Electromechanics K.

Craig 1
Electro-Magneto-Mechanics
Dr. Kevin Craig
Professor of Mechanical Engineering
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
Electromechanics K. Craig 2
Learning Objectives
Understand the basic principles of electricity and magnetism.
Use the concepts of reluctance and magnetic circuits to
compute magnetic flux and currents in simple magnetic
structures.
Understand the properties of magnetic materials and their
effects on magnetic circuit models.
Model and analyze force generation in electro-magneto-
mechanical systems.
Model and analyze moving-iron transducers
(electromagnets, solenoids, relays) and moving-coil
transducers (electrodynamic shakers, loudspeakers, and
seismic transducers).
Electromechanics K. Craig 3
Electromechanics Topics
Magnetic and Magnetically-Coupled Circuits
Introduction
Magnetic Field
Magnetic Circuits
Faradays Law and Lenzs Law
Stationary Magnetically-Coupled Circuits
Magnetic Systems with Mechanical Motion
Elementary Electromagnet
Elementary Reluctance Machine
Windings in Relative Motion
Properties of Magnetic Materials
Electromechanics K. Craig 4
Principles of Electromechanical Energy
Conversion
Linear DC Machine A Simple Example
Energy Balance Relationships
Energy in Coupling Field
Electromagnetic and Electrostatic Forces
Magnetic Systems with Mechanical Motion
Elementary Electromagnet
Elementary Reluctance Machine
Windings in Relative Motion
Forces and Torques in Systems with Permanent
Magnets
Applications: Solenoids and Vibration Shakers
Electromechanics K. Craig 5
References for Electromechanics
Electromechanical Motion Devices, P. Krause and O.
Wasynczuk, McGraw Hill, 1989.
Electric Machinery, 6
th
Edition, A. Fitzgerald, C. Kingsley,
S. Umans, McGraw Hill, 2003.
Electric Machinery Fundamentals, 3
rd
Edition, S.
Chapman, McGraw Hill, 1999.
Engineering Electromagnetics, 7
th
Edition, William Hayt
and John Buck, McGraw Hill, 2006.
Principles and Applications of Electrical Engineering, 4
th
Edition, Georgio Rizzoni, McGraw Hill, 2003.
Electromechanics K. Craig 6
Applied Electromagnetics, M. Plonus, McGraw Hill,
1978.
Electromechanical Dynamics, H. Woodson and J.
Melcher, Wiley, 1968.
Driving Force, The Natural Magic of Magnets, J.
Livingston, Harvard University Press, 1996.
Electromechanics K. Craig 7
Introduction
Electric Machine device that can convert either
mechanical energy to electrical energy or electrical
energy to mechanical energy
mechanical to electrical: generator
electrical to mechanical: motor
all practical motors and generators convert energy
from one form to another through the action of a
magnetic field
Transformer device that converts ac electric energy
at one voltage level to ac electric energy at another
voltage level
Electromechanics K. Craig 8
It operates on the same principles as generators and
motors, i.e., it depends on the action of a magnetic
field to accomplish the change in voltage level
Magnetic Field acts as the medium for transferring
and converting energy
Motors, Generators, and Transformers are
ubiquitous in modern daily life. Why?
Electric power is:
Clean
Efficient
Easy to transmit over long distances
Easy to control
Environmental benefits
Electromechanics K. Craig 9
Purpose of this Study
Learn the fundamental principles used in the
interconversion of electrical and mechanical energy
Study electromechanical devices including linear and
rotary actuators and sensors
Focus on electromechanical rotational devices
commonly used in low-power mechatronic systems
Permanent-magnet dc motor
brushless dc motor
stepper motor
Since practically all electromechanical devices use
ferromagnetic and permanent-magnet materials for
shaping and directing magnetic fields, an understanding
of the use of these materials is essential
Electromechanics K. Craig 10
Note
An in-depth understanding of Maxwells Equations is
not a prerequisite for this study.
The techniques of magnetic-circuit analysis, which
represent algebraic approximations to exact field-
theory solutions, are widely used in the study of
electromechanical-energy-conversion devices.
Electromechanics K. Craig 11
Maxwells
Equations
Gausss
Law
Faradays
Law
Extension of
Amperes
Law
Electromechanics K. Craig 12
Magnetic and Magnetically-Coupled
Circuits
Introduction
Magnetic Field
Magnetic Circuits
Faradays Law and Lenzs Law
Stationary Magnetically-Coupled Circuits
Magnetic Systems with Mechanical Motion
Elementary Electromagnet
Elementary Reluctance Machine
Windings in Relative Motion
Properties of Magnetic Materials
Electromechanics K. Craig 13
Introduction
Some Objectives and Comments
Review concepts and terms for use in the study of
electromechanical motion devices.
In all electromechanical devices, mechanical motion
must occur, either translational or rotational, and this
motion is reflected into the electrical system either as
a change of flux linkages (electromagnetic system) or
as a change of charge (electrostatic system).
The focus here is primarily on electromagnetic
systems.
Electromechanics K. Craig 14
If the magnetic system is linear, then the change in
flux linkages results owing to a change in the
inductance, i.e., inductances of electric circuits
associated with electromechanical motion devices are
functions of the mechanical motion.
Learn to express self- and mutual-inductances for
simple translational and rotational electromechanical
devices, and to handle these changing inductances in
the voltage equations describing the electrical circuits
associated with the electromechanical system.
Electromechanics K. Craig 15
Magnetic Field
10 facts about The Force
Known for Hundreds of Years
If free to rotate, permanent magnets point
approximately north-south.
Like poles repel, unlike poles attract.
Permanent magnets attract some things (like iron and
steel), but not others (like wood and glass). Magnetic
forces attract only magnetic materials.
Magnetic forces act at a distance, and they can act
through nonmagnetic barriers.
Things attracted to a permanent magnet become
temporary magnets themselves.
Electromechanics K. Craig 16
Known only since the 19
th
Century
A coil of wire with an electric current running through it
becomes a magnet.
Putting iron inside a current-carrying coil greatly
increases the strength of the electromagnet.
A changing magnetic field induces an electric current in
a conductor (like copper).
A charged particle experiences no magnetic force when
moving parallel to a magnetic field, but when it is
moving perpendicular to the field it experiences a force
perpendicular to both the field and the direction of
motion.
A current-carrying wire in a perpendicular magnetic
field experiences a force perpendicular to both the wire
and the field.
f qv B =

Electromechanics K. Craig 17
Magnetic Fields are the fundamental mechanism by
which energy is converted from one form to another in
motors, generators, and transformers.
Four Basic Principles describe how magnetic fields are
used in these devices:
A current-carrying wire produces a magnetic field in
the area around it.
A time-changing magnetic field induces a voltage in a
coil of wire if it passes through that coil (basis of
transformer action).
A current-carrying wire in the presence of a magnetic
field has a force induced on it (basis of motor action).
A moving wire in the presence of a magnetic field has
a voltage induced in it (basis of generator action).
Electromechanics K. Craig 18
In the study of electricity, one learns that stationary
charges produce an electric field.
If the charges move with uniform velocity, a secondary
effect takes place: magnetism
If we accelerate charges, there is an additional effect;
the accelerated charges now produce a radiating
electromagnetic field, i.e., a field that can transport
energy.
Magnetism and electromagnetic fields are special cases
of electricity!
Electromechanics K. Craig 19
Since motion is relative, a given physical experiment
which is purely electrostatic in one coordinate system
can appear as electromagnetic in another coordinate
system that is moving with respect to the first. Magnetic
fields seem to appear and vanish merely by a change in
the motion of the observer!
A magnetic field is thus associated with moving charges.
The sources of magnetic field are currents.
q
q
q
v 0 E 0, B 0
v 0 E 0, B 0
dv
0 E 0, B 0, Radiation Fields
dt
= =


v
q
= velocity of charge q
Electromechanics K. Craig 20
Units of the Magnetic Field (SI and CGS)
Magnetic Flux Density B
Also called magnetic field and magnetic induction
1 tesla (T) = 1 weber/meter
2
(1 Wb/m
2
)
1 T = 10
4
G (gauss)
Earth magnetic field is about 0.5 G
Small permanent magnet is about 100 G
Large electromagnet is about 20,000 G
Magnetic Field Intensity (or Strength) H
1 ampere-turn/meter = 4 x 10
-3
oersted (Oe)
Magnetic Flux = BA
1 weber (Wb) = 10
8
maxwell (Mx)
Electromechanics K. Craig 21
Density of
magnetic flux
lines
indicates
strength of
the magnetic
field.
Electromechanics K. Craig 22
Magnetic Circuits
The complete, detailed solution for magnetic fields
involves the solution of Maxwells Equations along with
various constitutive relationships which describe material
properties.
However, two simplifying assumptions permit the
attainment of useful engineering solutions.
For systems treated here, the frequencies and sizes
involved are such that the displacement-current term in
Maxwells 3
rd
Equation (extension of Amperes Law)
can be neglected. This term accounts for magnetic
fields being produced in space by time-varying electric
fields and is associated with electromagnetic radiation.
Electromechanics K. Craig 23
The second simplifying assumption involves the
concept of the magnetic circuit. A three-dimensional
field problem can often be reduced to what is
essentially a one-dimensional circuit equivalent,
yielding solutions of acceptable engineering accuracy.
Lets Elaborate
Relevant Maxwells Equations which relate magnetic
fields to the currents which produce them:
C S S
S
D
H dl J dA dA
t
B dA 0

= +

i i i

i

Magneto Quasi-static Form

negligible
Electromechanics K. Craig 24
The first equation states that the line integral of the
tangential component of the magnetic field intensity H
around a closed contour C is equal to the total current
passing through any surface S linking that contour.
The source of H is the current density J.
The second equation states that the magnetic flux
density B is conserved, i.e., that no net flux enters or
leaves a closed surface. This is equivalent to saying
that there exist no monopole charge sources of
magnetic fields.
From these two equations, we see that magnetic field
quantities can be determined solely from the
instantaneous values of the source currents and that
time variations of the magnetic fields follow directly
from time variations of the sources.
Electromechanics K. Craig 25
So What is a Magnetic Circuit?
A magnetic circuit consists of a structure composed
for the most part of high-permeability magnetic
material, which tends to cause the magnetic flux to be
confined to the paths defined by the structure (much
like currents are confined to the conductors of an
electric circuit).
Electromechanics K. Craig 26
The core is composed of magnetic material whose
permeability (analogous to electrical conductivity) is
much greater than that of the surrounding air.
The core is of uniform cross section and is excited by
a winding of N turns carrying a current of i amperes,
which produces a magnetic field in the core.
The high permeability of the magnetic core results in:
Magnetic flux confined almost entirely to the core
Field lines follow the path defined by the core
Flux density is essentially uniform over a cross section
because the cross-sectional area is uniform
The magnetic field can be visualized in terms of flux
lines which form closed loops interlinked with the
winding.
Electromechanics K. Craig 27
The source of the magnetic field in the core is the
magnetomotive force (mmf) (ampere-turn
product) acting on the magnetic circuit.
Most rotating machines have at least two windings,
and the Ni product must be replaced by the algebraic
sum of the ampere-turns of all the windings.
The magnetic flux crossing a surface S is the
surface integral of the normal component of B:
Remember
The net magnetic flux entering or leaving a closed surface is
zero. All the flux which enters the surface enclosing a
volume must leave that volume over some portion of that
surface because magnetic flux lines form closed loops.
Ni =
S
B dA =

i
S
B dA 0 =

Electromechanics K. Craig 28
So we assume that the magnetic flux density is
uniform across the cross section of the magnetic
circuit.
The direction of H
c
(the average magnitude of H) in
the core can be found from the right-hand rule. The
magnetic field intensity is a measure of the effort
that a current is putting into the establishment of a
magnetic field.
S
c c c
B dA
B A
=
=

i
C S
C
c c
H dl J dA
H dl Ni
H Ni
=
= =
= =

i i

i

Electromechanics K. Craig 29
Illustration of Amperes Law
By the right-hand
rule, the current, i,
generates a magnetic
field intensity, H, in
the direction shown.
i
H
2 r
=

