IB Biology Study Guide Remember: all work must be in your own words! Contents 1 Biotechnology 1.1 Block 1B 1.

2 Block B 1. Block !B 2 Cellular Biology 2.1 Block 1B 2.2 Block B 2. Block !B Cell "i#ision .1 Block 1B .2 Block B . Block !B ! Genetics !.1 Block 1B !.2 Block B !. Block !B $ "%& $.1 Block B $.2 Block !B ' (hotosynthesis)Res*iration '.1 Block 1B '.2 Block B '. Block !B + Chemistry +.1 Block 1B +.2 Block B +. Block !B , -#olution ,.1 Block 1B ,.2 Block B ,. Block !B . Classi/ication)-cology ..1 Block 1B ..2 Block B .. Block !B 0edit1 Biotechnology 0edit1 Block 1B (CR (CR2 or (olymerase Chain Reaction2 was de#elo*ed by 3ari 4ullis as a means to

am*li/y "%& obtained /rom crime scenes. In short2 it5s re*lication G6%- CR&78. In 9ust a /ew hours2 "%& can be re*licated millions o/ times. In the *rocedure2 "%& (olymerase uses nucleotides and *rimers to re*licate a small se:uence o/ "%& so that it is #isible when com*aring "%& obtained /rom a crime scene with sam*les. ;here are /our ste*s to the *rocess: 1. "enaturation < breaks =ydrogren bonds2 s*lits them with heat 2. &nneal < adds *rimers2 cools "%& . ->tension < "%& (olymerase adds nucleotides to the "%& se:uence !. Re*eat < in three hours2 one can obtain three million co*ies o/ the "%&. ;he "%& *olymerase o/ ;hermus a:uaticus2 a bacterium that li#es in hot s*rings2 is o/ten used during (CR because the en?yme is able to sur#i#e the e>tremely hot tem*eratures needed to break hydrogen bonds in the "%&. 6ne can re*licate s*eci/ic se:uences o/ the "%& by utili?ing s*eci/ic *rimers in the re*lication *rocess. Gel -lectro*horesis Gel electro*horesis is a method o/ se*arating the strands o/ "%& based on their charge and si?e. Based on charge2 "%& molecules ha#e a negati#e charge. @hen *laced on a magnetic /ield2 the "%& strands mo#e toward the *ositi#e *ole. In addition2 they can be se*arated based on si?e. Aarger "%& molecules mo#e much slower than small ones2 so di//erent si?ed "%& strands sto* at di//erent *oints along the magnetic /ield. ;hrough this techni:ue2 the "%& lea#es a distincti#e *attern2 and it can be com*ared with other sam*les to match "%&. Restriction -n?ymes Restrictions en?ymes2 or molecular sci??ors2 are used to cut "%& molecules in s*eci/ic *laces. Bacteria *roduce restriction en?ymes /or the *ur*ose o/ seeking out and destroying bacterio*hage "%&. Researchers use these restriction en?ymes to cut "%& at s*eci/ic *oints2 called *alindromes2 into manageable segments. Aater this "%& can be inserted into a #ector molecule2 which will take the *lasmids B"%& segmentsC into the cell. 6nce inside the nucleus o/ the cell2 this *lasmid "%& is re*licated and distributed to any daughter cells. Restriction en?ymes cut the "%& in a staggered *attern2 *roducing sticky ends to which other "%& molecules which ha#e been cut with the same restriction en?yme can bind. Recombinant "%& @hen "%& is s*liced into a #ector2 the newly</ormed *roduct is known as recombinant "%&. Genetic engineering enables indi#iduals to change #iruses so that they can more easily introduce "%& into cells o/ more com*le> organisms2 creating more com*le> and ad#anced recombinant "%&.

=uman Genome (ro9ect ;he human genome *ro9ect aims to /ind the location o/ all o/ these genes on the human chromosomes and the base se:uence o/ all o/ the "%& that makes them u*. ;he *ro9ect is an international coo*erati#e one2 with laboratories in many countries in#ol#ed. ;he se:uencing o/ the entire human genome will make it easier to study how genes control human de#elo*ment. It will allow easier identi/ication o/ genetic diseases and the *roduction o/ new drugs bases on "%& base se:uences o/ genes or the structure o/ *roteins coded /or by these genes. It is estimated that the *ro9ect could contain anywhere /rom D2DDD to !D2DDD di//erent indi#idual genes.

Cloning Cloning *roduces an organism with and identical genoty*e as to its host)donor. & clone is a grou* o/ genetically identical organisms or a grou* genetically identical cells deri#ed /rom a single *arent. ;wo ty*es o/ cloning e>ist: cloning by embryo s*litting2 an earlier *rocedure2 and cloning by nuclear trans/er2 used to clone the shee* "olly. ;o clone the shee* "olly2 udder cells were taken /rom a donor shee* and un/ertali?ed egg cells were taken /rom another shee*. ;he nucleus was remo#ed /rom each egg2 which were then /used with the donor cells using electricity. ;he /used cells de#elo*ed into embryos2 which were then im*lanted into a surrogate mother. ;he mother ga#e birth to a shee* genetically identical to that o/ the donor cell organism. Cloning by embryo s*litting is an earlier method with di//erences in the method by which a clone is achie#ed. Eirst2 the actual egg cell o/ an animal is remo#ed to be /ertili?ed in a *etri dish. In the dish2 the ?ona *ellucida is a chemical coating that *romotes cell di#ision. &/ter the /irst di#ision2 this ?ona *ellucida is remo#ed by an en?yme and the two cells se*arate to become two indi#idual cells. @ithin the *etri dish2 an arti/icial ?ona *ellucida is added to the indi#idual eggs and they continue de#elo*ment se*arately. ;his method is o/ten used in cloning /a#orable li#estock. Ai#estock are o/ten selected /or cloning based on /a#orable commercial :ualities2 including wool2 meat2 or milk *roducti#ity. Fse o/ Re#erse ;ranscri*tase in Biotechnology In the biological world2 re#erse transcri*tase is an en?yme used mostly by #iruses to con#ert single<stranded R%& molecules into double<stranded "%& molecules. In terms o/ biotechnology2 re#erse transcri*tase is utili?ed in re#erse transcri*tion (CR. In this way2 by con#erting R%& to "%& be/ore beginning the *rocess o/ (CR2 R%& can be e>amined in the same way that "%& can be through the *rocess. Bio ;ech -thics ;here are many contro#ersial issues concerning biotechnology. Cons< 1. %ew chemicals can kill agriculture 2. Some *eo*le ha#e allergic reactions2 sometimes /atal to biotech engineered /ood

. Cloning B=ot *olitical issueGC can be seen as trying to Hbe GodH !. Cloning can casue some genetic *roblems (ros< 1.@ith Biotech2 we can //ed the ra*idly growing world *o*ulation better 2. (roducts can grow /aster2 bigger2 and better . Cloned animals such as cows can *roduce more milk to better the &merican market 0edit1 Block B (CR: (olymerase Chain Reaction: ;he *olymerase chain reaction is used to am*li/y "%& in a small amount o/ time. ;here are /our basic ste*s that outline this aml*i/ication. "enaturation: heatBe>tremeC is used to break hydroge bonds and se*arate the strands o/ "%&I &nneal: (rimers are then added to the se*arated strands during this ste*I ->tension: ;hermus a:uaticus *ro#ides the en?yme "%& *olymeraseI Re*eat: ;he *rocess is then re*eated multi*le times. -ach hour yields a**ro>imately 1 million co*ies. B$ hours J about $ million co*iesC Restriction -n?ymes Restriction en?ymes are "%& scissors. ;hey cut both strnds at s*eci/ic bases in order to remo#e needed genes and o*en bacterial *lasmids. By cutting at certain bases2 they can create sticky ends2 hel*/ul in the creation o/ recombinant *lasmids Bi.e. insulinC. Gel -lectro*horesis: Gel electro*horesis is used to se*arate "%& according to si?e and charge. "ue to the *hos*hate grou*s that make u* "%&2 "%& has a negati#e charge. ;here/ore2 "%& will migrate towards the *osti#ely charged *ole. In addition2 large molecules will mo#e slower then the smaller molecules. Re#erse ;ranscri*tase Re#erse ;ranscri*tase is used to create "%& /rom R%&. It is /ound in retro#iruses. Biotechnology uses this to create "%& without the garbage introns /rom R%&. ;he =uman Genome (ro9ect ;he =uman Genome (ro9ect was started by Fnited States scientists in 1..D. &lthough originally *lanned to last /or /i/teen years because o/ the e>tensi#e amount o/ work that was *lanned to be done2 it only took until 2DD . ;he =uman Genome (ro9ect success/ully determined the se:uences o/ o#er billion base *airs in "%& and identi/ied all o/ the genes in "%&. ;he ultimate goal o/ the =uman Genome (ro9ect was to ma* out human "%& so that it would be easier to cure diseases and sickness. Cloning "olly is the name o/ a shee* that was cloned by nuclear trans/er. &nother way o/ cloning is embryo s*litting.

