ECE 4501

Power Systems Laboratory Manual

Rev 1.0

9.0 MOTOR DRIVES USING MOSFETS

9.1
9.1.1

BUCK CHOPPER DRIVE

OBJECTIVE
To study the use of Power M S!ETs "n a #u$% Cho&&er to $ontrol a 'C Motor.

9.1.2

DISCUSSION
The s&eed of a 'C Motor "s d"re$tly &ro&ort"onal to the l"ne volta(e a&&l"ed to "t. )"ven a f"*ed 'C sour$e+ ,S+ and a Power M S!ET to a$t as a sw"t$h+ "t "s &oss"ble to $ontrol the avera(e volta(e a&&l"ed to the motor us"n( a te$hn"-ue $alled Pulse./"dth Modulat"on 0P/M1. 2n the $"r$u"t shown "n !"(ure 3.1 below+ the sour$e volta(e+ ,s+ "s 4$ho&&ed5 to &rodu$e an avera(e volta(e somewhere between 06 and 1006 of ,s. Thus the avera(e value of the volta(e a&&l"ed to the Motor+ ,m+ "s $ontrolled by $los"n( and o&en"n( the 4sw"t$h5+ 71. To $lose the sw"t$h+ a f"r"n( s"(nal "s del"vered to the (ate of the M S!ET+ $aus"n( "t to $ondu$t between sour$e and dra"n. To o&en the sw"t$h+ the f"r"n( s"(nal "s removed and the M S!ET "s self.b"ased to sto& $ondu$t"n(. 2n P/M+ the sw"t$h "s $losed and o&ened every modulat"on &er"od.

FIGURE 9-1

2n d"s$uss"n( the &er"od of modulat"on+ let t"me be d"v"ded "nto un"form &er"ods of one m"ll"se$ond ea$h and let a &er"od be $alled T+ the modulat"on &er"od. 'ur"n( T+ there "s a t"me+ t0 to t1+ dur"n( wh"$h the M S!ET 71 "s on+ and a t"me+ t1 to t8+ dur"n( wh"$h "t "s off+ as "nd"$ated "n the !"(ure 3.8 below. Th"s "s true for ea$h &er"od and therefore 71 turns on and off 1000 t"mes every se$ond when T 9 1 ms.

-1 .

ECE 4501

Power Systems Laboratory Manual

Rev 1.0

FIGURE 9-2

/hen 71 "s on+ ,s volts are a&&l"ed to the motor for t1 m"ll"se$onds. /hen 71 "s off+ :ero volts are a&&l"ed to the motor. ;owever+ the armature $urrent+ 2a+ "s st"ll allowed to $"r$ulate throu(h the d"ode. The ma(n"tude of the armature $urrent w"ll d"m"n"sh between t1 and t8 as losses "n the motor d"ss"&ate ener(y. The volta(e+ ,m+ seen by the motor $an be e*&ressed "n terms of the sour$e volta(e+ ,s+ and the 4 <5 t"me+ t1+ and the &er"od of modulat"on+ T. The e-uat"on "s= Vm = Vs wh ! = "1 # T

The symbol "s $alled the 'uty Cy$le. >s duty $y$le "s "n$reased from 06 to 1006+ the avera(e volta(e a&&l"ed to the motor "n$reases from 0 to ,s volts and the motor s&eeds u&. 2t "s somet"mes more useful to th"n% of the fre-uen$y of modulat"on as o&&osed to "ts &er"od. Modulat"on fre-uen$y "s ?ust the "nverse of the &er"od of modulat"on+ fm 9 1@T. State of the art P/M $onverters have modulat"on fre-uen$"es as h"(h as 800%;:+ althou(h some &eo&le ar(ue that fre-uen$"es above 80 %;: lead to unne$essary e*&ense.

9.1.$

INSTRUMENTS %ND COMPONENTS

Power Su&&ly Module 'C Meter"n( Module 'C Motor@)enerator Module Smooth"n( 2ndu$tor Module Power M S!ET Module En$losure@Power Su&&ly Cho&&er@2nverter Control -8 . EMS &&21 EMS &'12 EMS &211 EMS &$2( EMS &&$) EMS &&'0 EMS 9029

ECE 4501

Power Systems Laboratory Manual ,olta(e@Current 2solator 2nert"a /heel ;and Ta$hometer EMS 90(* +,! 90(0 -./ 90(10 EMS 912* EMS &920

Rev 1.0

9.1.'