Electromechanics K. Craig 30
Magnetic Flux lines in the
vicinity of a current-carrying
coil
Winding a coil around a ferromagnetic material accomplishes two useful
tasks at once. It forces the magnetic flux to be concentrated within the coil
and, if the shape of the magnetic material is appropriate, it completely
confines the flux within the magnetic material, thus forcing the closed path
for the flux lines to be almost entirely enclosed within the ferromagnetic
material.
Electromechanics K. Craig 31
Ni
B

=

2
Ni
B
2 r

tightly wound
circular coil
Electromechanics K. Craig 32
The relationship between the magnetic field intensity
H and the magnetic flux density B is a property of the
material in which the field exists. It is common to
assume a linear relationship:
represents the relative ease (the smaller the current
required) of establishing a magnetic field in a given
material. The permeability of any other material
compared to the permeability of free space or air (
0
)
is called relative permeability
r
.
r 0
B H H = =

2 2 4
H magnetic field intensity (At/m; 1 At/m = 0.0126 Oe)
magnetic permeability of the material (Wb/A m or H/m)
B magnetic flux density (Wb/m or T; 1 Wb/m 10 G)
=
=
= =

7
r 0
0
where 4 10 H/m

= =

Electromechanics K. Craig 33
Relative permeability is a convenient way to compare
the magnetizability of materials. Typical values of
r
range from 2000 to 80,000 for materials used in
rotating machines. While we often assume that
r
is a
known constant, it actually varies appreciably with the
magnitude of the magnetic flux density.
Magnetic Circuit with an Air Gap
Electromechanics K. Craig 34
Energy-conversion devices which incorporate a
moving element must have air gaps in their magnetic
circuits.
When the air-gap length g is much smaller than the
dimensions of the adjacent core faces, the magnetic
flux will follow the path defined by the core and the air
gap. Magnetic-circuit analysis can be used.
If the air-gap length becomes excessively large, the
flux will be observed to leak out of the sides of the air
gap. Magnetic-circuit analysis techniques are not
strictly applicable.
Calculations of the flux in a core using magnetic-
circuit concepts are always approximations
accurate to within 5% at best! Why?
Electromechanics K. Craig 35
It is not true that all the flux is confined within the
magnetic core. Flux outside the core is called leakage
flux.
Calculation of reluctance assumes a certain mean path
length and cross-sectional area for the core. These
assumptions are not very good, especially at corners.
In ferromagnetic materials, the permeability varies with
the amount of flux already in the material. This is a
nonlinear effect.
The fringing effect of the magnetic field at an air gap
causes an increased effective cross-sectional area of
the air gap.
Corrected mean path lengths and cross-sectional areas
can be used to offset these inherent sources of error.
Magnetic circuit concept is still the easiest design tool
available for calculation of fluxes.
Electromechanics K. Craig 36
Consider the Magnetic Circuit with an Air Gap
Length g is assumed sufficiently small to justify analysis as a
magnetic circuit with two series components.
Assume a linear B-H relationship (Note: B
c
is often a
nonlinear, multivalued function of H
c
).
A portion of the mmf is required to produce magnetic field in
the core and a portion produces magnetic field in the air gap.
c g
c g
c c g
g
c
c
0
c
c 0 g
B B
A A
Ni H H g
B
B
Ni g
g
Ni
A A

= =
= = +
= = +


= = +

c g
=
Electromechanics K. Craig 37
Reluctance (inverse is called permeance)
Thus
Electrical / Magnetic Circuit Analogy
c g
c 0 g
g

A A
= =

( )
c g
c g total
= +

= =
+
V
i
R



V iR =
=
c
Ni magnetomotive force (At)
reluctance (At/Wb)
A
1
permeance
=
=

R
A

=

Electromechanics K. Craig 38
Analogy between (a) Electric Circuit and (b) Magnetic
Circuit
This analogy can often be exploited to produce simple
solutions for the fluxes in magnetic circuits of
considerable complexity.
Electromechanics K. Craig 39
The fraction of the mmf required to drive flux through
each portion of the magnetic circuit, the mmf drop,
varies in proportion to its reluctance. This is directly
analogous to the voltage drop across a resistive
element in an electric circuit.
Note:
Reluctances in a magnetic circuit obey the same rules
for parallel and series combinations as resistances in
an electric circuit.
0 g
c
c g total g
c
0 g 0 g
g
A
A
If then and R
g
A A
Ni
R g g

>> <<

= =

Electromechanics K. Craig 40
In general, magnetic circuits can consist of multiple
elements in series and parallel. The analogies to
Kirchoffs Current and Voltage Laws hold for magnetic
circuits.
Also note that the magnetomotive force, like voltage,
has a polarity associated with it.
Modified right-hand rule
for determining the direction
of the positive mmf.
Electromechanics K. Craig 41
Electromechanics K. Craig 42
Some Examples
In the magnetic system shown, the total number of
turns is 100, the relative permeability of the iron is
1000, and the current is 10A. Calculate the total flux
in the center leg.
Electromechanics K. Craig 43
The magnetic structure of a synchronous machine is
shown. Assume that the rotor and stator iron have
infinite permeability. Find the air-gap flux and the flux
density B
g
.
2
g
i 10 A
N 1000 turns
g 1 cm
A 2000 cm
=
=
=
=
Electromechanics K. Craig 44
Faradays Law and Lenzs Law
When a magnetic field varies with time, an electric field
is produced in space as determined by Faradays Law,
one of Maxwells Equations:
This equation states that the line integral of the
electric field intensity E around a closed contour C is
equal to the time rate of change of the magnetic flux
linking (i.e., passing through) that contour.
In magnetic structures with windings of high electrical
conductivity, the E field in the wire is extremely small
and can be neglected.
C S
d
E dl B dA
dt
=


i i

Electromechanics K. Craig 45
The left-hand side of the equation then reduces to the
negative of the induced voltage e at the winding
terminals.
The flux on the right-hand side of the equation is
dominated by the core flux.
The minus sign is an expression of Lenzs Law.
The direction of the voltage buildup in the coil is such that if
the coil ends were short-circuited, it would produce current
that would cause a flux opposing the original flux change.
Since the induced voltage opposes the change that causes it,
a minus sign is included.
The minus sign is often left out, as the polarity of the resulting
voltage can be determined from physical considerations.
The winding (and hence the contour C) links the core
flux N times: d d
e N = flux linkage = N
dt dt

= =
Electromechanics K. Craig 46
What are the physical mechanisms that can cause
magnetic flux to change and induce an electromotive
force? Two mechanisms are possible.
The first consists of physically moving a permanent
magnet in the vicinity of a coil to create a time-varying
flux. The voltage induced by a moving magnetic field
is called a motion voltage.
The second requires that we first produce a magnetic
field by means of an electric current and then vary the
current, thus varying the associated magnetic field.
The voltage generated by a time-varying magnetic
field is called a transformer voltage.
Electromechanics K. Craig 47
C
q
e

L
i
R

General Model Structure for Electrical Systems

( )
edt =

( )
q i dt =

Li =
q
e
C
=
e iR =
Electromechanics K. Craig 48
In general, the flux linkage of a coil is equal to the
surface integral of the normal component of the
magnetic flux density integrated over any surface
spanned by that coil.
For a magnetic circuit composed of magnetic material
of constant magnetic permeability or which includes a
dominating air gap, the relationship between and i
will be linear and we can define the inductance L:
If the reluctance of the core is negligible compared to
the air gap:
2
total
total
N
N N N
L
i i
N N

= = = = =


2
2
0 g
0 g
N A
N
L
g
g
A

= =

Electromechanics K. Craig 49
Self-Inductance and Mutual-Inductance
Self-inductance is a property of a single coil, due to
the fact that the magnetic field set up by the coil
current links the coil itself.
Mutual inductance causes a changing current in one
circuit to induce a voltage in another circuit.
Mutual inductance is symmetrical, i.e., a current
changing with a certain di/dt in coil 1 induces the
same voltage in coil 2 as would be induced in coil 1
by the same di/dt current change in coil 2. This holds
for coils in the same circuit or in separate circuits.
The induced voltage in circuit A due to current change
in B can either add or subtract from the self-induced
voltage in A. This depends on actual geometry.
Electromechanics K. Craig 50
( )
( )
A A1 A2
A B A
1 B/A1 A2/A1
A B A
2 B/A2 A1/A2
A
1 2 A2/A1 A1/A2
B
B/A1 B/A2
e e e
di di di
L M M
dt dt dt
di di di
L M M
dt dt dt
di
L L M M
dt
di
M M
dt
= +
=
+
= +
+
A2/A1 A1/A2
1
2
B/A1 1
B/A2 2
M M mutual inductance of coils 1 and 2
L self-inductance of coil 1
L self-inductance of coil 2
M mutual inductance of coils B and A
M mutual inductance of coils B and A
= =
=
=
=
=
Electromechanics K. Craig 51
1
2
di
v M
dt
=
Mutual
Inductance
The dots indicate
the polarity of the
coupling between
the coils. If the dots
are at the same end
of the coils, the
voltage induced in
coil 2 by a current in
coil 1 has the same
polarity as the
voltage induced by
the same current in
coil 1; otherwise, the
voltages are in
opposition.
The voltage
induced across
a coil is equal
to the sum of
the voltages
induced by
self-inductance
and mutual
inductance.
Electromechanics K. Craig 52
Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)
Displacement transducer based on the mutual
inductance concept
( )
out 1 2
out
out
p p ex
1 1 2 2
out 1 2
v v v
v 0 positive displacements
v 0 negative displacements
di
iR L v
dt
di di
v M v M
dt dt
di
v M M
dt
=
>
<
+ =
= =
=
Primary
Coil
Identical
Secondary
Coils
Each of the mutual inductances is
dependent on the position of the iron core.
M
1
M
2
is linearly related to core
displacement x by design.
M
1
= M
2
V
out
amplitude-modulated signal
Electromechanics K. Craig 53
Shown is the relationship
between
flux linkage, current,
energy, and co-energy.
The properties of
ferromagnetic materials are
such that the flux-current
relationship is nonlinear.
Whenever the i- curve is
not a straight line, it is
more convenient to
analyze the magnetic
system in terms of energy
calculations, since the
corresponding circuit
equation would be
nonlinear.
( )
f
W i d =