Recombinant "%& &/ter a s*eci/ic section o/ "%& is s*liced o//2 it can be inserted into an organism #ia a #ector. & #ector is a means o/ trans*orting this "%& /ragment2 such as a gene gun or bacterio*hage Bwhich we steal to in9ect the recombinant "%&C. ;his allows us to insert new genes into organisms2 /orming the basis /or genetic engineering. 0edit1 Block !B Restriction en?ymes are Kmolecular scissorsL used to cut "%& molecules in s*eci/ic *laces. Restriction en?ymes cut "%& in a staggered manner2 which *roduces *ieces with identical2 com*lementary2 single<stranded Ksticky endsL. ;hese Ksticky endsL can *air u* with single<stranded ends o/ other "%& molecules that ha#e been cut with the same restriction en?yme. (CR is also known as the (olymerase Chain Reaction. It was created)disco#ered in 1., by 3ary 4ullis. ;he main *ur*ose o/ (CR is to make many many many co*ies o/ "%& B1 to o#er million in hours!!C. ;=e /irst ste* is "enaturation which breaks the =ydrogen bonds and se*arates the strands o/ "%& using =eat. ;hen there is &nneal2 which adds "%& (rimers using "%& (oymerase. ;he /inal ste* is ->tension where "%& (olymerase adds nucleotidesBd%;(sC. Gel -lectro*horesis is an e>am*le o/ "%& *ro/iling that is used to se*arate strands o/ "%& based on charge and si?e. Smaller molecules mo#e much /aster than the larger molecules. @hen "%& has a negati#e charge2 because o/ the *hos*hate grou*s2 it will migrate towards a *ole with a *ositi#e charge. Recombinant "%& is /ormed when "%& is s*liced into a #ector2 it is the "%& that has been created arti/icially. -ngineered #iruses are used to introduce "%& into the cells o/ more com*le> organisms. ;he =uman Genome (ro9ect was a *ro9ect launched o//icially in 1..D at a cost o/ billion FS dollars with a coalition o/ countries such as the F.S.2 F.3.2 Germany2 Erance2 Ma*an2 and China. ;he *ur*ose o/ this *ro9ect was to identi/y all o/ the 2DDDD<2$DDD genes in the human "%&2 determine se:uences2 store the in/ormation in the database2 im*ro#e tools /or analysis2 among other goals. ;he se:uence o/ the last chromosome was *ublished in 2DD'I although2 the genome itsel/ was /inished in 2DDD. @ith the com*letion o/ the *ro9ect2 scientists are closer to their goal o/ isolating genes that could cause certain diseases) disorders. Gene ;hera*y is used to treat genetic diseases by altering the genoty*e. In theory2 it would be *ossible to eliminate genetic diseases in the /uture by changing the base se:uence o/ the allele that causes the disease. Eor e>am*le2 i/ the disease<causeing allele is recessi#e2 one could insert the dominatn allele that would *re#ent the disease into the cells that ha#e been in/ected. &lthough this *rocedure could be done at se#eral di//erent stages during the human li/e cycle2 the best cells to use are stem cells. ;hey can di#ide re*eatedly to re*lace lost body cells. Gene 4utation is any change to the base se:uence o/ a gene. &lthough there are se#eral ty*es o/ gene mutations2 the smallest *ossible change that can occur Bwhen one base is re*laced by anotherC is called a base substitution. 6ne o/ the most notable e>am*les o/ a

gene mutation is non<dys9unction in chromosome 21 Btrisomy<21C2 otherwise known as "own Syndrome. Cloning Cloning is a *rocess by which a genetically identical co*y is made o/ something. ;he most /amous e>am*le to date is "olly the Shee*. "olly was the *roduct o/ somatic cell nuclear trans/er where 1C the nucleus /rom a somatic cell is *laced inside an egg cell2 which has had its nucleus remo#ed 2C&n eletrical shock intiates the egg that contains the somatic cell5s nucleus to begin di#iding CIt will e#entually /orm a blastocyst2 which has almost identical "%& to the original organism. Scientist ha#e said that it is *ossible to clone =umans2 but the *rocess is considered contro#ersial. 6n the *ositi#e side cloning o/ embryos would allow scientist to screen /or genectic diseases earlier. ;hen in/ertile cou*les would ha#e a more success/ul chance i/ their mbryos were cloned. 6n the negati#e side those grou*s who were genectically identical might su//er *sychological *roblems. &lso2 i/ di//erentiated cells could cause a high risk o/ /etal abnormalities and a high rate o/ miscarriages. ;hen di//erentiated cells ha#e already began ageing and it might cause the humans clones to grow old :uickly. Re#erse ;ranscri*tase is the molecule which allows a single strand o/ R%& to be made into a double strand o/ "%&. 0edit1 Cellular Biology 0edit1 Block 1B Niruses)Re#erse ;ranscri*tase Niruses are non<cellular in/ections agents that must ha#e a host cell to re*licate. ;hey are also considered non<li#ingI howe#er2 this is debated2 as the current de/inition /or li/e may be contestable. Niruses are sel/<*ro*ogating2 and they undergo some o/ the same biological *rocesses that other classied li#ing organisms do. Niruses also contain nucleic acid Beither "%& or R%&C which is surrounded by a *rotein coat2 or ca*sid. &n argument against #iruses being considered li#ing organisms is that they rely on other cells to *er/orm metabolic acti#ities2 with no inde*endence. ;he most widely acce*ted theory /or the origin o/ #irusis is that they are bits o/ nucleic acid that ha#e esca*ed /rom cells. (hages are #iruses that in#ade bacteria. Re#erse transri*tase2 also known as R%&<de*endent "%& *olymerase2 is a "%& *olymerase en?yme that transcribes single<stranded R%& into double<stranded "%&. %ormal transcri*tion in#ol#es the synthesis o/ R%& /rom "%&2 hence re#erse transcri*tion is the re#erse o/ this. (rokaryotic)-ukaryotic Cells -urkaryotic cells /eature membrane<bound organelles2 com*ared to *rokaryotic cells which do not. (rokaryotic cells /eature both a cell wall and a cell membrane2 while

eurkaryotic cells /eature only the membrane. (rokaryotic cells are also ty*ically smaller than eurkaryotic cells and likely e#ol#ed /irst. (rokaryotic cells /eature circular "%& which is naked2 while eukaryotic cells contain linear "%& contained within a nucleus. Aastly2 *rokaryotic cells /eature +Ds ribosomes2 in contrast to ,Ds ribosomes /ound in eurkaryotic cells. (lant)&nimal Cells (lant cells /eature chloro*lasts and mitochondria2 while animals cells only contain mitochondria. (lant cells are surrounded by a cell wall made o/ cellulose2 whereas animal cells only ha#e the cell membrane. (lant cells contain one large #acuole to store water2 while animal cells ha#e many smaller #acuoles /or the storage o/ other substances. Aastly2 animal cells ha#e cilia and /lagella to *romote mo#ement2 while *lant cells are stationary. Cellular 6rganelles: Eunctions2 Structure %ucleus < Contains "%&2 regulates cell *rocesses %ucleolus < Creates ribosomes Chloro*last < Site o/ *hotosynthesis 4itochondria < 4ake energy -ndo*lasmic Reticulum Brough or smoothC < (athway /or trans*ort o/ materials throughout cell Ribosomes < Synthesi?e *roteins Aysosome < "igests /ood2 recycles organic material2 suicice sac2 contains digesti#e en?ymes Golgi &**aratus < (ackaging center /or *roteins Nacuole < Storage2 dis*osal o/ waste Nesicles < ;rans/ers *roteins through cytosol (lasma 4embrane < Selecti#ely *ermeable membrane that allows the *assage o/ materials in and out o/ the cell Cell @all < 4aintains sha*e2 water intake2 and *rotection /or the cell Cilia)Elagella < (ro#ide mo#ement 4icrotubule < Structure

Centrioles < &ssist in cell di#ision (lasma 4embrane)Structure (lasma membrances /or cells are made o/ a *hos*holi*id bilayer. -ach *hos*holi*id is made u* o/ two /aty acid chains linked to a glycerol molecule. Cell Cycle I%;-R(=&SGR6@;= 1 Bor GDC < 11 hours long Blongest *haseC2 ra*id growth o/ organelles S8%;=-SIS < + hours2 "%& re*lication GR6@;= 2 < 1 hours BI5m not sure why G1 is the longest *hase2 but that5s what my diagram saysC2 growth continues2 /inal *re*aration /or mitosis2 s*indles /orm 4I;6SIS < 1 hour Bshortest *haseC2 (ro*hase2 4eta*hase2 &na*hase2 ;elo*hase Cytokinesis then leads back to OOOOOOOO I%;-R(=&SCells Cells are the building blocks o/ all li#ing things 0edit1 Block B (rokaryotic)-ukaryotic Cells (rokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells ha#e many di//erences2 such as the /ollowing: (rokaryotic cells ha#e circular "%&)-ukaryotic cells ha#e linear "%& (rokaryotic cells ha#e +D S#edburg Ribosomes)-ukaryotic cells ha#e ,D S#edburg Ribosomes -ukaryotic cells ha#e membrane<boung organelles2 while *rokaryotic cells do not. &nimal and (lant Cells (lant Cells P Surrounded by both (lasma membrane and rigid cell wall P Contain mitochondria and chloro*lasts P Rigidly held in *lace by cellulose wall P =as one single large #acuole that holds mostly water and o//ers structural su**ort. &nimal Cells P Surrounded by *lasma membrane only P Retains the ability to mo#e Bcilia)/lagellaC P =as many small #acuoles s*oradically s*rinkled throughout the cyto*lasm

