to the region or simply influenced the e$isting *elief structure. The Aryans are thought to have *een pantheists "nature worshippers( with a special devotion to the sun and it seems uncertain they would have had anthropomorphic gods. At a*out this same time "c. 57..+5%.. B&'( the ,arappan culture *egan to decline. Scholars cite climate change as one possi*le reason. The Indus River is thought to have *egun flooding the region more regularly "as evidenced *y appro$imately <. feet or 6 metres of silt at 1ohen2o+?aro( and the great cities were a*andoned. Ather scholars cite the Aryan migration as more of an invasion of the land which *rought a*out a vast displacement of the populace. Among the most mysterious aspects of 1ohen2o+?aro is the vitrification of parts of the site as though it had *een e$posed to intense heat which melted the *ric and stone. This same phenomenon has *een o*served at sites such as Traprain Baw in Scotland and attri*uted to the results of warfare. Speculation regarding the destruction of the city *y some ind of ancient atomic *last "possi*ly the wor of aliens from other planets( is not generally regarded as credi*le. The Aryan influence gave rise to what is nown as the =edic !eriod in India "c. 57..+ 5%. B&'( characteri0ed *y a pastoral lifestyle and adherence to the religious te$ts nown as The =edas. Society *ecame divided into four classes "the Varnas( popularly nown as `the caste system which were comprised of the Brahmana at the top "priests and scholars(, the Kshatriya ne$t "the warriors(, the Vaishya "farmers and merchants(, and the Shudra "la*ourers(. The lowest caste was the Dalits, the untoucha*les, who handled meat

and waste, though there is some de*ate over whether this class e$isted in anti)uity. At first, it seems this caste system was merely a reflection of ones occupation *ut, in time, it *ecame more rigidly interpreted to *e determined *y ones *irth and one was not allowed to change castes nor to marry into a caste other than ones own. This understanding was a reflection of the *elief in an eternal order to human life dictated *y a supreme deity. /hile the religious *eliefs which characteri0ed the =edic !eriod are considered much older, it was during this time that they *ecame systemati0ed as the religion of Sanatan ?harma "which means `'ternal Arder( nown today as ,induism "this name deriving from the Indus "or Sindus( River where worshippers were nown to gather, hence, `Sindus, and then `,indus(. The underlying tenet of Sanatan ?harma is that there is an order and a purpose to the universe and human life and, *y accepting this order and living in accordance with it, one will e$perience life as it is meant to *e properly lived. /hile Sanatan ?harma is considered *y many a polytheistic religion consisting of many gods, it is actually monotheistic in that it holds there is one god, Brahma "the Self(, who, *ecause of his greatness, cannot *e fully apprehended save through the many aspects which are revealed as the different gods of the ,indu pantheon. It is Brahma who decrees the eternal order and maintains the universe through it. This *elief in an order to the universe reflects the sta*ility of the society in which it grew and flourished as, during the =edic !eriod, governments *ecame centrali0ed and social customs integrated fully into daily life across the region. Besides The =edas, the great religious and literary wor s of The :panishads, The !uranas, The 1aha*harata, and The Ramayana all come from this period. In the ;th century B&', the religious reformers =ardhaman 1ahavira "%96+977 B&'( and Siddhartha 4autama "%;<+98< B&'( *ro e away from mainstream Sanatan ?harma to eventually create their own religions of Cainism and Buddhism. These changes in religion were a part of a wider pattern of social and cultural upheaval which resulted in the formation of city states and the rise of powerful ingdoms "such as the @ingdom of 1agadha under the ruler Bim*isara(. Increased ur*ani0ation and wealth attracted the attention of &yrus, ruler of the !ersian 'mpire, who invaded India in %<. B&' and initiated a campaign of con)uest in the region. Ten years later, under the reign of his son, ?arius I, northern India was firmly under !ersian control "the regions corresponding to Afghanistan and !a istan today( and the inha*itants of that area su*2ect to !ersian laws and customs. Ane conse)uence of this, possi*ly, was an assimilation of !ersian and Indian religious *eliefs which some scholars point to as an e$planation for further religious and cultural reforms. !ersia held dominance in northern India until the con)uest of Ale$ander the 4reat in <-7 B&'. Ane year later, Ale$ander had defeated the Achaemenid 'mpire and firmly con)uered the Indian su*continent. Again, foreign influences were *rought to *ear on the region giving rise to the 4reco+Buddhist culture which impacted all areas of culture in northern India from art to religion to dress. Statues and reliefs from this period depict Buddha, and other figures, as distinctly ,ellenic in dress and pose " nown as the 4andhara School of Art(. >ollowing Ale$anders departure from India, the 1aurya