( )
c
W di =

c f
i W W = +
f
d
W ei dt i dt i d
dt

= = =

Electromechanics K. Craig 54
The units of inductance is henrys (H) or weber-turns
per ampere.
Strictly speaking, the concept of inductance requires
a linear relationship between flux and mmf. It cannot
be rigorously applied in situations where the nonlinear
characteristics of magnetic materials dominate the
performance of the magnetic system.
However, in many situations of practical interest, the
reluctance of the system is dominated by that of an air
gap (which is linear) and the nonlinear effects of the
magnetic material can be ignored.
In other cases, an average value of magnetic
permeability for the core material can be assumed
and an average value of inductance calculated.
Electromechanics K. Craig 55
Variable-Reluctance
Position Sensor
s
d
e
dt

=
Signal processing for a 60-tooth wheel rpm sensor
The reluctance of the magnetic structure
is variable, depending on whether a
ferromagnetic tab lies between the pole
pieces of the magnet. An electromotive
force e
s
is induced across the coil by the
change in magnetic flux caused by the
passage of the tab between the pole
pieces when the disk is in motion.
Electromechanics K. Craig 56
Stationary Magnetically Coupled
Circuits
Magnetically-coupled electric circuits are central to the
operation of transformers and electromechanical motion
devices.
In transformers, stationary circuits are magnetically
coupled for the purpose of changing the voltage and
current levels.
In electromechanical motion devices, circuits in relative
motion are magnetically coupled for the purpose of
transferring energy between the mechanical and
electrical systems.
Electromechanics K. Craig 57
Goal:
Establish the equations that describe the behavior of
magnetically coupled circuits
Consider first two stationary electric circuits which are
magnetically coupled.
ferromagnetic material
Magnetically-Coupled
Circuits:
two windings
on a common core
Electromechanics K. Craig 58
Some comments:
Ideal transformer
only the turns ratio is considered
This treatment is often not sufficient for a detailed
analysis of transformers, and it is seldom appropriate
in the analysis of electromechanical motion devices,
since an air gap is necessary for motion to occur;
hence, windings are not as tightly coupled and
leakage flux must be taken into account.
Flux produced by each winding can be separated into
two components:
leakage component and magnetizing component
2
2 1
1
1
2 1
2
N
v v
N
N
i i
N
=
=
Electromechanics K. Craig 59
Leakage Flux
The leakage flux associated with a given winding links
only that winding
Magnetizing Flux
The magnetizing flux, whether it is due to current in
winding 1 or winding 2, links both windings
The flux linking each winding is expressed as:
Leakage flux is produced by current flowing in a
winding and it links only the turns of that winding
Magnetizing flux is produced by current flowing in a
winding and it links all the turns of both windings
1 1 m1 m2
2 2 m2 m1
= + +
= + +

Electromechanics K. Craig 60
This is an idealization of the actual magnetic system
All of the leakage flux will not link all the turns of the
winding producing it; so the leakage fluxes are really
equivalent leakage fluxes
All the magnetizing flux of one winding will not link all
of the turns of the other winding; N
1
and N
2
are often
considered to be equivalent number of turns rather
than the actual number.
The voltage equations may be expressed as:
1
1 1 1
2
2 2 2
d
v ri
dt
d
v r i
dt

= +

= +
1 1 1 1
2 2 2 2
v r 0 i
d
v 0 r i dt


= +

1 1 1
2 2 2
N
N
=
=
Electromechanics K. Craig 61
Assume that the magnetic system is linear; apply Ohms
Law for magnetic circuits to express the fluxes.
1 1
1
1
1 1
m1
m
2 2
2
2
2 2
m2
m
N i
Ni
N i
N i
=

1 m
2 m

Typically
1 1 m1 m2
1 1 1 1 2 2
1 m m
2 2 m2 m1
2 2 2 2 1 1
2 m m
N i N i N i
N i N i N i
= + +
= + +

= + +
= + +

m
can be computed with sufficient accuracy
is usually approximated from test data

Electromechanics K. Craig 62
When the magnetic system is linear, the flux linkages are
generally expressed in terms of inductances and the
currents.
The self inductances are:
1 1 1
2 2
1 1 1 2
1 1 2
1 m m
2 2 2
2 2
2 2 2 1
2 2 1
2 m m
N
N N N N
i i i
N
N N N N
i i i
=
= + +

=
= + +

2 2
1 1
11 1 m1
1 m
2 2
2 2
22 2 m2
2 m
N N
L L L
N N
L L L
= + = +

= + = +

Electromechanics K. Craig 63
We see that:
The mutual inductances are:
In this situation, with the assumed positive direction
for current flow and the manner in which the windings
are wound, the mutual inductances are positive. If,
however, the assumed positive directions of current
were such that
m1
opposed
m2
, then the mutual
inductances would be negative.
We see that:
m2 m1
2 2
2 1
L L
N N
=
1 2
12
m
2 1
21
m
N N
L
N N
L
=

12 21
L L =
2 1
12 m1 m2
1 2
N N
L L L
N N
= =
Electromechanics K. Craig 64
Therefore
L
11
and L
22
are always positive
L
12
= L
21
may be positive or negative
The voltage equations may be used for purposes of
analysis.
1 11 1 12 2
2 21 1 22 2
L i L i
L i L i
= +
= +
1
1 1 1
2
2 2 2
d
v ri
dt
d
v r i
dt

= +

= +
Electromechanics K. Craig 65
Magnetic Systems with Mechanical
Motion
We introduce three elementary electromechanical
systems for the purpose of establishing the voltage
equations and expressions for the self- and mutual-
inductances, thereby setting the stage for deriving the
relationships for determining the electromagnetic force or
torque established in electromechanical systems.
The three systems are:
elementary version of an electromagnet
rotational device referred to as a reluctance machine
rotational device which has two windings
Electromechanics K. Craig 66
Elementary Electromagnet
The system consists of:
stationary core with a winding of N turns
block of magnetic material is free to slide relative to
the stationary member
x = x(t)
Electromechanics K. Craig 67
d
v ri
dt

= + voltage equation that describes the electric system

m
m
N
leakage flux
magnetizing flux
=
= +
=
=

(the magnetizing flux is common to

both stationary and movable members)
flux linkages
m
m
Ni
Ni
=

If the magnetic system is considered to be

linear (saturation neglected), then, as in the
case of stationary coupled circuits, we can
express the fluxes in terms of reluctances.
Electromechanics K. Craig 68
( )
2 2
m
m
N N
i
L L i

= +



= +

flux linkages
m
L leakage inductance
L magnetizing inductance
=
=

m i g
2 = + reluctance of the magnetizing path
total reluctance of the magnetic material
of the stationary and movable members
reluctance of one of the air gaps
i

i
i
ri 0 i
g
0 g
A
x
A
=

=

Assume that the cross-sectional areas of

the stationary and movable members are
equal and of the same material
Electromechanics K. Craig 69
g i
A A =
This may be somewhat of an oversimplification,
but it is sufficient for our purposes.
m i g
i
0 i ri
2
1
2x
A
= +

= +

2
m
i
0 i ri
N
L
1
2x
A
=

+

Assume that the leakage inductance

is constant.
The magnetizing inductance is
clearly a function of displacement.
x = x(t) and L
m
= L
m
(x)
When dealing with linear magnetic circuits wherein mechanical
motion is not present, as in the case of a transformer, the change
of flux linkages with respect to time was simply L(di/dt). This is
not the case here.
Electromechanics K. Craig 70
[ ]
m
(i,x) L(x)i L L (x) i
d (i,x) di dx
dt i dt x dt
= = +

= +

The inductance is a
function of x(t).
[ ]
m
m
di dL (x) dx
v ri L L (x) i
dt dx dt
= + + +

The voltage equation is

a nonlinear differential
equation.
( )
2
m
i
0 i ri
N
L x
1
2x
A
=

+

Lets look at the magnetizing

inductance again.
2
0 i
i
0
ri
N A
k
2
k
2

=
=

m
0
k
L (x)
k x
=
+
2
0 ri i
m
0 i
m
N A k
L (0)
k
k
L (x) for x > 0
x

= =

Electromechanics K. Craig 71
Elementary Reluctance Machine
The machine consists of:
stationary core with a
winding of N turns
moveable member which
rotates
( ) ( )
r
r
t
r r r
0
angular displacement
angular velocity
d 0
=
=
= +

Electromechanics K. Craig 72
d
v ri
dt

= +
m
m
leakage flux
magnetizing flux
= +
=
=

voltage equation
( )
m
L L i = +

It is convenient to express the flux

linkages as the product of the sum of the
leakage inductance and the magnetizing
inductance and the current in the winding.
r
m r
L constant (independent of )
L periodic function of
=
=

Electromechanics K. Craig 73
( )
( )
m m r
2
m
m
2
m
m
L L
N
L (0)
0
N
L
2
2
=
=

=







m
m
is maximum
L is minimum

m
m
is minimum
L is maximum

The magnetizing inductance varies between maximum and

minimum positive values twice per revolutionof the rotating
member.
Electromechanics K. Craig 74
Assume that this variation may
be adequately approximated
by a sinusoidal function.
( ) ( )
m r A B r
L L L cos 2 =
( )
m A B
m A B
A B
A
L 0 L L
L L L
2
L L
L average value
=

= +


>
=
( ) ( )
( )
r m r
A B r
L L L
L L L cos 2
= +
= +

[ ]
m r r
m r
r
di dL ( ) d
v ri L L ( ) i
dt d dt

= + + +

voltage equation
Electromechanics K. Craig 75
Windings in Relative Motion
The rotational device shown will be used to illustrate
windings in relative motion.
Winding 1: N
1
turns on stator
Winding 2: N
2
turns on rotor
end view cross-sectional view
Assume that the turns are
concentrated in one position.
Air-gap size is
exaggerated.
Electromechanics K. Craig 76
1
1 1 1
2
2 2 2
d
v ri
dt
d
v r i
dt

= +

= +
voltage equations
1 11 i 12 2
2 21 i 22 2
L i L i
L i L i
= +
= +
The magnetic system is assumed linear.
11 1 m1
2 2
1 1
1 m
22 2 m2
2 2
2 2
2 m
L L L
N N
L L L
N N
= +
= +