Cellular organelles: P %ucleus: Fsed to control *rotein synthesis and hold "%&. H;he brain.H P%ucleolus: Fsed to make ribosomes P Chloro*last:;he site o/ *hotosynthesis in *lants P 4itochondria: Site o/ cellular res*iration2 which is the catabolic *rocess that generates &;( by e>tracting energy /rom other sugars2 /ats2 and other /uels with the aid o/ o>ygenCH;he (owerhouseH P Rough -ndo*lasmic Reticulm: =olds the ribosomes which create *roteins /or e>*ort P Smooth -ndo*lasmic Reticulum: ;he site /or the synthesis o/ li*ids and deto>i/ication P Ribosomes: 4anu/acture (roteins P Aysosomes: ;hey digest unwanted material and waste in the cell P Golgi &**aratus: ;he *ackaging center that recei#es and trans*orts #esicles P Nacuole: Stores material and /or *lants it *ro#ides structure P Nesicles: 4embrane bound trans*ortation sacs P (lasma 4embrane: Selecti#e and *ermeable barrier that controls the mo#ement o/ materials into and out o/ the cell -ndosymbiosis -ndosymbiosis is a theory that attem*ts to e>*lain how cell organelles de#elo*ed to /orm eukaryotes.Aynn 4argulis is credited as the /ounder o/ this theory. -ndosymbiosis states that early *rokaryote cells engul/ed other *rokaryote cells2 which /ormed a mutual symbiosis in which the outer cell *ro#ided *rotection2 while the inner cells *roduced energy. ;his e>*lains how mitochondria and chloro*lasts de#elo*ed as se*erate cells which later e#ol#ed into their *resent organelles. ;here are se#eral H*roo/sH claimed /or endosymbiosis. Chloro*lasts and mitochondria ha#e se#eral characteristics o/ early *rokaryotes Circular "%& +DS Ribosomes Fndergo 4itosis on their own Se*erate membranes 0edit1 Block !B 6rganisms can either be unicellular or multicellular. It is the unicellular organisms2 howe#er2 that are needed to carry out li/e /unctions. ;he cells in multicellular organisms are uni:ue in that they can they are able to carrout s*eciali?ed /unctions by e>*ressing certain genes2 but not others. Robert =ooke /irst disco#ered cells. &ntecdote to hel* remember said /act: @hile looking at the small entities2 their com*artmentali?ed a**earance reminded him o/ tiny2 conneted rooms Balso known as HcellsH during this timeC. =ence he decided to name the entities HcellsH. Nirues need a host cell to re*licate in. Retro#iruses use re#erse transcri*tase to insert the #irus "%& into the host "%&2 making the #irus unrecogni?able /rom the host. 6ne o/ the most notable retro#iruses o/ today is =IN. (lant cells ha#e a cell wall2 chloro*last and a *lasma membrane but do not ha#e centrioles.(lant cells also contain a central #acoule2 /or water storage.

&nimal cells do not ha#e a cell wall2 chloro*last or *lasma membrane but ha#e centrioles. &nimal cells also can ha#e mo#ement organelles2 such as /lagella. Cell Si?e & cell5s rate o/ metabolism is e:ual to the ratio mass:#olume. Aikewise2 the rate o/ material e>change is e:ual to a cell5s sur/ace area. It5s #ital that a cell has a high sur/ace area to #olume ratio. It can only do this by remaining small2 because it5s sur/ace area increases much more slowly than its #olume. I/ a cell becomes to large2 it will lose its ability to maintain le#els o/ homeostasis. 4icro#illi can hel* to increase a cell5s sur/ace area without changing it5s si?e. ;he ty*e o/ microsco*e used to #iew a cell can signi/icantly change the #iewers image o/ the cell. & light microsco*e is used to #iew li#ing organisms2 uses color images2 has a large /ield o/ #iew2 has a low resolution with a magni/ication o/ 1DDD>2 and is relati#ely ine>*ensi#e2 and *ortable2 as well. &n electron microsco*e2 on the other hand is used to #iew dead organisms2 uses monochrome images2 has a small /ield o/ #iew2 has a high resolution with a magni/ication o/ 2$D2DDD>2 is rather e>*ensi#e2 and cannot be mo#ed. Com*onents o/ the (rokaryotic Cell Cell @all<(ro#ides *rotection Q su**ortI made o/ *e*tidoglycan. (lasma 4embrane<&llows /or the regulation o/ intra)e>tra material in the cells. 4esosome<Aocated in the in/olding o/ the *lasma membrane. "%& re*lication occurs here. Cyto*lasm<Intercellular /luid that sus*ends organelles. Ribosomes<In#ol#ed with *rotein manu/acturing. %ucleoid region<H%akedH "%& is located here. Com*onents o/ -ukaryotic cells Cyto*lasm<watery material that contains materials in#ol#ed in cell metabolism -ndo*lasmic Reticulum B-RC< *athway /or the trans*ortation o/ materials throughout the cellI associated with synthesis and storage %ucleus<control center /or cell metabolism and re*roduction Ribosome<site o/ *rotein synthesis Aysosomes< digestion o/ /ood within the cells 4itochondria< H*owerhouseH o/ the cellI site o/ cellular res*iration. It has two membranes Binner2 outerC. &ll eukaryotic cells ha#e mitochondria.

Golgi bodies< *ackages and secrets *roducts o/ the cell Centrioles< cell di#ision in animals Nacuoles< Eluid /illed organelles sheltered by the membrane2 holds stored /ood and waste %ucleolus< site o/ the *roduction o/ ribosomes %ucleur membrane< controls mo#ement in and out o/ nucleus Cell wall< gi#es sha*e and *ro#ide *roduction in *lants Cilia< hairlike structure that hel*s the cell mo#e. Com*osed in a .>2 arrangement o/ microtubules. Elagellum< long2 hairlike tail used /or mo#ement. Com*osed in a .>2 arrangement o/ microtubules. Chloro*last< site o/ *hotosynthesis Cell *late< new cell wall that begins to /orm during cytokinesis Chloro*hyll<tra*s light and used to re*roduce in *lants microtubles<microsco*ic cylinders that gi#e cell sha*e. ;hey are larger than the thin micro/ilaments microtubules<trans*ort chromosomes during cell di#ision2 as well as organelles and #esicles throughout the cell. chloro*last<site o/ *hotosynthesis. It contains the *igment chloro*hyll. ;he chloro*last has three membranes Binner2 outer2 thylakoidC. (lants2 algae2 and some other *rotists carryout *hotosynthesis with the chloro*last. ;here are numerous en?ymes that are actually imbedded in membranes. ;he /ollowing membranes are a *art o/ the endomembrane system: -R2 nucleus2 Golgo com*le>2 lysosome2 #acuoles2 and *lasma membrane. -ukaryotic cells ha#e a cytoskeleton that *ro#ides sha*e and allows /or locomotion.

(rokaryotic cells: circular "%&2 mesosome2 lack membrane bound organelles2 +DS ribosomes2 smaller -ukaryotic cells: linear "%&2 no mesosome2 contain membrane<bound organelles2 ,DS ribosomes2 larger

Cell Cycle I: Inter*hase< longest *hase G: Growth Btranscri*tion and translation occurC S: synthesis o/ "%& Bre*lication occursC 0edit1 Cell "i#ision 0edit1 Block 1B 4itosis: (ur*oseR StagesR (ur*ose < growth and re*airI allows /or direct re*lication o/ a cell Stages < Inter*hase2 (ro*hase2 4eta*hase2 &na*hase2 ;elo*hase1 4eiosis: (ur*oseR StagesR (ur*ose < re*roductionI allows /or the /ormation o/ ha*loid gamete cells <Germ cells o/ -ukaryotes *roduce gametes <2 "i#isions ending in ! cells that are di//erent /rom each other and *arents Stages I%;-R(=&S<chromosomes re*licated in the S<*hase (R6(=&S- I <nucleus and nuclear membrane break down <centrioles mo#e towards o**osite *oles <tetrads /ormed 4-;&(=&S- I <homologous *air line u* along e:uator &%&(=&S- I

<homologues se*erate and mo#e to o**osite *oles ;-A6(=&S- I <chromosomes at o**osite *oles <new cell membranes /orm through cytokeneisis (R6(=&S- II 4-;&(=&S- II &%&(=&S- II ;-A6(=&S- II @hen homologous chromosomes meet at the e:uator to /orm a tetrad2 crossing o#er can sometimes occur among sister chromatids. In crossing o#er2 the genes switch chromosomes at the chiasma and tra#el with their new chromosomes through the remained o/ the *rocess o/ meiosis. ;he term tetrad re/ers to the structure /ormed when these two homologous chromosomes come together. Inde*endent &ssortment re/ers to the :uality that chromosomes will sort into di//erent cells during meiosis inde*endent o/ one another. Both crossing o#er and inde*endent assortment increase genetic #ariation in re*roduction o/ a s*ecies2 allowing /or e#olution. S*ecies which re*roduce by mitosis ha#e less genetic #ariation2 which can only be achie#ed through mutations.