PROCEDURE
C%UTION1 A ;"(h volta(es are &resent "n th"s E*&er"ment. ' < T ma%e any $onne$t"ons w"th the &ower su&&ly <. )et "n the hab"t of turn"n( !! the &ower su&&ly after every measurement.

1.

,er"fy that all &ower sw"t$hes are !!+ then $onne$t the $"r$u"t shown "n !"(ure 3.B below=

FIGURE 9-$

8.

2nstall the 2nert"a /heel+ EMS 318C+ on the shaft of the 'C Motor@)enerator and ver"fy that "t "s se$urely fastened. Turn on the En$losure@Power Su&&ly 0EMS DD401 by sett"n( "ts ro$%er sw"t$h to the 415 &os"t"on. ' < T turn on any other &ower su&&ly. >d?ust $ontrols to the follow"n( sett"n(s=

B.

-B .

ECE 4501

Power Systems Laboratory Manual

Rev 1.0

2-3V,4" E5678m ." D :79 S ""7.; V,4"-; S 4 9",! )-N K.,3 +EMS &&210 I." !9,.. 9"7,. 0 +,8 .0 Sw7"9h +EMS &&$)0 DC S,6!9 1 M7.7m6m +EMS 90290 + >644 99w0 DC S,6!9 2 M-?7m6m +EMS 90290 +>644 9w0 MODE CHOP. P@M +EMS 90290 Rh ,s"-" M7.7m6m +EMS &2110 +>644 99w0
4. 5.

Os9744,s9,8 O8"7,. Ch-.. 1 S .s7"7:7"<= Ch-.. 2 S .s7"7:7"<= V !"79-4 M,/ = D7s84-< M,/ = T7m B-s = T!7;; ! S,6!9 = T!7;; ! S4,8 = T!7;; ! C,6847.;= S ""7.; ( V # D7:. DC C,684 / 2 V # D7:. DC C,684 / Ch,88 / %#B 0.2 ms # D7:. E?" !.-4 P,s7"7: +A0 HF R B 9"7,.

,er"fy that the volta(e $ontrol %nob on the ma"n Power Su&&ly "s at :ero &er$ent+ then turn on the 84 ,a$ &ower sw"t$h and the ma"n &ower sw"t$h. >d?ust the volta(e $ontrol %nob for 1006 0180 ,olts1 o&erat"on. Turn the !"eld Rheostat on the 'C Motor $lo$%w"se unt"l the f"eld $urrent rea$hes "ts rated am&s 00.4 >1. 2t "s E "f the motor "s not turn"n(. N," "h-" "h DC M,",! 7s Cs 8-!-" 4< ?97" /D. I. ,"h ! w,!/sE "h sh6." >7 4/ 7. "h s"-",! 7s 9! -" / 3< - 9,.s"-." s,6!9 . Th7s w744 m-F "h m,",! 3 h-: m69h 47F - P !m-. ." M-;. " DC M,",!. Fse the $hannel &os"t"on %nobs on the s$"llos$o&e to &la$e the Channel 1 s"(nal "n the to& half of the s$reen and Channel 8 "n the bottom half. The 'C Sour$e 1 %nob $ontrols the duty $y$le+ + of the P/M dr"ver. 2t "s $urrently set at m"n"mum 006 duty1. Turn the %nob $lo$%w"se and set the motor s&eed to B00 RPM. bserve the waveforms on the s$"llos$o&e and $om&are them to the waveforms "n !"(ure 3.8. <ote any d"fferen$es=

C. G. D.

HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHH HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHH HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHH HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHH

3. Cont"nue to ad?ust the 'C Sour$e 1 %nob to determ"ne f"rst the m"n"mum and then the ma*"mum s&eed for the motor. Leave the motor at ma*"mum s&eed wh"le you re$ord your values.

M7.7m6m S8 /
-4 .

M-?7m6m S8 /

ECE 4501

Power Systems Laboratory Manual

Rev 1.0

RPM
10.