= +
= +

The self-inductances L
11
and L
22
are
constants and may be expressed in
terms of leakage and magnetizing
inductances.
is the reluctance of the complete
magnetic path of
m1
and
m2
, which
is through the rotor and stator iron and
twice across the air gap.
m

Electromechanics K. Craig 77
Lets now consider L
12
.
( ) ( )
r
r
t
r r r
0
angular displacement
angular velocity
d 0
=
=
= +

When
r
is zero, then the coupling between
windings 1 and 2 is maximum. The magnetic
system of winding 1 aids that of winding 2
with positive currents assumed. Hence the
mutual inductance is positive.
( )
1 2
12
m
N N
L 0 =

When
r
is /2, the windings are orthogonal.
The mutual coupling is zero.
12
L 0
2

=


Electromechanics K. Craig 78
Assume that the mutual
inductance may be adequately
predicted by:
( ) ( )
12 r sr r
1 2
sr
m
L L cos
N N
L
=
=

L
sr
is the amplitude of the
sinusoidal mutual inductance
between the stator and rotor
windings.
1
1 1 1
2
2 2 2
d
v ri
dt
d
v r i
dt

= +

= +
In writing the voltage equations, the
total derivative of the flux linkages is
required.
Electromechanics K. Craig 79
Properties of Magnetic Materials
Why are magnetic materials important for
electromechanical energy conversion devices?
It is possible to obtain large magnetic flux densities
with relatively low levels of magnetizing force. And
magnetic forces and energy density increase with
increasing flux density.
Magnetic materials can be used to constrain and
direct magnetic fields in well-defined paths. In electric
machinery, magnetic materials are used to shape the
fields to obtain desired torque-production and
electrical terminal characteristics.
Electromechanics K. Craig 80
Ferromagnetic Materials
Most common magnetic materials typically composed of
iron and alloys of iron with cobalt, tungsten, nickel,
aluminum, and other metals.
The permeability of free space
0
is constant. The
permeability of ferromagnetic materials (e.g., iron,
nickel, cobalt) is very high (1000s of times that of free
space) but it is not constant. It depends on the mmf
applied to the material.
Experiment
Apply a direct current to the elementary magnetic circuit
previously discussed, starting with 0 A and slowly
working up to the maximum permissible current.
Assume that B and H are initially zero.
Plot flux produced in the core vs. mmf
Electromechanics K. Craig 81
The relationship between B and H has the same shape
as the relationship between flux and mmf.
The slope of the B vs. H curve at any value of H is, by
definition, the permeability of the core at that H.
Saturation Curve or Magnetization Curve
saturation region
unsaturated region
linear behavior
knee
c
Ni
H
BA
=
=

r 0
B H =
Electromechanics K. Craig 82
Typical Steel DC Magnetization Curve
Electromechanics K. Craig 83
Electromechanics K. Craig 84
Most real machines operate near the knee of the
magnetization curve; the flux in their cores is not linearly
related to the mmf producing it.
Why does the magnetization curve have this shape?
Microscopically, ferromagnetic materials have been found
to be divided into magnetic domains wherein all magnetic
moments (dipoles) are aligned. Each domain acts as a
small permanent magnet. The direction of this alignment
will differ from one domain to another; domains are
oriented randomly within the material.
When a ferromagnetic material is subjected to an external
field, it causes domains that happen to point in the
direction of the field to grow at the expense of domains
pointed in other directions. It is a positive feedback effect!
Electromechanics K. Craig 85
This is known as domain wall motion. As the strength of the
magnetic field increases, the aligned domains continue to
grow in a nearly linear fashion. Whole domains that are
aligned in the wrong direction eventually reorient themselves
as a unit to line up with the field. A nearly linear B-H curve
results.
Soon the ability of the aligned domains to take from the
unaligned domains starts to slow. This gives rise to the knee
of the B-H curve and saturation is beginning.
Finally, when nearly all the atoms and domains in the iron are
lined up with the external field, any further increase in the
mmf can cause only the same flux increase that it would in
free space. Once everything is aligned, there can be no
more feedback effect to strengthen the field. The material is
saturated with flux. Slope of B-H curve is
0
.
Electromechanics K. Craig 86
New Experiment
Instead of applying a direct
current to the windings on the
core, apply an alternating
current and observe what
happens. Assume that B and H
are initially both zero.
Hysteresis Loop
Path b-c-d-e-b
(double-valued function)
After several cycles, a steady-
state condition is reached.
Electromechanics K. Craig 87
Observations
The amount of flux present in the core depends not only
on the amount of current applied to the windings of the
core, but also on the previous history of the flux in the
core.
The dependence on the preceding flux history and the
resulting failure to retrace flux paths is called hysteresis.
Path bcdeb traced out on the magnetization curve as the
applied current changes is called a hysteresis loop.
If a large mmf is first applied to the core and then
removed, the flux path in the core will be abc. When the
mmf is removed, the flux in the core does not go to zero.
Instead, a magnetic field is left in the core. This magnetic
field is called the residual flux. It is in precisely this
manner that permanent magnets are produced.
Electromechanics K. Craig 88
To force the flux to zero, an amount of mmf known as the
coercive magnetomotive force must be applied to the core
in the opposite direction.
Due to this hysteresis effect, we see that the relationship
between B and H for a ferromagnetic material is both
nonlinear and multivalued. The material characteristics
are normally presented graphically as a set of empirically-
determined curves.
Why does hysteresis occur?
In simple terms, the growth of aligned domains for an
incremental change in H in one direction is not equal to the
growth of oppositely-aligned domains if this change in H
were suddenly reversed.
Electromechanics K. Craig 89
The diagram shows the
effect of the size of mmf
excursions on the
magnitude of the
hysteresis loop.
Family of Steady-State Hysteresis Loops
By plotting the locus of the
maximum values of B and H
at the tips of the hysteresis
loops, the single-valued
magnetization or B-H curve is
obtained.
Electromechanics K. Craig 90
Hysteresis Loss
The fact that turning domains in a ferromagnetic material
requires energy leads to a common type of energy loss in
all machines and transformers.
The hysteresis loss in an iron core is the energy required
to accomplish the reorientation of domains during each
cycle of the alternating current applied to the core. The
area enclosed in the hysteresis loop formed by applying an
alternating current to the core is directly proportional to the
energy lost in a given ac cycle.
The smaller the applied mmf excursions on the core, the
smaller the area of the resulting hysteresis loop and so the
smaller the resulting losses.
This energy causes a rise in the temperature of the
magnetic material and the power associated with this
energy loss is called hysteresis loss.
Electromechanics K. Craig 91
Eddy Currents
The mechanism of eddy current losses is explained by
Faradays Law. A time-changing flux induces voltage
within a ferromagnetic core.
When a solid block of magnetic material is subjected to an
alternating field intensity, the resulting alternating flux
induces current in the solid magnetic material which will
circulate in a loop perpendicular to the flux density
inducing it. These are called eddy currents.
There are two undesirable side effects from eddy currents:
First, the mmf established by these circulating currents
opposes the mmf produced by the winding, and this
opposition is greatest at the center of the material
because that tends to be also the center of the current
loops.
Electromechanics K. Craig 92
Thus, the flux would tend not to flow through the
center of the solid magnetic member, thereby not
utilizing the full benefits of the ferromagnetic material.
Second, there is a I
2
R loss associated with these eddy
currents flowing in a resistive material, called eddy
current loss, which is dissipated as heat.
These two adverse effects can be minimized in several
ways; the most common way is to build the ferromagnetic
core of laminations insulated from each other and
oriented in the direction of the magnetic field. These thin
strips offer a much smaller area in which the eddy
currents can flow, hence smaller currents and smaller
losses result.
Electromechanics K. Craig 93
Eddy Currents
In
Magnetic Structures
Electromechanics K. Craig 94
Core Losses
The core losses associated with ferromagnetic
materials are the combination of the hysteresis and
eddy current losses.
Electromagnetic devises are designed to minimize
these losses; however, they are always present.
We can often take them into account in a linear
system analysis by representing their effects on the
system by a resistance.
Electromechanics K. Craig 95
Permanent Magnets
Examination of the hysteresis curves for a
ferromagnetic material and a permanent-magnet
material would show that the curves are similar in
nature.
While both curves would show a large residual flux,
the permanent magnet material would have a much
larger value (by a factor of several thousand) of
coercive mmf.
Remember that the remnant magnetization, B
r
,
corresponds to the flux density which would remain in
a closed magnetic structure if the applied mmf, and
hence the magnetic field intensity H, were reduced to
zero.
Electromechanics K. Craig 96
Also remember that the coercivity H
c
corresponds to the
value of magnetic field intensity (which is proportional to
mmf) required to reduce the material flux density to
zero.
The significance of remnant magnetization is that it can
produce flux in a magnetic circuit in the absence of
external excitation (such as winding currents). Familiar
applications include small refrigerator magnets,
loudspeakers, and permanent-magnet motors.
So it would appear that both a permanent-magnet
material (often referred to as hard magnetic material)
and a steel (soft magnetic material) would be useful in
producing flux in unexcited magnetic circuits since they
both have large values of remnant magnetization.
Electromechanics K. Craig 97
However there is an immense difference! The
difference is characterized in large part by the
immense difference in their coercivities H
c
. The
coercivity can be thought of as a measure of the
magnitude of the mmf required to demagnetize the
material.
Consider the following example:
Magnetic Circuit
high-permeability core
H
core
is negligible
air gap
section of magnetic material
A
m
= A
g
g m m
m
g m
g g m m
m
g m
g
0 H g H
H H
g
A B A B
A
B B
A
= = +
=
= =
=

g
m
m 0 m
m
A
B H
A g
=

Electromechanics K. Craig 98
Second Quadrant of Hysteresis Loop
Alnico 5
M-5 Steel
( )
g
m
m 0 m
m
6
m
A
B H
A g
6.28 10 H

=
=

Load Line Equation

B
g
= 0.3 T
B
g
= 3.8E-5 T
Note: Curve of constant B-H product is a hyperbola
Electromechanics K. Craig 99
As can be seen from this example, the coercivity is
also a measure of the capability of the material to
produce flux in a magnetic circuit which includes an
air gap.
Thus we see that materials which make good
permanent magnets are characterized by large values
of coercivity H
c
(>> 1 kA/m).
A useful measure of the capability of permanent-
magnet material is known as its maximum energy
product. This corresponds to the largest B-H product
which corresponds to a point on the second quadrant
of the hysteresis loop. The product of B and H has
the dimensions of energy density (J/m
3
).
Electromechanics K. Craig 100
The operation of a given permanent-magnet material
at this point will result in the smallest volume of that
material required to produce a given flux density in an
air gap. As a result, choosing a material with the
largest available maximum energy product can result
in the smallest required magnet volume.
Continuing with the example:
m
g m
m
g m
g
H H
g
A
B B
A
=
=