'mpire "<--+58% B&'( rose under the reign of &handragupta 1aurya "<--+-68( until, *y the end of the third century B&', it ruled over almost all of northern India. &handraguptas son, Bindusara reigned *etween -68+-7- B&' and e$tended the empire throughout the whole of India. ,is son was Asho a the 4reat "lived <.9+-<-, reigned -;6+-<- B&'( under whose rule the empire flourished at its height. 'ight years into his reign, Asho a con)uered the eastern city+state of @alinga which resulted in a death toll num*ering over 5..,.... Shoc ed at the destruction and death, Asho a em*raced the teachings of the Buddha and em*ar ed on a systematic programme advocating Buddhist thought and principles. ,e esta*lished many monasteries and gave lavishly to Buddhist communities. ,is ardent support of Buddhist values eventually caused a strain on the government *oth financially and politically as even his grandson, Sampadi, heir to the throne, opposed his policies. By the end of Asho as reign the government treasury was severely depleted through his regular religious donations and, after his death, the empire declined rapidly. The country splintered into many small ingdoms and empires "such as the @ushan 'mpire( in what has come to *e called the 1iddle !eriod. This era saw the increase of trade with Rome "which had *egun c. 5<. B&'( following Augustus &aesars con)uest of 'gypt in <. B&' "'gypt had *een Indias most constant partner in trade in the past(. This was a time of individual and cultural development in the various ingdoms which finally flourished in what is considered the 4olden Age of India under the reign of the 4upta 'mpire "<-.+%%. &'(. The 4upta 'mpire is thought to have *een founded *y one Sri 4upta "`Sri means `Bord( who pro*a*ly ruled *etween -9.+-8. &'. As Sri 4upta is thought to have *een of the Vaishya "merchant( class, his rise to power in defiance of the caste system is unprecedented. ,e laid the foundation for the government which would so sta*ili0e India that virtually every aspect of culture reached its height under the reign of the 4uptas. !hilosophy, literature, science, mathematics, architecture, astronomy, technology, art, engineering, religion, and astronomy, among other fields, all flourished during this period, resulting in some of the greatest of human achievements. The Puranas of Vyasa were compiled during this period and the famous caves of A2anta and 'llora, with their ela*orate carvings and vaulted rooms, were also *egun. @alidasa the poet and playwright wrote his masterpiece Shakuntala and the Kamasutra was also written, or compiled from earlier wor s, *y =atsyayana. =arahamihira e$plored astronomy at the same time as Arya*hatta, the mathematician, made his own discoveries in the field and also recogni0ed the importance of the concept of 0ero, which he is credited with inventing. As the founder of the 4upta 'mpire defied orthodo$ ,indu thought, it is not surprising that the 4upta rulers advocated and propagated Buddhism as the national *elief and this is the reason for the plentitude of Buddhist wor s of art, as opposed to ,indu, at sites such as A2anta and 'llora. The empire declined slowly under a succession of wea rulers until it collapsed around %%. &'. The 4upta 'mpire was then replaced *y the rule of ,arshavardhan "%6.+;97( who ruled the region for 9- years. A literary man of considera*le accomplishments "he

authored three plays in addition to other wor s( ,arshavardhan was a patron of the arts and a devout Buddhist who for*ade the illing of animals in his ingdom *ut recogni0ed the necessity to sometimes ill humans in *attle. ,e was a highly s illed military tactician who was only defeated in the field once in his life. :nder his reign, the north of India flourished *ut his ingdom collapsed following his death. The invasion of the ,uns had *een repeatedly repelled *y the 4uptas and then *y ,arshavardhan *ut, with the fall of his ingdom, India fell into chaos and fragmented into small ingdoms lac ing the unity necessary to fight off invading forces. In 75- &' the 1uslim general 1uhammed *in Duasim con)uered northern India, esta*lishing himself in the region of modern+day !a istan. The 1uslim invasion saw an end to the indigenous empires of India and, from then on, independent city states or communities under the control of a city would *e the standard model of government. The Islamic Sultanates rose in the region of modern+day !a istan and spread north+west. The disparate world views of the religions which now contested each other for acceptance in the region and the diversity of languages spo en, made the unity and cultural advances, such as were seen in the time of the 4uptas, difficult to reproduce. &onse)uently, the region was easily con)uered *y the Islamic 1ughal 'mpire. India would then remain su*2ect to various foreign influences and powers "among them the !ortuguese, the >rench, and the British( until finally winning its independence in 5697 &'