RPM

Try to determ"ne the t"me re-u"red for the motor to de$elerate by -u"$%ly $han("n( the duty $y$le to m"n"mum and measur"n( the number of se$onds unt"l the motor rea$hes m"n"mum s&eed. Re$ord the t"me below. <ow -u"$%ly $han(e the duty $y$le to ma*"mum and measure the number of se$onds for the motor to a$h"eve ma*"mum s&eed. Ma"nta"n to& s&eed and re$ord the result

11.

D 9 4 !-"7,. T7m S 9
18.

%99 4 !-"7,. T7m S 9

7u"$%ly turn the 'C Sour$e 1 %nob to about B06 of ma*"mum and observe the armature volta(e and $urrent waveforms on the os$"llos$o&e as the motor de$elerates. S%et$h them below.

FIGURE 9-'= ,m and 2a 'ur"n( 'e$elerat"on Comments= HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHH HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHH HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHH 1B. Return the volta(e $ontrol %nob on the ma"n &ower su&&ly to :ero &er$ent and turn !! all &ower su&&l"es. K 8 "h 97!967" w7! / >,! "h . ?" s 9"7,..

-5 .

ECE 4501

Power Systems Laboratory Manual

Rev 1.0

9.1.(
11

CONC2USIONS
T;E #FCE C; PPER $onverter used "n th"s se$t"on "s $alled a 4 ne.7uadrantI $onverter. Comment u&on the ab"l"ty of th"s $onverter to de$elerate the motor= HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHH HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHH HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHH

81

To "n$rease the out&ut volta(e+ ,m+ from the $onverter+ should the duty $y$le+ + be "n$reased or de$reasedJ 2n add"t"on+ what "s the ran(e of the out&ut volta(e as demonstrated "n th"s e*&er"mentJ HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHH HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHH

B1

/hat "s the modulat"on &er"od+ T+ for th"s $ontrollerJ /hat m"(ht be reasons for ma%"n( T smallJ HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHH HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHH HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHH HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHH

-C .

ECE 4501

Power Systems Laboratory Manual

Rev 1.0

9.2
9.2.1

FOUR-GU%DR%NT CHOPPER DRIVE

OBJECTIVE
To observe the o&erat"on of a four.-uadrant $ho&&er $onverter dr"v"n( a 'C Motor and e*&lore the use of $losed loo& $ontrol methods.

9.2.2

DISCUSSION
2n the &rev"ous e*er$"se+ the #FCE Cho&&er was ne"ther $a&able of o&&os"n( the forward rotat"on of the 'C Motor nor of turn"n( the motor "n the o&&os"te d"re$t"on. Su$h a $ontroller "s $alled a one.-uadrant $onverter. > $onverter that $an dr"ve the motor to s&"n "n e"ther d"re$t"on and a&&ly bra%"n( tor-ue "n e"ther d"re$t"on "s $alled a four.-uadrant $onverter. The fundamental four.-uadrant dev"$e $ons"sts of an ;.br"d(e w"th a M S!ET sw"t$h on ea$h le( of the ;. The load 0a motor "n th"s $ase1 o$$u&"es the $rossbar of the ;. The load $an be a$$elerated "n the forward d"re$t"on 0-uadrant 11 by turn"n( on two M S!ET sw"t$hes+ one on the u&&er left le( of the ; and one on the lower r"(ht. #ahK <obody reads th"s ?un% anywayL..on w"th the showK

9.2.$

INSTRUMENTS %ND COMPONENTS

Power Su&&ly Module 'C Meter"n( Module 'C Motor@)enerator Module Smooth"n( 2ndu$tor Module Power M S!ET Module En$losure@Power Su&&ly Cho&&er@2nverter Control ,olta(e@Current 2solator 2nert"a /heel ;and Ta$hometer P.2.'. Controller Syn$hronous Motor Res"st"ve Load EMS &&21 EMS &'12 EMS &211 EMS &$2( EMS &&$) EMS &&'0 EMS 9029 EMS 90(* +,! 90(0 -./ 90(10 EMS 912* EMS &920 EMS 90$' EMS &2'1 EMS &$11

9.2.'