0 m
g 0 g m
m
g m
g
B H H
g
A
B B
A

= =
=

( )
( )
2
m m
g 0 m m
g
mag
0 m m
gap
A
B H B
gA
Vol
H B
Vol

=



=

( )
2
gap g
mag
0 m m
Vol B
Vol
H B
=

Electromechanics K. Craig 101
This equation indicates that to achieve a desired flux
density in the air gap, the required volume of the
magnet can be minimized by operating the magnet at
the point of the largest value of the B-H product
H
m
B
m
, i.e., the point of maximum energy product.
Furthermore, the larger the value of this product, the
smaller the size of the magnet required to produce
the desired flux density.
The maximum energy product is a useful
performance measure for a magnetic material.
Note that the assumption of infinite permeability for
the magnetic core material will be invalid when the
magnetic core material begins to saturate as the flux
density in the magnetic circuit is increased.
Electromechanics K. Craig 102
Principles of Electromechanical Energy
Conversion
Linear DC Machine A Simple Example
Energy Balance Relationships
Energy in Coupling Field
Electromagnetic and Electrostatic Forces
Magnetic Systems with Mechanical Motion
Elementary Electromagnet
Elementary Reluctance Machine
Windings in Relative Motion
Forces and Torques in Systems with Permanent Magnets
Applications: Solenoids and Vibration Shakers
Electromechanics K. Craig 103
Principles of Electromechanical Energy Conversion: Why
do we study this?
Electromechanical energy conversion theory is the
cornerstone for the analysis of electromechanical
motion devices. A thorough understanding is essential.
The theory allows us to express the electromagnetic
force or torque in terms of the device variables such as
the currents and the displacement of the mechanical
system.
Since numerous types of electromechanical devices
are used in motion systems, it is desirable to establish
methods of modeling and analysis which may be
applied to a variety of electromechanical devices rather
than just electric machines.
Electromechanics K. Craig 104
Although the various conversion devices operate on
similar principles, their structures depend on their
function:
Transducers: devices for measurement and
control; usually operate under linear input-output
conditions and with relatively small signals;
examples are microphones, sensors, and
loudspeakers.
Force-Producing Devices: Examples are
solenoids, relays, and electromagnets.
Continuous Energy-Conversion Equipment:
Examples are motors and generators.
Electromechanics K. Craig 105
Plan
Establish analytically the relationships which can be
used to express the electromagnetic force or torque.
Develop a general set of formulas which are
applicable to all electromechanical systems with a
single mechanical input.
Detailed analysis of:
Elementary electromagnet
Elementary single-phase reluctance machine
Windings in relative motion
Electromechanics K. Craig 106
Lumped Parameters vs. Distributed Parameters
If the physical size of a device is small compared to the
wavelength associated with the signal propagation, the
device may be considered lumped and a lumped
(network) model employed.
Consider the electrical portion of an audio system:
20 to 20,000 Hz is the audio range
v
f
=
= wavelength (distance/cycle)
v = velocity of wave propagation (distance/second)
f = signal frequency (Hz)
186,000 miles/second
9.3 miles/cycle
20,000 cycles/second
= =
Electromechanics K. Craig 107
Conservative Force Field
A force field acting on an object is called conservative if
the work done in moving the object from one point to
another is independent of the path joining the two points.
1 2 3

F Fi F j F k = + +

C
F dr is independent of path if and only if F 0 or F = =

( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
2 2 2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1 1 1
1 2 3
x ,y ,z x ,y ,z
2 2 2 1 1 1
x ,y ,z x ,y ,z
F dr is an exact differential
Fdx F dy Fdz d where (x,y,z)
F dr d x ,y ,z x ,y ,z

+ + =
= =



Electromechanics K. Craig 108
Linear DC Machine A Simple Example
Production of an Induced Force on a Wire
A magnetic field induces a force on a current-carrying
wire within the field.
The direction of the force is given by the right-hand
rule.
The magnitude of the force is given by
where is the angle between the wire and the flux
density vector.
The induction of a force in a wire by a current in the
presence of a magnetic field is the basis of motor
action.
( )
F i B =

F i Bsin =
Electromechanics K. Craig 109
Induced Voltage on a Conductor Moving in a Magnetic
Field
If a wire with the proper orientation moves through a
magnetic field, a voltage is induced in it. The voltage
induced in the wire is given by
Vector points along the direction of the wire toward
the end making the smallest angle with respect to the
vector .
The voltage in the wire will be built up so that the
positive end is in the direction of the vector .
The induction of voltages in a wire moving in a
magnetic field is the basis of generator action.
( )
ind
e v B =

v B

v B

Electromechanics K. Craig 110

A linear dc machine is about the simplest and easiest-to-
understand version of a dc machine, yet it operates
according to the same principles and exhibits the same
behavior as real generators and motors.
Smooth frictionless rails
Uniform-density magnetic field
Bar of conducting metal
( )
F i B =

( )
ind
e v B =

i
B ind
V iR e 0 =
net
F ma =
Electromechanics K. Craig 111
Starting the Linear DC Machine
Closing the switch produces a current flow
The current flow produces a force on the bar given by
The bar accelerates to the right, producing an induced
voltage e
ind
as it speeds up.
This induced voltage reduces the current flow
The induced force is thus decreased until eventually F =0.
At that point, e
ind
=V
B
and i =0, and the bar moves at a
constant no-load speed.
F i B =
( )
B ind
V e
i
R

=
B
ss
F i B
V
v
B
=
=

B
V
i
R
=
Electromechanics K. Craig 112
The Linear DC Machine
as a Motor
Apply an external load
Assume machine is initially running at no-load SS conditions
A force F
load
is applied opposite to the direction of motion,
which causes a net force F
net
opposite to the direction of
motion.
The resulting acceleration is negative, so the bar slows
down.
The voltage e
ind
falls, and so i increases.
The induced force F
ind
increases until, at a lower speed,
An amount of electric power equal to e
ind
i is now being
converted to mechanical power equal to F
ind
v.
net
F
a
m
=
( )
ind
B ind
e v B
V e
i
R
=

=

ind load
F F =
ind
F i B =
Electromechanics K. Craig 113
The Linear DC Machine
as a Generator
Apply a force in the direction of motion
Assume machine is initially running at no-load SS conditions
A force F
app
is applied in the direction of motion; F
net
is in the direction of motion.
Acceleration is positive, so the bar speeds up.
The voltage e
ind
increases, and so i increases.
The induced force F
ind
increases until, at a higher speed,
An amount of mechanical power equal to F
ind
v is now being converted to electric
power e
ind
i, and the machine is acting a a generator.
net
F
a
m
=
( )
ind
ind B
e v B
e V
i
R
=

=

ind
F i B =
ind app
F F =
Electromechanics K. Craig 114
Observations
The same machine acts as both motor and generator.
Generator: externally applied forces are in the direction of
motion
Motor: externally applied forces are opposite to the direction
of motion
Electrically
e
ind
> V
B
, machine acts as a generator
e
ind
< V
B
, machine acts as a motor
Whether the machine is a motor or a generator, both
induced force (motor action) and induced voltage
(generator action) are present at all times.
This machine was a generator when it moved rapidly and
a motor when it moved more slowly, but whether it was a
motor or a generator, it always moved in the same
direction.
Electromechanics K. Craig 115
Electromechanics K. Craig 116
Lorentz Force Law
For situations where large numbers of charged
particles are in motion, we define the charge density
and current density :
The magnetic force density can then be written as:
The mechanism by which the force is transferred from
the moving charges to the conducting medium is a
complex one.
( )
F q E v B = +

( )
v
F E v B
J v
= +
=


J

v
F J B =

Electromechanics K. Craig 117
For situations in which the forces act only on current-
carrying elements and which are of simple geometry,
this equation is generally the simplest and easiest
way to calculate the forces acting on the system.
Unfortunately, very few situations fall into this class.
Most electromechanical-energy-conversion devices
contain magnetic material and forces act directly on
the magnetic material.
Most electromechanical-energy-conversion devices
are constructed of rigid, nondeforming structures.
The performance of these devices is typically
determined by the net force, or torque, acting on the
moving component, and it is rarely necessary to
calculate the details of the internal force distribution.
Electromechanics K. Craig 118
Energy Balance Relationships
Electromechanical System
Comprises
Electric system
Mechanical system
Means whereby the electric and mechanical systems can
interact
Interactions can take place through any and all
electromagnetic and electrostatic fields which are
common to both systems, and energy is transferred
as a result of this interaction.
Both electrostatic and electromagnetic coupling fields
may exist simultaneously and the system may have
any number of electric and mechanical subsystems.
Electromechanics K. Craig 119
Electromechanical System in Simplified Form:
Neglect electromagnetic radiation
Assume that the electric system operates at a frequency
sufficiently low so that the electric system may be
considered as a lumped-parameter system
Energy Distribution
W
E
= total energy supplied by the electric source (+)
W
M
= total energy supplied by the mechanical source (+)
Mechanical
System
Electric
System
Coupling
Field
E e eL eS
M m mL mS
W W W W
W W W W
= + +
= + +
Electromechanics K. Craig 120
W
eS
= energy stored in the electric or magnetic fields
which are not coupled with the mechanical system
W
eL
= heat loss associated with the electric system,
excluding the coupling field losses, which occurs due to:
the resistance of the current-carrying conductors
the energy dissipated in the form of heat owing to hysteresis,
eddy currents, and dielectric losses external to the coupling
field
W
e
= energy transferred to the coupling field by the electric
system
W
mS
= energy stored in the moving member and the
compliances of the mechanical system
W
mL
= energy loss of the mechanical system in the form of
heat due to friction
W
m
= energy transferred to the coupling field by the
mechanical system
Electromechanics K. Craig 121
W
F
= W
f
+ W
fL
= total energy transferred to the coupling field
W
f
= energy stored in the coupling field
W
fL
= energy dissipated in the form of heat due to losses
within the coupling field (eddy current, hysteresis, or
dielectric losses)
Conservation of Energy
( )
( )
f fL E eL eS
M mL mS
f fL e m
W W W W W
W W W
W W W W
+ = +

+ = +
Electromechanics K. Craig 122
Coupling between Electrical and Magnetic Systems
Electromechanics K. Craig 123
The actual process of converting electric energy to
mechanical energy (or vice versa) is independent of:
The loss of energy in either the electric or the
mechanical systems (W
eL
and W
mL
)
The energies stored in the electric or magnetic fields
which are not in common to both systems (W
eS
)
The energies stored in the mechanical system (W
mS
)
If the losses of the coupling field are neglected, then the
field is conservative and W
f
= W
e
+ W
m
.
Consider two examples of elementary electromechanical
systems
Magnetic coupling field
Electric field as a means of transferring energy
Electromechanics K. Craig 124
v = voltage of electric source
f =externally-applied mechanical
force
f
e
=electromagnetic or
electrostatic force
r =resistance of the current-
carrying conductor
= inductance of a linear
(conservative)
electromagnetic system
which does not couple
the mechanical system
M =mass of moveable member
K = spring constant
D =damping coefficient
x
0
=zero force or equilibrium
position of the mechanical
system (f
e
= 0, f = 0)