4ICR6;FBFA-S 4icrotubules are one o/ the com*onents o/ the cytoskeleton. 4icrotubules ser#e as structural com*onents within cells and are in#ol#ed in many cellular *rocesses including mitosis2 cytokinesis2 and #esicular trans*ort. C-%;RI6A-S & centriole in biology is a barrel sha*ed microtubule structure /ound in most animal cells and algae though not o/ten in *lants. It constitutes the com*ound structure known to cell biologists as the centrosome. Centrioles are #ery im*ortant in the cell di#ision *rocess. ;hey organi?e the *ericentriolar material B(C4C which *lays a role in organi?ing the mitotic s*indle2 which in turn hel*s the cells to di#ide. ;he mitotic

s*indle /unctions in the chromosomes. "uring cell di#ision the centrioles are du*licated2 so that there will be a *air /or each daughter cell. 0edit1 Block B 4itosis ;he *ur*ose o/ mitosis is to make two identical cells by chromosome du*lication. Stages are the /ollowing: <Inter*hase <(ro*hase <(rometa*hase <4eta*hase <&na*hase <;elo*hase <Cytokinesis 4eiosis: ;he *ur*ose is to create /our ha*loid germ cells Bsuch as s*erm)eggsC. ;his *rocess ensures genetic #ariation in o//s*ring. ;he daughter cells are genetically di//ernt /rom the *arent cell2 unlike in mitosis. 4eiosis can be broken down into roughly nine ste*s: (ro*hase I<4eta*hase I< &na*hase I < ;elo*hase I< (ro*hase II < 4eta*hase II < &na*hase II< ;elo*hase II< Cytokinesis 4icrotubules 4icrotubules are hollow /illament structures in eukaryotic cells that hel* chromosomes mo#e to o**osite sides o/ the cell Bes*ecially in ana*hase o/ mitosisC;hey also aid int eh structue and su**ort o/ a cell. Nariation ;here are se#eral ways that 4eiosis *roduces #ariation in organisms. Crossing 6#er < @hen a tetrad /orms2 the ti*s o/ the homologous chromosomes can switch2 allowing /or random #ariation during (ro*hase I. 4utations < Random /reak genetic accidents can mutate genes. Insertion < "%& *ut in "eletion < "%& taken out In#ersion < "%& re#ersed ;ranslocation < "%& cut out somewhere and stuck back in somewhere else Inde*endant &ssortment < Chromosomes line u* inde*endently during meiosis2 creating a near in/inite amount o/ combinations. 0edit1 Block !B 4itosis 4itosis is ase>ual re*roduction. It creates two new2 identical nuclei. Stages: (ro*hase<the chromosomes condense and become #isible. 4eta*hase<chromosomes line u* at the meta *kate and the s*indle /ibers attach to the centromeres &na*hase:S*indle /ibers shorten2 chromotids se*arate. ;elo*hase<cytokinesis! two new identical cells. Cell Cycle ;he cell cycle begins in the /irst ga* *hase2 also known as the G1 *hase. ;his *hase o/ growth is the longest *hase o/ the cell cycle. %ear the end o/ this *hase2 the en?ymes that allow the cycle to mo#e into its second *hase become increasingly acti#e. Some cells do not di#ide2 and are stuck in this *hase o/ the cell cycle2 which2 in that case2 would be GD. ;he ne>t *hase2 the S *hase2 "%& is synthesi?ed2 along with some

chromosomal *roteins. ;his is also the stage in which the com*le> *rocess o/ chromosome re*lication takes *lace. F*on the com*letion o/ the S *hase2 the cell enters it5s second ga* *hase2 the G2 *hase. &s the cell *re*ares /or di#ision2 more *roteins are synthesi?ed. ;his *hase is relati#ely short com*ared to the *re#ious two *hases. ;he /inal stage o/ the cell cycle2 mitosis2 occurs ne>t. &lthough it is the shortest *hase o/ the cell cycle2 this is the *art in which the most action takes *lace. %ear the conclusion o/ mitosis2 the cyto*lasm di#ides to /orm two cells in a *rocess called cytokinesis. Cytokinesis o#erla*s into the G1 *hase2 which starts the cycle o#er again.

4itosis is the *rocess in which a cell du*licates its chromosomes to generate two2 identical cells. It is associated with growth and ase>ual re*roduction. Stages: Inter*hase Buncondensed chromosomesC2 (ro*hase Bchromosomes condenseC2 4eta*hase Bchromosomes line u* at the meta*hase *lateC2 &na*hase Bchromatids se*erateC2 ;elo*hase B2 new identical cellsC.

Crossing o#er allows /or genetic #ariation in gametes. It occurs on non<sister chromatids. ;he chiasma is the site o/ crossing o#er. ;etrads /orm only during 4eiosis and consists o/ 2 homologous chromosomes. ChromosomeJ "%&S(rotein Nariation occurs during meiosis because o/ two things. ;he /irst being because o/ crossing o#er. Crossing o#er *ro#ides a new arrangement o/ genectic in/ormation2 which then increases the chance /or #ariation. ;he other method that #ariation occurs is because o/ the law o/ inde*endent assortment. In the law o/ inde*endent assortment alleles o/ di//erent loci are randomly distributed into gametes. 0edit1 Genetics 0edit1 Block 1B G-%-;IC ;-R4S < =omo?ygous: =a#ing two identical alleles o/ a gene < Aocus: ;he *articular *osition on homologous chromosomes o/ a gene < Codominant &lleles: (airs o/ alleles that both a//ect the *henoty*e when *resent in a hetero?ygote. < ;est Cross: ;esting a sus*ected hetero?ygote by crossing it with a known homo?ygous recessi#e.

< Carrier: &n indi#idual that has a recessi#e allele o/ a gene that does not ha#e an e//ect on their *henoty*e. < (henoty*e: ;he obser#able *hysical o/ biochemical characteristics o/ an organism2 determined by both genetic make u*. < =etero?ygous: =a#ing two di//erents alleles o/ a gene. < "ominant &llele: &n allele that has the same e//ect on the *henoty*e wheter it is *resent in the homo?ygous or hetero?ygous state. < Recessi#e &llele: &n allele that only has an e//ort on the *henoty*e when *resent in the homo?ygous state. < Genoty*e: ;he combination o/ alleles located on homologous chromosomes that determines a s*eci/ic characteristic or trait. md Ainked Genes are located on the same chromosome and are inherited together. ;hey do not assort inde*endently. Ainked genes will only /om recombinants i/ crossing o#er has occured Genetic Recombination: *roduction o/ o//s*ring with di//erent traits than the *arents Recombination Ere:uency: BT recombinantsC)Btotal T o//s*ringC > 1DDU 4utation< a change2 di//erent /rom the *arents52 that occurs on a chromosome that marks /or a s*eci/ic trait 0edit1 Block B Genetic terminology: K&lleleL< one o/ two e>*ressions o/ a gene that occu*ies a single locus on a chromosome. K"ominantL V a gene that2 once inherited2 results in the occurrence o/ a s*eci/ic *henoty*e Be>. =a#ing the dominant gene /or a widowWs *eak means you ha#e a widowWs *eak on your /oreheadC KRecessi#eL< a gene that results in the absence o/ the stated *henoty*e Be>. Being recessi#e /or the widowWs *eak means you "6 %ot ha#e oneC2 K=omo?ygousL< describes a gene with two identical alleles2 either dominant o/ recessi#e Be>. == or hhC K=etero?ygousL<describes a gene containing one dominant allele and one recessi#e allele Be>. =hC K(oly*loidL< re/errs to the *osesion o/ more than one set o/ chromosomes. 0(oly*loid

organisms2 es*ecially *lants2 are larger than normal and ha#e larger cells. &//ected animals are o/ten abnormal in a**earance and usually in/ertile.1

(olygenic Inheritance (olygenic inheritance re/ers to traits that are determined by more than one gene. Eor instance2 skin color2 hair color2 or eye color. ;here isn5t 9ust black or blonde hair2 but #arying shades o/ each due to *olygenic inheritance. Se><linked ;raits & se><linked trait is due to a gene /ound only on the X chromosome2 otherwise known as the se> chromosome. 6ne e>am*le is colorblindness2 which males are more likely to get because they ha#e two X chromosomes to a /emale5s one2 thus2 in e//ect2 doubling their chances o/ being a//ected. 3aryoty*e & karyoty*e is a *icture o/ an indi#idual5s chromosomes. 3aryoty*es are used to identi/y certain genetic disorders. Eor e>am*le2 i/ the karyoty*e re#eals trisomy on chromosome 21 then the *erson has down syndrome. Ainkage Grou*: Genes in a *articular chromosome that tend to be inherited together. & one to one ration should be obtained i/ the genes are linked. ;hey will /rom recombinants solely in the e#ent that crossing o#er has occured. In order to calculate the /re:uency one can use the /ormula: U Recombinants)total o//s*ring > 1DDUJ recombination Bin *ercent2 centimorgans2 or ma* unitsC 0edit1 Block !B Genoty*e<alleles on a homologous chromosome that show the characteristics o/ the trait that the homologous chromosome codes /or (henoty*e< ;he obser#able *hysical characteristics determined by genes Aocus<;he *osition o/ a gene on a chormosome =omo?ygous< two identical alleles o/ a gene 0 gene with two identical alleles2 either dominant o/ recessi#e Be>. == or hhC1 =etero?ygous< two di//erent alleles o/ a gene 0one dominant allele and one recessi#e allele Be>. =hD1 "ominant &llele< an allele that is dominant in regards to the *henoty*e whether it is *art o/ a homo?ygous or hetero?ygous combination Recessi#e &llele< &n allele that does not show i/ a dominant allele is *resent2 but shows when an organism has a trait that is homo?ygous recessi#e