PROCEDURE
C%UTION1 A ;"(h volta(es are &resent "n th"s E*&er"ment. ' < T ma%e any $onne$t"ons w"th the &ower su&&ly <. )et "n the hab"t of turn"n( !! the &ower su&&ly after every measurement. 1. ,er"fy that all &ower sw"t$hes are !!+ and then $onne$t the $"r$u"t shown "n !"(ure 3.5 below. 0<ote= the only $han(e from !"(ure 3.B "s the "nternal w"r"n( of the Power M S!ET Module+ EMS DDBG. Mou w"ll be told what e*ternal sw"t$hes to $han(e on the Module.1

-G .

ECE 4501

Power Systems Laboratory Manual

Rev 1.0

OPEN 2OOPE '-GU%DR%NT CONTRO2=

FIGURE 9-(
8. B. 2nstall the 2nert"a /heel+ EMS 318C+ on the shaft of the 'C Motor@)enerator and ver"fy that "s se$urely fastened. Turn on the En$losure Power Su&&ly 0EMS DD401 by sett"n( "ts ro$%er sw"t$h to the 415 &os"t"on. ' < T turn on any other &ower su&&ly. >d?ust $ontrols to the follow"n( sett"n(s=

2-3V,4" E5678m ." D :79 S ""7.;

Os9744,s9,8 O8"7,. S ""7.;

-D .

ECE 4501

Power Systems Laboratory Manual

Rev 1.0

V,4"-; S 4 9",! K.,3 +EMS &&210 I." !9,.. 9"7,. Sw7"9h +EMS &&$)0 DC S,6!9 1 +EMS 90290 DC S,6!9 2 +EMS 90290 MODE +P6sh36"",.
S 4 9",!0

)-N 1 +C4,s /0 M7/ P,s7"7,. M7/ P,s7"7,. CHOP. P@M M7.7m6m +>644 99w0

Ch-.. 1 S .s7"7:7"<= Ch-.. 2 S .s7"7:7"<= V !"79-4 M,/ = D7s84-< M,/ = T7m B-s = T!7;; ! S,6!9 = T!7;; ! S4,8 = T!7;; ! C,6847.;=

( V # D7:. DC C,684 / 2 V # D7:. DC C,684 / Ch,88 / %#B 0.2 ms # D7:. E?" !.-4 P,s7"7: +A0 HF R B 9"7,.

+EMS 90290 Rh ,s"-" +EMS &2110

4. 5.

,er"fy that the volta(e $ontrol %nob on the ma"n Power Su&&ly "s at :ero &er$ent+ then turn on the 84 ,a$ &ower sw"t$h and the ma"n &ower sw"t$h. >d?ust the volta(e $ontrol %nob for 1006 0180 ,olts1 o&erat"on. Turn the !"eld Rheostat on the 'C Motor $lo$%w"se unt"l the f"eld $urrent rea$hes "ts rated am&s. N," "h-" "h DC M,",! 7s Cs 8-!-" 4< ?97" /D. I. ,"h ! w,!/sE "h sh6." >7 4/ 7. "h s"-",! 7s 9! -" / 3< - 9,.s"-." s,6!9 . Th7s w744 m-F "h m,",! 3 h-: m69h 47F P !m-. ." M-;. " DC M,",!. Fse the $hannel &os"t"on %nobs on the s$"llos$o&e to &la$e the Channel 1 s"(nal "n the to& half of the s$reen and Channel 8 "n the bottom half. Chan(e the 'uty Cy$le of the $onverter by slowly turn"n( the 'C Sour$e 1 %nob+ f"rst $lo$%w"se then $ounter$lo$%w"se. bserve and $omment on the s&eed and d"re$t"on of rotat"on and the waveforms on the s$"llos$o&e. HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHH HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHH HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHH

C. G.

D.

Return the volta(e $ontrol to :ero &er$ent and turn !! >LL &ower su&&l"es.

C2OSED-2OOP CONTRO2
<e"ther of the &rev"ous $"r$u"ts used feedba$% s"(nals to "m&rove $ontrol of the motor. Th"s f"nal $"r$u"t w"ll demonstrate $losed.loo& $ontrol by feed"n( ba$% a motor RPM s"(nal to the $ontroller. -3 .

ECE 4501

Power Systems Laboratory Manual

Rev 1.0

3.