Electromechanical System with Magnetic Field

Electromechanical System with Electric Field
Electromechanics K. Craig 125
f
di
v ri e
dt
= + +
voltage equation that describes the
electric systems; e
f
is the voltage drop
due to the coupling field
( )
2
0 e
2
d x dx
f M D K x x f
dt dt
= + +
Newtons Law of Motion
( )
( )
E
M
W vi dt
dx
W f dx f dt
dt
=

= =

Since power is the time rate of
energy transfer, this is the total
energy supplied by the electric
and mechanical sources
f
di
v ri e
dt
= + +
( )
E
W vi dt =

( )
( )
2
E f
eL eS e
di
W r i dt i dt ei dt
dt
W W W

= + +


= + +

Electromechanics K. Craig 126

( )
2
0 e
2
d x dx
f M D K x x f
dt dt
= + +
( )
M
dx
W f dx f dt
dt

= =



( ) ( )
2
2
M 0 e
2
d x dx
W M dx D dt K x x dx f dx
dt dt


= + +




W
mS
W
mL
W
m
( ) ( )
f e m f e
W W W ei dt f dx = + =

total energy transferred to
the coupling field

Electromechanics K. Craig 127

These equations may be readily extended to include an
electromechanical system with any number of electrical
and mechanical inputs and any number of coupling
fields.
We will consider devices with only one mechanical input,
but with possibly multiple electric inputs. In all cases,
however, the multiple electric inputs have a common
coupling field.
Electromechanics K. Craig 128
J K
f ej mk
j 1 k 1
W W W
= =
= +

J J
ej fj j
j 1 j 1
W e i dt
= =
=

K K
mk ek k
k 1 k 1
W f dx
= =
=

Total energy supplied to the

coupling field
Total energy supplied to the
coupling field from the
electric inputs
Total energy supplied to
the coupling field from the
mechanical inputs
J
f fj j e
j 1
J
f fj j e
j 1
W e i dt f dx
dW e i dt f dx
=
=
=
=

With one mechanical input

and multiple electric inputs,
the energy supplied to the
coupling field, in both
integral and differential form
Electromechanics K. Craig 129
Energy in Coupling Field
We need to derive an expression for the energy stored in
the coupling field before we can solve for the
electromagnetic force f
e
.
We will neglect all losses associated with the electric or
magnetic coupling field, whereupon the field is assumed to
be conservative and the energy stored therein is a function
of the state of the electrical and mechanical variables and
not the manner in which the variables reached that state.
The ability to identify a lossless-energy-storage system is
the essence of the energy method. This is done as part of
the modeling process, i.e., the model is a valid
representation of the actual physical system.
Electromechanics K. Craig 130
This assumption is not as restrictive as it might first appear.
The ferromagnetic material is selected and arranged in
laminations so as to minimize the hysteresis and eddy
current losses.
Nearly all of the energy stored in the coupling field is
stored in the air gap of the electromechanical device.
Air is a conservative medium and all of the energy
stored therein can be returned to the electric or
mechanical systems.
In fixed-geometry magnetic circuits, energy is stored in the
leakage fields and to some extent in the core itself. In
energy-conversion systems, the magnetic circuits have air
gaps between the stationary and moving members in
which considerable energy is stored in the magnetic field.
This field acts as the energy-conversion medium.
Electromechanics K. Craig 131
Consider the electromagnetic relay shown.
Electromechanics K. Craig 132
As we see, electromechanical-energy-conversion
devices contain air gaps in their magnetic circuits to
separate the moving parts. The reluctance of the air
gap is usually much larger than that of the magnetic
material. Thus the predominant energy storage
occurs in the air gap, and the properties of the
magnetic circuit are determined by the dimensions of
the air gap.
Magnetic nonlinearity and core losses are often
neglected in the analysis of practical devices.
Analyses are carried out under the assumption that
the flux and mmf are directly proportional for the
entire magnetic circuit. Flux linkages and current i
are considered to be linearly related by an inductance
which depends solely on the geometry:
( )
L x i =
Electromechanics K. Craig 133
We will take advantage of the conservative field
assumption in developing a mathematical expression for
the field energy. We will fix mathematically the position
of the mechanical system associated with the coupling
field and then excite the electric system with the
displacement of the mechanical system held fixed.
Since the magnetic energy storage system is lossless, it
is a conservative system and the value of W
f
is uniquely
specified by the values of and x; and x are referred to
as state variables since their values uniquely determine
the state of the system.
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
f f e
e
W ei dt f dx
i d f dx
=
=


f
d
e
dt

=
Electromechanics K. Craig 134
W
f
, being uniquely determined by the values of and
x, is the same regardless of how and x are brought
to their final values.
Integration Paths for W
f
Path 1: general case and is difficult
to integrate unless both i and f
e
are
known explicitly as a function of
and x.
Path 2 gives the same result
because the integration is path
independent; this integration is much
easier.
( ) ( )
0
f 0 0 f f 0
0
path2A path2B
W ,x dW dW 0 i ,x d

= + = +

d = 0, f
e
= 0
dx = 0
Electromechanics K. Craig 135
During the excitation of the electric inputs, dx = 0, hence,
W
m
is zero even though electromagnetic and
electrostatic forces occur.
Therefore, with the displacement held fixed, the energy
stored in the coupling field during the excitation of the
electric inputs is equal to the energy supplied to the
coupling field by the electric inputs.
With dx = 0, the energy supplied from the electric system
is:
J
f fj j
j 1
W e i dt
=
=

J
f fj j e
j 1
W e i dt f dx
=
=

0
Electromechanics K. Craig 136
For a singly excited electromagnetic system:
( )
f
f
d
e
dt
W i d with dx 0

=
= =

( )
f
W i d =

Graph
Stored energy and coenergy in
a magnetic field of a singly
excited electromagnetic
device
Area represents energy stored
in the field at the instant
when =
a
and i = i
a
.
( )
c
W di =

Area is called
coenergy
c f
i W W = +
For a linear magnetic system:
Curve is a straight line and
f c
1
W W i
2
= =
Electromechanics K. Craig 137
The i relationship need not be linear, it need only be
single-valued, a property which is characteristic to a
conservative or lossless field.
Also, since the coupling field is conservative, the energy
stored in the field with =
a
and i = i
a
is independent of
the excursion of the electrical and mechanical variables
before reaching this state.
The displacement x defines completely the influence of
the mechanical system upon the coupling field; however,
since and i are related, only one is needed in addition
to x in order to describe the state of the
electromechanical system.
Electromechanics K. Craig 138
If i and x are selected as the independent variables, it is
convenient to express the field energy and the flux
linkages as
( )
( )
f f
W W i,x
i,x
=
=
( ) ( )
( )
i,x i,x
d di dx
i x
i,x
d di with dx = 0
i

= +

( )
( ) ( )
i
f
0
i,x ,x
W i d i di d
i

= = =


Energy stored
in the field of a
singly excited
system
Electromechanics K. Craig 139
The coenergy in terms of i and x may be evaluated as
For a linear electromagnetic system, the i plots are
straightline relationships. Thus, for the singly excited
magnetically linear system, , where L(x) is
the inductance.
Lets evaluate W
f
(i,x).
( ) ( ) ( )
i
c
0
W i,x i,x di ,x d = =

( ) ( )
i,x L x i =
( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
i
2
f
0
i,x
d di with dx = 0
i
d =L x di
1
W i,x L x d L x i
2

= =

Electromechanics K. Craig 140

The field energy is a state function and the expression
describing the field energy in terms of the state variables
is valid regardless of the variations in the system
variables.
W
f
expresses the field energy regardless of the
variations in L(x) and i. The fixing of the mechanical
system so as to obtain an expression for the field energy
is a mathematical convenience and not a restriction upon
the result.
( ) ( ) ( )
i
2
f
0
1
W i,x L x d L x i
2
= =

Electromechanics K. Craig 141

In the case of a multiexcited electromagnetic system, an
expression for the field energy may be obtained by
evaluating the following relation with dx = 0:
Since the coupling field is considered conservative, this
expression may be evaluated independent of the order in
which the flux linkages or currents are brought to their
final values.
Lets consider a doubly excited electric system with one
mechanical input.
J
f j j
j 1
W i d
=
=

( ) ( ) ( )
f 1 2 1 1 1 2 2 2 1 2
W i ,i ,x i d i ,i ,x i d i ,i ,x with dx 0 = + =

Electromechanics K. Craig 142
The result is:
The first integral results from the first step of the
evaluation with i
1
as the variable of integration and with i
2
= 0 and di
2
= 0. The second integral comes from the
second step of the evaluation with i
1
equal to its final
value (di
1
= 0) and i
2
as the variable of integration. The
order of allowing the currents to reach their final state is
irrelevant.
( )
( )
( ) ( )
1
2
i
1
f 1 2
0
i
1 1 2 1
1
0
,0,x
W i ,i ,x d
i , ,x i , ,x
i d

= +

Electromechanics K. Craig 143

Lets now evaluate the energy stored in a magnetically
linear electromechanical system with two electrical
inputs and one mechanical input.
The self-inductances L
11
(x) and L
22
(x) include the
leakage inductances.
With the mechanical displacement held constant (dx =
0):
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
1 1 2 11 1 12 2
2 1 2 21 1 22 2
i ,i ,x L x i L x i
i ,i ,x L x i L x i
= +
= +
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
1 1 2 11 1 12 2
2 1 2 21 1 22 2
d i ,i ,x L x di L x di
d i ,i ,x L x di L x di
= +
= +
Electromechanics K. Craig 144
Substitution into:
Yields:
( )
( )
( ) ( )
1
2
i
1
f 1 2
0
i
1 1 2 1
1
0
,0,x
W i ,i ,x d
i , ,x i , ,x
i d

= +

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
1 2
i i
f 1 2 11 1 12 22
0 0
2 2
11 1 12 1 2 22 2
W i ,i ,x L x d i L x L x d
1 1
L x i L x i i L x i
2 2
= + +

= + +

Electromechanics K. Craig 145
It follows that the total field energy of a linear
electromagnetic system with J electric inputs may be
expressed as:
( )
J J
f 1 j pq p q
p 1q 1
1
W i , ,i ,x L i i
2
= =
=

Electromechanics K. Craig 146

Electromagnetic and Electrostatic Forces
Energy Balance Equation:
To obtain an expression for f
e
, it is first necessary to
express W
f
and then take its total derivative. The total
differential of the field energy is required here.
J
f fj j e
j 1
J
f fj j e
j 1
J
e fj j f
j 1
W e i dt f dx
dW e i dt f dx
f dx e i dt dW
=
=
=
=
=
=