;est Cross<;esting /or a hetero?ygote by crossing it with a known homo?ygous recessi#e organism Genetic Recombination<o//s*ring that has di//erent genoty*es /rom its *arents Carrier< &n organism that has a recessi#e allele o/ a gene that does not e//ect it2 but that it may *ass down to its o//s*ring Codominant &lleles<(airs o/ alleles that e:ually a//ect the *henoty*e e#en though they are hetero?ygote Ainked genes <genes that are located on the same chromosome. 3aryoty*e < the chromosome com*osition o/ an indi#dual and a *hotomicrogra*h showing the com*osition Bgenerally numbered in order o/ si?eC ( Generation: (arent Generation E1 Generation: ;he o//s*ring o/ the *arent generation E2 Generation: ;he o//s*ring o/ the E1 Generation

4ulti*le alleles<three or more alleles o/ a single locus. e>.blood ty*es ;he *henoty*ic ratio o/ a monohybrid cross is :1. ;he *henoty*ic ratio /or a dihybrid cross is .: : :1. Sometimes when traits are crossed *eo*le end u* getting traits that are known as =ybrid Nigor. ;his is when su*eriority arises /room the hetero?ygote as o**ose to homo?ygous genoty*es. Some e>am*les o/ hybrid #igors are mules2 and Sickle cell when it is a hetero?ygote because the *eo*le can not get malaria2 but they can still carry o>ygen. (olygenetic inheritance is when multi*le inde*endent *airs o/ genes ha#e similar and additi#e e//ects on the same trait < Coded /or by more than one gene < &**ear in a normal distribution cur#e ->am*les: Skin2 eye2 hair colors 4utation< a change on the chromosome or in the gene that gi#es the o//s*ring di//erent "%&) traits /rom the *arents. (oly*loid organisms ha#e more than two co*ies o/ each chromosome (olygenetic inheritance is when multi*le inde*endent *airs o/ genes ha#e similar and additi#e e//ects on the same trait < Coded /or by more than one gene < &**ear in a normal distribution cur#e ->am*les: Skin2 eye2 hair colors "i*loid: ha#ing the /ull set o/ chromosomes B2n or !' chromosomesC =a*loid: gametes Begg and s*ermC only hal/ the number o/ chromosomes BnC

4athematics Q Genetics (robability < ;he /raction2 *ercentage2 or ratio that is used to describe the chance o/ an e#ent occuring. In genetics2 *robabilities *redict *henoty*es and genoty*es that come /rom genetic crosses. (roduct Rule < ;he *robability that two or more inde*endent e#ents will occur together is /ound using the *roduct o/ the indi#idual *robablilies o/ each e#ent. I/ the *robility o/ a cross between a tall *ea *lant and a short *ea *lant *roducing a short *ea *lant is 2$U2 what is the *robability o/ three short *lants being *roduced in a rowR ;he answer can be /ound using the *roduct rule: D.2$>D.2$>D.2$JD.D1$'2$ or 1)'!. So there is a 1 in '! chance that three short *lants will be *roduced in a row. =ardy<@einberg *rinci*le < %amed a/ter -nglish mathematician God/rey =ardy and German *hysician @illiam @einberg2 this *rinci*le shows the e>*ected /re:uencies o/ di//erent genoty*es in a *o*ulation. ;hough this rule re*resents an ideal *o*ulation in which there is random mating2 no mutation2 a large *o*ulation si?e2 no migration Bemigration o/ immigrationC and no natural seleciton2 it hel*s us understand that in large *o*ulations2 the *rocess o/ inheritance does not cause changes in allele /re:uencies alone. ;here are two e:uations used in =ardy<@einberg: *2 S 2*: S :2 J 1 and * S : J 12 where *2 is the dominant genoty*e /re:uency B&&C2 2*: is the hetero?ygous genoty*e /re:uency B&aC and :2 is the recessi#e genoty*e /re:uency BaaC. ;here/ore2 * re*resents the dominant allele B&C while : re*resents the recessi#e allele BaC. 0edit1 "%& Bold te>tJJJBlock 1BJJJ Structure "%&5s structure is :uite com*licated BI know2 lame attem*t at a to*ic sentenceC. S;RFC;FR;he structure o/ "%& is illustrate by handed double heli>2 with about 1D nucleotide *airs *er helical turn. -ach s*iral strand2 com*osed o/ a sugar *hos*hate backbone and attached bases2 is connected to a com*lementary strand by hydrogen bonding Bnon< co#alentC between *aired bases2 adenine B&C with thymine B;C and guanine BGC with cytosine BCC. &denine and thymine are connected by two hydrogen bonds Bnon<co#alentC while guanine and cytosine are connected by three. ;his structure was /irst described by Mames @atson and Erancis Crick in 1.$ .

;ranscri*tion <6ccurs in the nucleus <6ccurs in a $5< 5 direction

<R%& (olymerase recogni?es the start *oint at the *romoter region. Ribonucleoside tri*hos*hate su**ly the energy /or transcri*tion and become R%& nucleotides by losing a *hos*hate. ;ranscri*tion ends at the terminator region. R%& undergoes s*licing to remo#e introns be/ore it lea#es the nucleus. Be/ore s*licing mR%& J hn R%&. &/ter s*licing mR%& J mature m R%&

;ranslation <6ccurs in the cyto*lasm)ribosomes <6ccurs in a $5 < 5 direction <tR%& acti#ating en?yme binds a s*eci/ic amino acid to tR%& using &;( energy. &t the 5 end o/ e#ery tR%& are the three nitrogenous bases: CC&. ;ranslation consists o/ initiation2 elongation2 and termination. ;he start codon is always &FG. "%& J "eo>yribonucleuic &cid "%& is the blue*rint /or who we are and /or who we ha#e become 0edit1 Block B "%& is sha*ed as a double heli>. 6ne strand o/ "na contains a sugar and *hos*hate backbone and a base. ;he subunits o/ "%& are %ucleotides. ;he bases are adenine2 guanine2 cytosine2 and thymine. &denine and guanine are *urines. ;hymine and cytosine are *yrimidines. &denine *airs with ;hymine and guanine *airs with cytosine. 4ost o/ "%& is re*etiti#e se:uences that don5t code /or anything2 only a small *ortion is coding. ;he nucleotides are held together by *hos*hodiester bonds which links the sugar and the *hos*hate. "%& strands also run anti<*arallel. Basically2 this means that on any gi#e strand2 one end o/ the *hos*hate is attached to a $5 carbon and the other to a 5 carbon. @hen two "%& strands 9oin the $5 carbon attaches itselel/ to the 5 carbon end. Structure

Chromosome Com*osition Chromosomes are made u* o/ "%& and *rotein. ;he "%& is coiled around the *roteins BhistonesC and then /olded o#er itsel/. =istones make u* a nulceosome2 which is a com*lete coil o/ "%& around the histone core B, histonesC held together by one histone stabili?ing *rotein. "%& Re*lication "%& re*lication is semi<conser#ati#e. ;his means that each new "%& molecule has hal/ o/ the original. In order to begin re*lication2 "%& is unwound Bun?i**edC by "%& helicase. =eli><destabili?ing *roteins kee* the heli> in the un?i**ed

*osition until the com*limentary bases are added. "%& (olymerase III cataly?es the linking together o/ nucleotide subunits in a $5 to 5 direction as always. ;he energy and nucleotides are *ro#ided by "eo>ynucleoside ;ri*hos*hate. @hen re*lication is about to begin2 R%& *rimase lays down R%& *rimers which are re*laced by "%& by "%& (olymerase I be/ore re*lication is com*lete. Re*lication is initiated at many *oints and is discontinuous in one strand and continuous in the other. ;he lagging strand mo#es away /rom the re*lication /ork and is synthesi?ed in /ragments because "%& *olymerase cannot mo#e too /ar away /rom the r*elication /ork and the leading strand goes toward it. ;he /ragments on the lagging strand are known as 6ka?aki /ragments and the /ragments are 9oined together by "%& ligase. :ui? yoursel/! can you label e#ery number in the *icture belowR (olysomes and %ucleosomes & *olysome is a bunch o/ ribosomes bounded together by mR%&. & nucleosome is made u* o/ eight histones with "%& wra**ed around it and a stabili?ing histone on to*. %ucleosomes *ackage "%& into chromosomes.