Remove the 2nert"a /heel and the t"m"n( belt between the Pr"me Mover@ 'ynamometer and the 'C Motor. Re.$onne$t the belt between the 'C Motor and the Syn$hronous Motor@)enerator. >dd the Ta$hometer to the shaft of the 'C Motor. Eee&"n( the $"r$u"t mu$h the same as before+ w"re the add"t"onal $om&onents as shown "n !"(ure 3.C below 0Ma%e sure all &ower "s !!K1=

10.

C2OSED 2OOPE '-GU%DR%NT CONTRO2

FIGURE 9-*

-10 .

ECE 4501 11.

Power Systems Laboratory Manual

Rev 1.0

Turn on the En$losure Power Su&&ly 0EMS DD401 by sett"n( "ts ro$%er sw"t$h to the 415 &os"t"on. ' < T turn on any other &ower su&&ly. >d?ust $ontrols to the follow"n( sett"n(s=

E5678m ." D :79 S ""7.; E?97" ! C,."!,4 +EMS '0H ,> M-?.
&2'1E S<.9h. M,",!0

T,;;4 Sw7"9h +EMS

&2'1E S<.9h. M,",!0

1 +C4,s /0 M7/ P,s7"7,. M-?7m6m +>644 9w0 CHOP. P@M

DC S,6!9 1 +EMS 90290 DC S,6!9 2 +EMS 90290 MODE +P6sh36"",.

S 4 9",!0

P.I.D. C,."!,44 ! O8"7,. S ""7.; 2,w-P-ss F74" ! 2 M7/ P,s7"7,. C6",>>-F! 56 .9< F /3-9F %m847>7 ! $0H ,> R-.; G-7. P!,8,!"7,.-4 G-7. 2,wIM-?7m6m I." ;!-4 G-7. U88 ! 27m7" 2,w ! 27m7" %."7-R s " $0H ,> R-.; M-?7m6m M-?7m6m 1

+EMS 90290

18. 1B. 14.

,er"fy that the volta(e $ontrol %nob on the ma"n Power Su&&ly "s at :ero &er$ent+ then turn on the 84 ,a$ &ower sw"t$h and the ma"n &ower sw"t$h. >d?ust the volta(e $ontrol for 1006 l"ne volta(e. 2n$rease the 'C Motor s&eed to ma*"mum by turn"n( the 'C Sour$e 1 %nob to "ts fully $lo$%w"se &os"t"on 01006 forward 'uty Cy$le1. <ow use the !eedba$% >m&l"f"er )a"n $ontrol to set ma*"mum 'C Motor s&eed at 1000 RPM. Evaluate the res&ons"veness of feedba$% $ontrol= ,ary the 'uty Cy$le of the motor "n both d"re$t"ons 0".e. turn 'C Sour$e 1 %nob $$w and $w1. Pay &art"$ular attent"on to 2a$ and the waveforms on the os$"llos$o&e. Comments= HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHH HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHH HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHH

15.

1C.

Cause a sudden $han(e "n load level by o&en"n( the !"eld Sw"t$h on the Syn$hronous )enerator. ;ow does the system behaveJ /hat ha&&ens to 2aJ HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHH HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHH HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHH -11 .

ECE 4501

Power Systems Laboratory Manual

Rev 1.0

1G.

Turn the 'C Sour$e 1 %nob to set a m"n"mal motor s&eed+ turn the volta(e $ontrol to :ero &er$ent and turn !! >LL &ower su&&l"es 0 s$"llos$o&e+ tooK1.

9.2.(

CONC2USIONS
11 'es$r"be a motor a&&l"$at"on where !our.7uadrant $ontrol would be ne$essary= HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHH HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHH HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHH

81

Try to th"n% of any drawba$%s to the $"r$u"t as stud"ed= HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHH HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHH HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHH

B1

/hen the 'C Motor turns the Syn$hronous )enerator at 1000 RPM+ what "s the fre-uen$y of the >C volta(e and $urrent waveforms (eneratedJ Fse the follow"n( formula= Syn$hronous S&eed+ Ns +RPM0 = 120 > # 8 N f "s fre-uen$y "n ;: & "s the number of &oles The Syn$hronous )enerator "s a 4.&ole ma$h"ne. HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHH HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHH HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHH

-18 .