Electromechanics K. Craig 147

The force or torque in any electromechanical system
may be evaluated by employing:
We will derive the force equations for electro-mechanical
systems with one mechanical input and J electrical
inputs.
For an electromagnetic system:
Select i
j
and x as independent variables:
f e m
dW dW dW = +
J
e j j f
j 1
f dx i d dW
=
=

( )
( )
f f
j j
W W i ,x
i ,x
=
=

( ) ( )
( ) ( )
J
f f
f j
j 1
j
J
j j
j n
n 1
n
W i ,x W i ,x
dW di dx
i x
i ,x i ,x
d di dx
i x
=
=



= +






= +

Electromechanics K. Craig 148
The summation index n is used so as to avoid confusion
with the subscript j since each d
j
must be evaluated for
changes in all currents to account for mutual coupling
between electric systems.
Substitution:
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
J
f f
f j
j 1
j
J
j j
j n
n 1
n
W i ,x W i ,x
dW di dx
i x
i ,x i ,x
d di dx
i x
=
=



= +






= +

J
e j j f
j 1
f dx i d dW
=
=

into
Electromechanics K. Craig 149
Result:
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
J J
j
e j n
j 1 n 1
n
J
f f
j
j 1
j
j i ,x i ,x
f i ,x dx i di dx
i x
W i ,x W i ,x
di dx
i x
= =
=





= +









+

( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
J
j f
e j
j 1
J J
j f
j n j
j 1 n 1
n j
i ,x W i ,x
f i ,x dx i dx
x x
i ,x W i ,x
i di di
i i
=
= =





=











+

Electromechanics K. Craig 150
This equation is satisfied provided that:
The first equation can be used to evaluate the force on
the mechanical system with i and x selected as
independent variables.
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
J
j f
e j
j 1
J J
j f
j n j
j 1 n 1
n j
i ,x W i ,x
f i ,x i
x x
i ,x W i ,x
0 i di di
i i
=
= =



=








=

Electromechanics K. Craig 151
We can incorporate an expression for coenergy and
obtain a second force equation:
Since i and x are independent variables, the partial
derivative with respect to x is:
Substitution:
J
c j j f
j 1
W i W
=
=

( ) ( ) ( )
J
c j f
j
j 1
W i ,x i ,x W i ,x
i
x x x
=



=

( )
( ) ( ) ( )
J
j f c
e j
j 1
i ,x W i ,x W i ,x
f i ,x i
x x x
=



= =

Electromechanics K. Craig 152

Note:
Positive f
e
and positive dx are in the same direction
If the magnetic system is linear, W
c
= W
f
.
Summary:
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
J
j f
e j
j 1
c
e
i ,x W i ,x
f i ,x i
x x
W i ,x
f i ,x
x
=



=

( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
J
j f
e j
j 1
c
e
i , W i ,
T i , i
W i ,
T i ,
=



=




=

f
e
T
e
x
Electromechanics K. Craig 153
By a similar procedure, force equations may be derived
with flux linkages
1
, ,
j
of the J windings and x as
independent variables. The relations, given without proof,
are:
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
J
j c
e j
j 1
f
e
i ,x W ,x
f ,x
x x
W ,x
f ,x
x
=



= +




=

( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
J
j c
e j
j 1
f
e
i , W ,
T ,
W ,
T ,
=



= +




=

Electromechanics K. Craig 154

Elementary Electromagnet
The system consists of:
stationary core with a winding of N turns
block of magnetic material is free to slide relative to
the stationary member
x = x(t)
Electromechanics K. Craig 155
d
v ri
dt

= + voltage equation that describes the electric system

m
m
N
leakage flux
magnetizing flux
=
= +
=
=

(the magnetizing flux is common to

both stationary and rotating members)
flux linkages
m
m
Ni
Ni
=

If the magnetic system is considered to be

linear (saturation neglected), then, as in the
case of stationary coupled circuits, we can
express the fluxes in terms of reluctances.
Electromechanics K. Craig 156
( )
2 2
m
m
N N
i
L L i

= +



= +

flux linkages
m
L leakage inductance
L magnetizing inductance
=
=

m i g
2 = + reluctance of the magnetizing path
total reluctance of the magnetic material
of the stationary and movable members
reluctance of one of the air gaps
i

i
i
ri 0 i
g
0 g
A
x
A
=

=

Assume that the cross-sectional areas of

the stationary and movable members are
equal and of the same material
Electromechanics K. Craig 157
g i
A A =
This may be somewhat of an oversimplification,
but it is sufficient for our purposes.
m i g
i
0 i ri
2
1
2x
A
= +

= +

2
m
i
0 i ri
N
L
1
2x
A
=

+

Assume that the leakage inductance

is constant.
The magnetizing inductance is
clearly a function of displacement.
x = x(t) and L
m
= L
m
(x)
When dealing with linear magnetic circuits wherein mechanical
motion is not present, as in the case of a transformer, the change
of flux linkages with respect to time was simply L(di/dt). This is
not the case here.
Electromechanics K. Craig 158
[ ]
m
(i,x) L(x)i L L (x) i
d (i,x) di dx
dt i dt x dt
= = +

= +

The inductance is a
function of x(t).
[ ]
m
m
di dL (x) dx
v ri L L (x) i
dt dx dt
= + + +

The voltage equation is

a nonlinear differential
equation.
( )
2
m
i
0 i ri
N
L x
1
2x
A
=

+

Lets look at the magnetizing

inductance again.
2
0 i
i
0
ri
N A
k
2
k
2

=
=

m
0
k
L (x)
k x
=
+
2
0 ri i
m
0 i
m
N A k
L (0)
k
k
L (x) for x > 0
x

= =

Electromechanics K. Craig 159

Electromagnet
Detailed diagram of electromagnet
for further analysis
Electromechanics K. Craig 160
( ) ( )
m
m
k
L (x) for x 0
x
k
L x L L x L for x 0
x
>
+ = + >

[ ]
m
(i,x) L(x)i L L (x) i = = +

The system is magnetically linear:

( ) ( ) ( )
2
f c
1
W i,x W i,x L x i
2
= =
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
J
j f
e j
j 1
c
e
i ,x W i ,x
f i ,x i
x x
W i ,x
f i ,x
x
=



=

( )
( )
2
e
2
2
L x
1
f i,x i
2 x
ki
2x

=
Use this approximation
Electromechanics K. Craig 161
The force f
e
is always negative; it pulls the moving
member to the stationary member. In other words, an
electromagnetic force is set up so as to minimize the
reluctance (maximize the inductance) of the magnetic
system.
Equations of Motion:
f
di
v ri e
dt
= + +
( )
2
0 e
2
d x dx
f M D K x x f
dt dt
= + +
v ri =
( )
0 e
f K x x f =
Steady-State Operation
(if v and f are constant)
Electromechanics K. Craig 162
Steady-State Operation
of an
Electromagnet
( )
( )
( )
0 e
e 0
2
0
2
f K x x f
f f K x x
ki
f K x x
2x
=
=

=


Parameters:
r = 10
K = 2667 N/m
x
0
= 3 mm
k = 6.283E-5 H m
v = 5 V
i = 0.5 A
Stable Operation: points 1 and 2
Unstable Operation: points 1and 2
(f = 0)
(f =4 N)
Electromechanics K. Craig 163
Single-Phase Reluctance Machine
The machine consists of:
stationary core with a
winding of N turns
moveable member which
rotates
( ) ( )
r
r
t
r r r
0
angular displacement
angular velocity
d 0
=
=
= +

Electromechanics K. Craig 164

d
v ri
dt

= +
m
m
leakage flux
magnetizing flux
= +
=
=

voltage equation
( )
m
L L i = +

It is convenient to express the flux

linkages as the product of the sum of the
leakage inductance and the magnetizing
inductance and the current in the winding.
r
m r
L constant (independent of )
L periodic function of
=
=

Electromechanics K. Craig 165

( )
( )
m m r
2
m
m
2
m
m
L L
N
L (0)
0
N
L
2
2
=
=

=







m
m
is maximum
L is minimum

m
m
is minimum
L is maximum

The magnetizing inductance varies between maximum and

minimum positive values twice per revolutionof the rotating
member.
Electromechanics K. Craig 166
Assume that this variation may
be adequately approximated
by a sinusoidal function.
( ) ( )
m r A B r
L L L cos 2 =
( )
m A B
m A B
A B
A
L 0 L L
L L L
2
L L
L average value
=

= +


>
=
( ) ( )
( )
r m r
A B r
L L L
L L L cos 2
= +
= +

[ ]
m r r
m r
r
di dL ( ) d
v ri L L ( ) i
dt d dt

= + + +

voltage equation
Electromechanics K. Craig 167
This elementary two-pole single-phase reluctance
machine is shown in a slightly different form. Winding 1
is now winding as and the stator has been changed to
depict more accurately the configuration common for this
device.
( )
( ) ( )
as
as s as
as asas as
asas s A B r
t
r r r
0
d
v ri
dt
L i
L L L L cos 2
d 0

= +
=
= +
= +

r
s
= resistance of as winding
L
asas
=self-inductance of as winding s
L leakage inductance =

Electromechanics K. Craig 168

Electromagnetic torque:
Magnetic system is linear, hence W
f
= W
c
.
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
J
j f
e j
j 1
c
e
i , W i ,
T i , i
W i ,
T i ,
=



=




=

( ) ( )
( )
2
c as r s A B r as
1
W i , L L L cos 2 i
2
= +

( ) ( )
2
e as r B as r
T i , L i sin 2 =
Valid for both transient and steady-state operation
Electromechanics K. Craig 169
Consider steady-state operation: i
as
is constant
Electromagnetic torque versus angular displacement of a
single-phase reluctance machine with constant stator current
( )
e r
2
B as
T K sin 2
K L i
=
=
stable operating point unstable operating point
Electromechanics K. Craig 170
Although the operation of a single-phase reluctance
machine with a constant current is impracticable, it
provides a basic understanding of reluctance torque,
which is the operating principle of variable-reluctance
stepper motors.
In its simplest form, a variable-reluctance stepper motor
consists of three cascaded, single-phase reluctance
motors with rotors on a common shaft and arranged so
that their minimum reluctance paths are displaced from
each other.
Electromechanics K. Craig 171
Windings in Relative Motion
The rotational device shown will be used to illustrate
windings in relative motion.
Winding 1: N
1
turns on stator
Winding 2: N
2
turns on rotor
end view cross-sectional view
Assume that the turns are
concentrated in one position.
Air-gap size is
exaggerated.
Electromechanics K. Craig 172
1
1 1 1
2
2 2 2
d
v ri
dt
d
v r i
dt

= +

= +
voltage equations
1 11 i 12 2
2 21 i 22 2
L i L i
L i L i
= +
= +
The magnetic system is assumed linear.
11 1 m1
2 2
1 1
1 m
22 2 m2
2 2
2 2
2 m
L L L
N N
L L L
N N
= +
= +