;ranscri*tion: In a general sense2 transcri*tion is the *rocess o/ co*ying the s*eci/ic needed reci*e /rom the huge cookbook2 slimming o// all the e>cess and sending out to be made. Gha**ens within the nucleolous and cyto*lasm Galways occurs in $W< W direction =ow its done: 1.R%& *olymerase /inds the s*eci/ic base<coded unit called the K*romoterL itWs a start sign written in &Ws ;Ws GWs and CWs. 2.;he R%& *olymerase then lays down the needed coinciding base units on the anti<sense strand. .this strand o/ R%& is known now as hnR%&2 it still has introns. !.In the o*en are o/ the nuclear membrane2 the strand is Ks*licedL all o/ the intron garbage is remo#ed2 and it is now called mature "%&. bases o/ said strand is called one codon2 or one amino acid. ;ranslation: ;ranslation is the actual cooking o/ the reci*e. It is the *rocess o/ ribosomes reading the s*eci/ic amino acids and sending the instructions out into the cell. ;his whole awesome *rocess goes down in the cyto*lasm. Remember: I%I;I&;I6%2 -A6%G&;I6%2 ;-R4I%&;I6%. =ow it all goes down: P ;he start codon2 &FG meets P between the two *arts o/ the ribosome : ;he large and small sub units. ;he anit codon BF&CC connects with the codon at the (e*tide station on the large s.u. P ;he en?yme *e*tydil trans/erase then mo#es this connected unit /rom the ( to the & area2 thus sending the chain down the line. P ;his *rocess continues until all the little 9elly/ish are made. 0edit1 Block !B ;he structure o/ "%&2 its double heli> sha*e2 was disco#ered by @atson and Crick. "%& is a nucleic acid B*olymerC made /rom nucleotides Bthe monomers o/ nucleic

acidsC. -ach nucleotide is made made o/ a *hos*hate2 a sugar2 and a base. ;he base is bonded to the sugar which is bonded to *hos*hates. ;he sugars and *hosh*ates bond together B*hos*hodiester bondC in an alternating *attern the /orms the backbone o/ "%&. ;he nucleotides o/ "%& contain ! bases2 the *urines encom*asing &denine and Guanine and the *yrimidines which include Cytocene and ;hymine. ;hese nucleotides combine to /orm a strand o/ "%&. "%& is a double stranded molecule. ;he strands are held together by hydrogen bonds between the bases. &denine bonds with ;hymine and is held by two hydrogen bonds2 and Cytocene bonds with Guanine and is held together by three hydrogen bonds. It is this di//erence in bond number and thus strength that accounts /or the helicle sha*e. "ue to the *hos*hates in the "%& strnad a "%& molecule o/ "%& has a slightly negati#e charge. Chromosome com*osition includes "%& BgenesC and a *rotein. "%& Synthesis begins at s*eci/ic based se:uences termed the 6RIGI%S 6E R-(AIC&;I6% Bthere are manyC...;he re*licaion /ork occurs at both ends so "%& re*lication *roceeds in bot directions. "%& Re*lication ;here are three ty*es o/ re*lication: 1. Semi<conser#ati#e re*lication < ;he new "%& molecules ha#e hal/ the genetic material as the original. 2. Conser#ati#e re*lication < ;he new molecules ha#w all the genetic material o/ original. . "is*ersi#e re*lication < -ach molecule contains a mi>ture o/ genetic material in #arious regions on each strand. Re*lication o/ "%& begins at certain sites on the "%& molecule known as origins o/ re*lication. ;he 8<sha*ed structure at which both "%& strands are re*licated simultaneosly is known as the rel*lication /ork. ;here is a lagging strand2 which is always lea#ing the re*lication /ork2 as well as a leading strand2 which continously mo#es toward the /ork. ;he lagging strand2 howe#er2 is synthesi?ed in an irregular /ashion since the "%& *olymerase2 which catali?es the linking o/ "%& subunits2 cannot be too /ar /rom the re*lication /ork. &s a result2 small 6ka?aki Eragments are created Q synthesi?ed. Re*lication occurs in the nucleus2 always in a $W to W direction. 1C=elicase unwinds and un?i*s "%&. 2C(rimase then lays down a *rimer. C"%& (olymerase I re*laces R%& *rimers with "%&

!C"%& (olymerase III adds the nucleotides $CAigase 9oins together the 6ka?aki /ragments2 which /orm because the "%& (olymerase III cannot mo#e too /ar away /rom the re*lication /ork. 6ka?aki /ragments are *resent on the lagging strand2 where re*lication is discontinuous. Re*lication on the leading strand is continuous. & nucleosome is made u* o/ "%& that is wra**ed around , histone *roteins2 where one o/ the histones stabili?es the structure. "%& ;ranscri*tion occurs in a $5< 5 directio in the nucleus. Eirst the *romotor reginon allows R%& *olymerase to recogni?e the start *oint. ;hen Ribonucleoside ;ri*hos*hate su**lies the energy that is used in transcri*tion and will then become Rna nucleotides by losing a *hos*hat. ;racnsci*tion is done when it reaches the terminator region. In order /or it to lea#e the nucleus it must be s*licedBthe remo#al o/ the non coding intronsC trans/orming it /rom hnR%& to mature R%& 0edit1 (hotosynthesis)Res*iration 0edit1 Block 1B (hotosynthesis occurs in the chloro*last2 which is /ound in *lant cells. ;he light< de*endent reactions occur in the thylakoid membrane2 located in the chloro*last. (hotons2 which are *ackages o/ light /rom the sun2 /irst go to *hotosystem II. ;he *hoto acti#ation o/ *hotosystem II occurs due to the light acti#ating it. ;he accessory *igments /ound in the *hotosystem absorb the light and gi#e the energy to chloro*hyll2 which is another *igment that is also absorbing light. ;he chloro*hyll then gets e>cited with the energy it recei#ed and loses two electrons. Chloro*hyll wants to regain the two electrons it lost2 so a water molecule s*lits into two hydrogen and one o>ygen using a *rocess called *hotolysis2 where light is used to s*lit a water molecule. ;he chloro*hyll then takes the two hydrogen in order to become more stable and re*lace the two electrons lost. 4eanwhile2 the two electrons lost go to the (rimary -lectron &cce*tor2 and then tra#el down the -lectron ;rans*ort Chain. ;he electrons go through the -lectron ;rans*ort chain in one direction2 thus creating energy. ;he energy made is used to undergo *hoto*hos*horylation where &"( combines with (hos*hate to make &;(. ;he &;( is then needed to hel* take the hydrogen out o/ the stroma and undergo chemiosmosis where &;( synthetase is a *rotein channel that allows the hydrogen to mo#e through and out o/ the thylakoid membrane. ;he *rocess creates more &;(. Back to the electron tra#eling through the -lectron ;rans*ort Chain2 the electrons then go to (hotosystem I2 which is *hoto acti#ated. In (hotosystem I2 there are accesory *igments absorbing energy and gi#ing it to chloro*hyll that then loses two electrons. ;he chloro*hyll does not need re*lace the two electrons by using hydrogen /rom *hotolysis because more electrons are coming /rom the -lectron ;rans*ort Chain. ;he two electrons go to the (rimary electron &cce*tor and then go to Eerrodo>in. Eerrodo>in2 a *rotein2 trans/ers the electrons to %&"( that then undergoes reduction because it uses the electrons to combine with a =ydrogen and become %&"(=. @ith light<de*endent reactions2 there is also cyclic and non<cyclic *hoto*hos*horylation. %on<cyclic *hoto*hos*horylation is the normal light<de*endent *rocess that *roduces &;( and %&"(=I howe#er2 cyclic *hos*horylation is di//erent and not normal. Cyclic

*hoto*hos*horylation is a *rocess where electrons go through the (rimary -lectron &cce*tor2 down the -lectron ;rans*ort Chain2 and into (hotosystem I. ;he accessory *igments in (hotosystem I absorb the energy and gi#e it to chloro*hyll. ;he chloro*hyll then has energy and gets e>cited so that it loses two electrons. ;he two electrons then go to the (rimary -lectron &cce*tor2 and the *rocess re*eats itsel/. Cyclic *hoto*hos*horylation cannot go on continuously and *roduces only %&"(=. Aight< inde*endent reactions take *lace a/ter light<de*endent reactions. Aight<inde*endent reactions occur in the stroma. RuB( carbo>ylase hel*s in combining carbon dio>ide and RuB( in a *rocess called carbon /i>ation. ;he *rocess *roduces a ' carbon intermediate. ;he ' carbon intermediate then becomes two G( carbon com*ounds. &;( and %&"(= created /rom the light<de*endent reaction are used to change the arrangement o/ atoms so that G( undergoes reduction and creates two ;(. ;he &;( and %&"(= o>idi?e and become &"( and %&"(2 which can be used again in light<de*endent reactions. Ei#e o/ the si> carbons in ;( are used to recreate RuB( and the other carbon hel*s in *roducing a carbohydrate. 6ne may increase the rate o/ *hotosynthesis by increasing the tem*erature2 sunlight2 or C62 in the atmos*here 6ne may decrease the rate o/ *hotosynthesis by increasing the amount o/ wind on the *lant C&4)C! C! and C&4 *lants both ha#e an en?yme called (-( B*hos*oenol*yru#ateC. ;his en?yme can /i> C62 at #ery low concentrations. C! *atway: C62 S (-( B CC yields o>aloacetate B!cC 6>aloacetate is con#erted into malate Busing %&"(=C 4alate enters itno the bundle sheath cells and is decarbo>ylated into (yru#ate. (yru#ate B cC is con#erted into (-( Busing &;(C ;he C62 goes into the Calcin Cycle Blight inde*endent cycleC 9ust as it does in the normal c *athway. C&4 *athway C&4 *lants only o*en their stomata at night. ;hey 9oin co2 with (-( /orming o>aloacetate and con#ert this into malate in the same method that c! *lants use. =ower2 they store the malate in a #acuole until daytime and decarbo>ylate in to gain the co2 needed /or the Cal#in Cycle. C=-4I6S46SIS Chemiosmosis is the di//usion o/ ions across a membrane. 4ore s*eci/ically2 it relates to the generation o/ &;( by the mo#ement o/ hydrogen ions across a membrane. &n Ion gradient has *otential energy and can be used to *ower chemical reactions when the

ions *ass through a channel. =ydrogen ions B*rotonsC will di//use /rom an area o/ high *roton concentration to an area o/ lower *roton concentration. &;( synthase is the en?yme that makes &;( by chemiosmosis. It allows *rotons to *ass through the membrane using the kinetic energy to *hos*horylate &"( making &;(. ;he generation o/ &;( by chemiosmosis occurs in chloro*lasts and mitochondria as well as in some bacteria. 0edit1 Block B Xero*hyte and =ydro*hytes ha#e se#eral di//erences that enabel them to sur#i#e in their gi#en en#iroment. Xero*hytes Barid *lantC:;hick cuticle to retain water2 "ee*2 branching roots2 Eew stomata /or gas and water e>change2 Greatly reduced lea#es Bthey can ha#e s*ines2 be rolled2 or hairyCI =ydro*hytes Ba:uatic *lantC2 ;hin)no cuticle2 Shallow2 short roots2 4any stomata2 Aarge and /inely di#ided lea#es. Cytochromes are used to trans*ort the electrons down the electron trans*ort chain. 6>idation is loss2 reduction is gain. & neat way to remember this is: 6IA RIG. Glycolysis2 ;he 3rebs Cycle2 and the -lectron ;rans*ort Chain are the main three ste*s in Cellular Res*iration2 which mainly takes *lace in the mitochondria. (hoto*hos*hoylation & really long com*licated word that really 9ust means making energy with light. %oncyclic #s Cyclic (hoto*hos*horylation %oncyclic @hat normally occurs during *hotosynthesis. (roduces a normal amount o/ &;( Can occur /ore#er BtheoreticallyC (roduces %&"(= Cyclic Fnnaturally occurs when there is not enough =2D (roduces abnormally high &;( Cannot go on /ore#er (roduces no %&"(= (II and (I (hotosytem II <&n e>cited *igment loses two electrons when it is struck by a *hoton o/ sunlight <Chloro*hyl breaks o*en a water molecule to get the two missing electron2 thus turning the water molecule into /loating hydrogens and o>ygens Bcalled (hotolysisC < ;he /irst 2 electrons bounce down the -;C2 /ueled by &;(. (hotosystem I <;he 2 electrons bounce o// the -;C and into the ne>t chloro*hyll 9ust as its *igment

loses them to the *hoton again. <;hese 2 electrons in turn aid /errodo>in in turning %&"( and = into %&"(= 0edit1 Block !B Chemiosmosis is the mo#ement o/ hydrogen ions through the thylakoid membrane Bwhere the *hotosystems I QII are locatedC. Xero*hytes:thick e*idermis2 sunken stomatas2 dry habitats =ydro*hytes: stomata on sur/ace2 o/ten /loating or submerged2 moist habitats Aight -nergy Aight emission is an im*ortant *art o/ *hotosynthesis. Nisible light is a small *art o/ the electromagnetic s*ectrum. Aight tra#els in wa#es. & wa#elength is the distance /rom one wa#e *eak to the ne>t one. Aight is also made u* o/ *ackets o/ energy called *hotons. & *hoton5s energy is in#ersly *ro*ortional to its wa#elength. @hen a molecule absorbs on o/ these *hotons2 one o/ its electrons become energi?ed2 shi/ting the electron /rom a lower<energy orbital to one o/ higher energy that is /arther /rom the nucleus. ;he electron then either returns to its ground state or lea#es the atom to be acce*ted by and electron acce*tor molecule Bthe latter occurs in *hotosynthesisC. Chloro*hyll & lea/ is made u* o/ a green *igment called chloro*hyll2 which is also the main *igment o/ *hotosynthesis. It absorbs light mostly in the blue and red areas o/ the #isible light s*ectrum2 since most green light that hits the lea#es is re/lected2 gi#ing *lant lea#es a green a**earance. ;here is more than one ty*e o/ chloro*hyll. Chloro*hyll a initiates the light<de*endent reactions o/ *hotosynthesis. Chloro*hyll b is an accessory *igment that absorbs and re/lects light in a way that gi#es it a yellow<green a**earance2 while chloro*hyll a has a more bright<green a**earance. ;he s*ectrum o/ light that can *ro#ide energy /or *hotosynthesis can be broadened with another accessory *igment called a cartenoid2 which can be yellow or orange. Chloro*hyll can be e>cited by light directly by *hotons or indirectly by energy it recie#es /rom these accessory *igments. ;he absor*tion o/ light is o/ten monitored by gra*h. & *igment5s absor*tion s*ectrum is a gra*h o/ its absor*tion o/ light o/ di//erent wa#elengths. ;he action s*ectrum shows the e//ecti#eness o/ certain wa#elenghths o/ light. It can be obtained by measuring the rate o/ *hotosynthesis ar each wa#elength /or lea/ cells or tissues that ha#e been e>*osed to light o/ one wa#elength BmonochromaticC.

(hotosynthesis takes *lace in the chloro*last2 while res*iration takes *lace in mitochondria. (lants and algae carry out *hotosynthesis. Res*iration occurs in all eukaryotes. 3ey Idea to Remember: 6>idation is loss and Reduction is Gain B6IA RIGC

Cellular res*iration has three metabolic stages. ;he /irst is Glycolysis cycle2 is the s*litting o/ sugar and occurs in the cytosol2 the /luid between membranes. ;his *rocess is anaerobic and is at substrate le#el *hos*horylation. It begins with 'C Glucose and becomes 2 B CC (yru#ate while gaining 2 &;( and 2 %&"=2 thus is it demonstrating o>idation. ;he gaining o/ 2 %&"= is the reduction o/ a co<en?yme. ;he second stage is the 3rebs Cycle occurs in the mitochondria. ;his stage begins with *yru#ate B CC and decarbo>ylates Bloses C62C to become 2C &cetyl Co&. ;hen !C is added to /orm 'C intermediatie which decarbo>ylates into $C which decarbo>ylates into !C which begins the cycle again. ;here is a link reaction between the !C o>aloacetate and the C *yru#ate. ;his *rocess is also o>idation as it gains %&"=2 2 &;( and E&"=2. 6ne turn o/ the 3rebs)Citric Cycle yields 2C622 %&"=2 E&"=22 and &;(. ;he third and /inal stage is the -lectron ;rans*ort Chain which occurs in the inner mitochondria membrane and yields 2 &;(. It trans*orts 2 hydrogens and 2 electrons /rom E&"=2 or %&"= to molecular o>ygen /orming water2 which e#entually makes &;(. 6>ygen is the /inal electron acce*tor in the -;C. ;he rate o/ *hotosynthesis increase as the amount o/ light increase2 until it reaches a certain *oint then it will stay constant not increasing or decreasing. It will also increase as the rate o/ Co2 concentration increases2 but *hotosynthesis does not occur at #ery low Co2 concentrations and will e#entually le#el out at #ery high concentrations. &s the tem*erature increases the rate o/ *hotosynthesis will continue to increase until it reaches its o*timum rate2 then the rate o/ *hotosynthesis will ra*idly decline. &AA (A&%;S need water and o>ygen to sur#i#e 0edit1 Chemistry 0edit1 Block 1B @ater is an im*ortant *art o/ the chemistry o/ all li#ing things as well. Some o/ the main characteristics o/ water are as /ollows: (6A&R< thus2 it is the uni#ersal sol#ent C6=-SI6%< water molecules stick to themsel#es2 hel*s *ro#ide sur/ace tension &"=-SI6%< water molecules stick to other sur/aces which allows ca*illary action and mo#ement agaist the *ull o/ gra#ity ;R&%S(&R-%;< essential /or underwater *lants to recei#e the light they need /or *hotosynthesis =IG= =-&; 6E N&(6RI7&;I6%< when water e#a*orates2 as in sweat2 it has a cooling e//ect because o/ the heat it draws /rom the body =IG= S(-CIEIC =-&;< water stays warm /or a long time a/ter it is heated2 but takes a long time to heat. ;his is essential /or organisms li#ing in water so that their en#ironment does not change too :uickly be/ore they can ad9ust. -A-4-%;S -lements are substances that cannot be broken down into sim*ler substances. ;he three

most /re:uently occurring elements /ound in li#ing systems are carbon J C2 o>ygen J 62 and hydrogen J =2. 6ther im*ortant elements include nitrogen J %22 *hos*horus J (2 iron J Ee2 calcium J Ca2 *otassium J32 and magnesium J 4g. 0edit1 Block B ;he three most common elements are carbon2 o>ygen2 and hydrogen. =ydrogen is the most abundant element on earth and carbon is /ound in all li/e. ->am*les o/ 6rganic 4olecules: Ai*ids Bthey ha#e twice the energy o/ Carbs.C<4onomerJGlycerol)Eatty &cids2 BondJ -ster2 FsesJ cushioning)insulation)energy storage)structure2 ->am*lesJEats)6ils)@a>es Carbohydrates5 54onomerGlucose or monosaccharide Fses break down o/ *rotein2 storage o/ energy2 energy ->am*les: &mylose2 sucorse2 ribose2 glucose..any *rotein with <ose instead o/ <ase. Carbohydrates ha#e <ose5 (roteins contain carbon2 o>ygen2 hydrogen2 sul/ur2 and other organic elements. ;heir monomer is amino acid which is written as 6==%RC=C6==2 where R re*resents a /unctional grou*2 s*eci/ic to that *rotein. Fses include storage2 *rotection2 muscles. &re bonded by *e*tide bonds which /orm through a linkage o/ carbon and nitrogen with a by*roduct o/ water.