= +
= +

The self-inductances L
11
and L
22
are
constants and may be expressed in
terms of leakage and magnetizing
inductances.
is the reluctance of the complete
magnetic path of
m1
and
m2
, which
is through the rotor and stator iron and
twice across the air gap.
m

Electromechanics K. Craig 173

Lets now consider L
12
.
( ) ( )
r
r
t
r r r
0
angular displacement
angular velocity
d 0
=
=
= +

When
r
is zero, then the coupling between
windings 1 and 2 is maximum. The magnetic
system of winding 1 aids that of winding 2
with positive currents assumed. Hence the
mutual inductance is positive.
( )
1 2
12
m
N N
L 0 =

When
r
is /2, the windings are orthogonal.
The mutual coupling is zero.
12
L 0
2

=


Electromechanics K. Craig 174
Assume that the mutual
inductance may be adequately
predicted by:
( ) ( )
12 r sr r
1 2
sr
m
L L cos
N N
L
=
=

L
sr
is the amplitude of the
sinusoidal mutual inductance
between the stator androtor
windings.
1
1 1 1
2
2 2 2
d
v ri
dt
d
v r i
dt

= +

= +
In writing the voltage equations, the
total derivative of the flux linkages is
required.
( )
( )
1 11 1 sr r 2
2 22 2 sr r 1
L i L cos i
L i L cos i
= +
= +
1 2
1 1 1 11 sr r 2 r sr r
2 1
2 2 2 22 sr r 1 r sr r
di di
v ri L L cos i L sin
dt dt
di di
v r i L L cos i L sin
dt dt
= + +
= + +
Electromechanics K. Craig 175
1 1 1 1
2 2 2 2
1 m1 sr r as 1
sr r 2 m2 bs 2
v r 0 i
d
v 0 r i dt
L L L cos i
L cos L L i

= +

+

=

+

( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
J
j f
e j
j 1
c
e
i , W i ,
T i , i
W i ,
T i ,
=



=




=

( ) ( )
2 2
f 1 2 r 11 1 12 1 2 22 2 c 1 2 r
1 1
W i ,i , L i L i i L i W i ,i ,
2 2
= + + =
Since the magnetic system is assumed to be linear:
( )
e 1 2 r 1 2 sr r
T i ,i , i i L sin =
Electromechanics K. Craig 176
Consider the case where i
1
and i
2
are both positive and
constant:
e r
1 2 sr
T K sin
K i i L
=
=
Electromagnetic torque versus angular displacement with constant winding currents
stable operation
unstable operation
Electromechanics K. Craig 177
Although operation with constant winding currents is
somewhat impracticable, it does illustrate the principle of
positioning of stepper motors with a permanent-magnet
rotor which, in many respects, is analogous to holding i
2
constant on the elementary device considered here.
Electromechanics K. Craig 178
Forces and Torques in Systems with
Permanent Magnets
The derivations of the force and torque expressions have
focused on systems in which the magnetic fields are
produced by the electrical excitation of specific windings
in the system.
Special care must be taken when considering systems
which contain permanent magnets (hard magnetic
materials).
Specifically, in such systems, the magnetic flux density is
zero when H = H
c
, not when H = 0. For this reason, the
expressions for force and torque previously derived must
be modified for systems which contain permanent
magnets.
Electromechanics K. Craig 179
In some systems, there are no windings at all and the
magnetic fields are due solely to the presence of
permanent-magnet material; in other systems, the
magnetic fields may be produced by a combination of
permanent magnets and windings.
A modification of the techniques previously presented
can be used in systems which contain permanent
magnets. The essence of the technique is to consider
the system as having an additional fictitious winding
acting upon the same portion of the magnetic circuit as
does the permanent magnet.
Under normal operating conditions, the fictitious winding
carries zero current. Its function is simply that of a
mathematical crutch which can be used to accomplish
the required analysis.
Electromechanics K. Craig 180
The current in this winding can be adjusted to zero-out
the magnetic fields produced by the permanent magnet
in order to achieve the zero-force starting point for the
analysis, as previously performed.
For the purpose of calculating the energy and coenergy
of the system, this winding is treated as any other
winding, with its own set of current and flux linkages. As
a result, energy and coenergy expressions can be
obtained as a function of all the winding flux linkages or
currents, including those of the fictitious winding.
Under normal operating conditions the current in this
winding will be set to equal to zero.
Electromechanics K. Craig 181
Consider the magnetic circuit with a permanent magnet
and a movable plunger. Figure (a) shows the circuit and
Figure (b) shows the circuit with a fictitious winding
added.
Electromechanics K. Craig 182
The fictitious-winding current I
f0
is that current which
reduces the magnetic flux in the system to zero. In other
words, the current in the fictitious winding totally
counteracts the magnetic field produced by the
permanent magnet. The subscript f indicates the
fictitious winding.
The expressions for the coenergy of the system and
electromagnetic force are then given as:
( ) ( )
f 0
0
c f f
I
W x di =

( )
( )
c
e
W x
f x
x

Electromechanics K. Craig 183

For the permanent magnet and movable plunger, the
magnetic circuit coenergy as a function of plunger
position and the x-directed force on the plunger are
given by:
( )
2
m r
c
R m
R
0 g
W D B d
W
2gW
2 d
W x
=



+






( )
2 2
m r
e
2
R m
0 g
0 g
gW DB
f
2gW
W x 1
W x
=



+






Electromechanics K. Craig 184
Derive the dynamic
equations of motion of
the electromechanical
system.
Solenoid Modeling
Electromechanics K. Craig 185
The figure shows in cross section a cylindrical solenoid
magnet in which the cylindrical plunger of mass M moves
vertically in brass guide rings of thickness g and mean
diameter d. The permeability of brass is the same as that
of free space.
The plunger is supported by a spring whose spring
constant is K. Its unstretched length is
0
. A mechanical
load force f
t
is applied to the plunger from the mechanical
system connected to it.
Assume that the frictional force is linearly proportional to
the velocity and that the damping coefficient is B. The coil
has N turns and resistance R. Its terminal voltage is e
t
,
and its current is i. The effects of magnetic leakage and
reluctance of the steel are negligible.
Electromechanics K. Craig 186
Reluctance of the Magnetic Circuit
Reluctance of the magnetic circuit is that of the two
guide rings is series, with the flux directed radially
through them
Assume constant flux density in the guide rings with
respect to the radial distance since g << d
g = length of the flux path in the direction of the field
(xd, ad) = (upper, lower) area of flux path
perpendicular to the field
assume that, for the upper gap reluctance expression,
the field is concentrated in the area between the
upper end of the plunger and the lower end of the
upper guide ring
upper gap lower gap
0 0
g g

xd ad

= =

Electromechanics K. Craig 187
Total Reluctance
Inductance
Magnetic Force acting upward on the plunger in the
positive x direction
upper gap lower gap
0 0 0 0
g g g 1 1 g a x
+
xd ad d a x d x

= +
+

= = + =



( )
( )
2 2 2
0 0
adN x adN N x
L x L ' where L '
g a x a x g

= = = =
+ +
( )
( )
2 2
e
2
W i,x
1 dL 1 a
F i i L '
x 2 dx 2
a x

= = =

+
Electromechanics K. Craig 188
Induced voltage in the coil
Equations of Motion
Newtons 2
nd
Law (total spring stretch =
1
-x)
( )
( )
2
d di dL dx x di ai dx
e Li L i L ' L '
dt dt dx dt a x dt dt
a x


= = + = +

+
+

( )
( )
2
x
2
2 2
t 1
2 2
d x
F M
dt
d x dx 1 ai
f M B Mg K x L '
dt dt 2
a x
=

= +

+

Electromechanics K. Craig 189

KVL applied to the circuit
The second term in the equation is the self-inductance
voltage term. The third term is the speed-voltage term and is
common to all electromechanical-energy-conversion
systems; it is responsible for energy transfer to and from the
mechanical system by the electrical system.
These two equations of motion are valid as long as
the upper end of the plunger is well within the upper
guide ring, e.g., 0.1a < x < 0.9a, which is the normal
working range of the solenoid.
( )
2
0
t
2
adN x di a dx
e iR L ' iL ' where L '
a x dt dt g
a x



= + + =

+
+

Electromechanics K. Craig 190
Electromechanics K. Craig 191
Electromechanics K. Craig 192
44.5N Electrodynamic Vibration Shaker
Full-scale force capabilities for different models range from about 20 to 150,000 N, with
permanent magnet fields being used below about 250 N.
Electromechanics K. Craig 193
This "moving coil" type of device converts an
electrical command signal into a mechanical force
and/or motion and is very common, e.g., vibration
shakers, loudspeakers, linear motors for positioning
heads on computer disk memories, high-speed
galvanometers for oscillographic recorders, and
optical mirror scanners.
In all these cases, a current-carrying coil is located in
a steady magnetic field provided by permanent
magnets in small devices and electrically-excited
wound coils in large ones.
Electromechanics K. Craig 194
Two electromechanical effects are observed in such
configurations:
Generator Effect:
Motion of the coil through the magnetic field
causes a voltage proportional to velocity to be
induced into the coil.
Motor Effect:
Passage of current through the coil causes it to
experience a magnetic force proportional to the
current.
Electromechanics K. Craig 195
Physical Model of Vibration Shaker
Electromechanics K. Craig 196
Flexure K
f
is an intentional soft spring (stiff, however, in
the radial direction) that serves to guide the axial motion of
the coil and table.
Flexure damping B
f
is usually intentional, fairly strong, and
obtained by laminated construction of the flexure spring,
using layers of metal, elastomer, plastic, and so on.
The coupling of the coil to the shaker table would ideally
be rigid so that magnetic force is transmitted undistorted to
the mechanical load. Thus K
t
(generally large) and B
t
(quite small) represent parasitic effects rather than
intentional spring and damper elements.
R and L are the total circuit resistance and inductance,
including contributions from both the shaker coil and the
amplifier output circuit.
Electromechanics K. Craig 197
Mathematical Model
Equations of Motion
( )
( )
t t f t f t t c t t c t
c c t c t t c t
i c
M x K x B x B x x K x x
M x B x x K x x Ki
Li e Ri K x




= + +



= +


=
Electromechanics K. Craig 198
State-Space Representation of Equations of Motion
t
t
f t f t t t
t t t t
t
t
i c
c
t t t t
c
c c c c c
c
0 1 0 0 0
x
x 0
K K B B K B
0
M M M M 0
x
x
0 0 0 1 0 0
e x
x
K B K B 0 K
x
M M M M M
x
1
i
L
K R
0 0 0 i
L L

= +



















Electromechanics K. Craig 199
Typical Parameter Values (SI Units)
L = 0.0012
R = 3.0
K = 190
K
t
= 8.16E8
B
t
= 3850
K
f
= 6.3E5
B
f
= 1120
M
c
= 1.815
M
t
= 6.12
Electromechanics K. Craig 200
Frequency Response Plots: Table Acceleration / Input Voltage