Redo> reactions 6>idation: @hen a molecule A6S-S an electron. Reduction: @hen a molecule G&I%S an election. 6IA RIG: 6>idation is Aoss2 Reduction is Gain. 0edit1 Block !B ;he three most common elements in organic chemistry are Carbon2 =ydrogen2 and 6>ygen. 6ther Im*ortant -lements %itrogen<Fsed in "%&2 *roteins2 and en?ymes. Calcium<=el*s build strong bones2 Q used in sending ner#e im*ulses. (hos*horus<Fsed /or &;(. Iron<;rans*orts o>ygen. Sodium<3ee*s a balance o/ =2D. &lso used /or ner#e im*ulses and muscle contractions. 6RG&%IC 46A-CFA-S

Carbohydrates monomer<monosccharide e>. glucose2 galactose (roteins monomer<amino acid e>. en?ymes2 structural2 hemoglobin Ai*ids monomer</atty acids e>./ats2 *hos*holi*ids2 wa>es2oils %uclei &cids...*hos*hodiester bonds monomer<nucleotideBsugar2 *hos*hate2 baseC e>."%&2R%& Eatty &cid: C= <C=2<CJ6 Balso branching o// /rom the C on right is an 6= by a single bondC (olar bonds are the result o/ co#alently bonded atoms that ha#e une:ual electronegati#ity. %on<*olar bonds are the result o/ co#alently bonded atoms that ha#e e:ual electronegati#ity. @ater is a *olar molecule< one end o/ the molecule has a *artial *ositi#e charge and the other end has a *artial negati#e charge. 4ore Bonding Co#alent bonds: -lectrons are shared between atoms so that each atom has a /illed #alance shell. -lectronegati#ity measures the attraction o/ an atom to shared electrons in a bond. Ionic bonds: Eorm as a result o/ the attraction between a cation and an anion. =ydrogen bonds: Bonds between a *artially<charged negati#e atom and an atom in a hydrogen bond with either o>ygen or nitrogen. Can /orm between two molecules or two *arts o/ one molecule. 6rganic molecules: Carbohydrates are used /or energy and stored energy. ;here chemical makeu* has a 1:2:1 ratio o/ carbon to hydrogen. 4onomers include glucose and monosaccharides. (roteins are connected by *e*tide bonds. ;hey are used /or structural mo#ements2 like muscles. ;hey are also used /or trans*ort BhemoglobinC2 storage2 *rotection2 and regulation. (roteinWs monomers are amino acids2 o/ which there are twenty. Ai*ids are insoluble in water. 4onomers include glycerol and /atty acids. -ster linkages bond li*ids. Ai*ids are used /or insulation2 energy storage2 cushioning2 and ha#e structural *ur*oses Bcell membranesC. ->am*les include /ats2 oils2 wa>es2 carotenoids2 *hos*holi*ids2 and steroids. %ucleic acids store in/ormation. R%& is used /or transmission. "%& is res*onsible /or e>*ression o/ genetic in/ormation. %ucleic acids are linked by *hos*hodiester bonds. %ucleic acid monomers are nucleotides2 which are com*osed o/ a sugar2 a *hos*hate2 and a base. 0edit1 -#olution

0edit1 Block 1B Aynn 4argulis *ro*osed the theory o/ -ndosymbiosis2 which *ro#ides a *ossible e>*lanation /or the /ormation o/ eukaryotic cells. It is belie#ed that mitochondria and chloro*last2 which are located in eukaryotic cells today2 were once on their own like *rokaryotic cells. ;here is e#idence that the two organelles were *rokaryotic because mitochondria and chloro*last contain circular "%& 9ust like *rokaryotic cells. &lso2 mitochondria and chloro*last ha#e +Ds ribosomes that is similar to the +Ds ribosomes o/ *rokaryotic cells. ;he theory *ro#ides the e>*lanation that the *rokaryotic cells took in the mitochondria and chloro*last and a symbiotic relationshi* /ormed. ;he *rokaryotic cell *ro#ided shelter and *rotection2 and the chloro*last made /ood and the mitochondria broke down the /ood in order to make energy that the cell could use. ;hus2 the creation o/ eukaryotic cells occurred. 4IAA-R &%" FR-8 ;hey conducted an e>*eriment which would change the a**roach o/ scienti/ic in#estigation into the origin o/ li/e. 4iller took molecules which were belie#ed to re*resent the ma9or com*onents o/ the early -arth5s atmos*here and *ut them into a closed system. ;he gases they used were methane BC=!C2 ammonia B%= C2 hydrogen B=2C2 and water B=26C. %e>t2 he ran a continuous electric current through the system2 to simulate lightning storms belie#ed to be common on the early earth. ;wo *ercent o/ the carbon had /ormed some o/ the amino acids which are used to make *roteins. (erha*s most im*ortantly2 4iller5s e>*eriment showed that organic com*ounds such as amino acids2 which are essential to cellular li/e2 could be made easily under the conditions that scientists belie#ed to be *resent on the early earth. ;his enormous /inding ins*ired a multitude o/ /urther e>*eriments. =uman -#olution <Eeatures that de/ine humans as *rimates: digits with nails eyes in /ront o/ the head $ gras*ing digits with o**osable thumb long2 slender limbs that rotate /reely at the hi*s and shoulders acute hearing relati#ely large si?ed brain long li/e s*ans

<-#idence /or bi*edalism: cur#ature o/ s*ine *ro#ides better weight distribution /oramen magnum is centered in the base o/ the skull increae in the legth o/ legs in com*arison to the arms shorter2 broader *el#is /or attachment to leg muscles alignment o/ the big toe with the rest o/ the toes <Genus &ustralo*ithecus: the immediate ancestors o/ the genus =omo

"arwin<@allace ;heory o/ %atural Selection -#olution is based on /our obser#ations about the natural world: 1. 6#er*roduction: each s*ecies *roduces more o//s*ring than will sur#i#e 2. Nariation: indi#iduals in a *o*ulation e>hibit #ariation . Aimits on *o*ulation growth: en#ironmental /actors limit growth2 causing a struggle /or e>istance !. "i//erential re*roducti#e success: those with the most /a#orable characteristics are more likely to sur#i#e and re*roduce 4odern ->am*les o/ -#olution <In res*onse to the wides*read use o/ the @ar/arin *esticide2 some s*ecies o/ rat ha#e become immune)resistant <(enicillin resistant strains o/ bacteria due to the wides*read use o/ the antibiotic <Some mos:uitos resistant to ""; <-#olution o/ (e**ered 4oth due to *redation and changes in en#ironment 6ther ;heories o/ =ow we got here (ans*ermia< ;he theory that a li/e /orm came /rom another *lanet2 tre#eling on a coment or asteroid and landed on earth2 leading to the e#olution to humans 0edit1 Block B

4iller and FreyWs e>*eriments: @hat you need to know: P4iller and Frey conduced e>*eriments to test i/ li/e could ha#e /ormed in the *rimordial sou* P;hey usedH @<ater =<ydrogen &<mmonia 4<ethane P;hey boiled the water and used electric shocks to simulate the #arious stages o/ heating and cooling and lightning that were likely *resent on early earthWs sur/ace P;hey *roduced organic molecules /orm this e>*eriment2 but no li/e. =owe#er2 such a /ind sent a wa#e through the science community ->ogenesis Bsick wordC2 but more commonly known as *ans*ermia2 originates as /ar back as the Greek *hiloso*her &na>agoras Bsweet nameC. ;he actual theory o/ *ans*ermia s*eculates that li/e came to earth /rom another *lanet2 *erha*s being carried by a meteorite that crashed here. ;his theory sol#es the time ga* that we currently ha#e in our e#olution chart2 but it only mo#es the *roblem to another *lanet2 so it really doesn5t sol#e anything. ;he "arwin<@allace ;heory o/ -#olution has /our key *oints. ;he /irst is that indi#iduals in a *o*ulation e>hibit #ariation. %e>t is o#er*roduction2 the re*roducti#e abilities o/ a s*ecies causes an increase BgeometricC o#er time. ;hen2 there are limits on *o*ulation growth caused by things such asI /ood2 water2 light2 growing s*ace2 and other resources. Aastly2 the indi#iduals that ha#e the most /a#orable traits and ada*tations are more likly to sur#i#e and re*roduce Bdi//erential re*roducti#e successC.

%atural Selection %atural Selection is the *rinci*le that nature tends to /a#or organisms with certain traits. ;hese organisms there/ore ha#e a greater chance o/ sur#i#al in that en#ironment than other organisms without the trait. ;his gi#es the organisms with the trait a signi/icant ad#antage in the en#ironment. Because it has a greater chance o/ sur#i#al2 and organism with the trait is less likely to die young and has a greater chance o/ re*roducing early and o/ten to s*read its genes. It then can *ass on this bene/icial trait2 allowing the trait to *roli/erate throughout the s*ecies. In this way2 natural selection /a#ors organisms with certain traits2 gi#ing them a greater chance to sur#i#e and *ass on these traits so that more o/ the *o*ulation can suri#i#e using this /a#orable trait. 0edit1 Block !B 4odern e>am*les o/ e#olution include: *e**erd moth2 ""; resistance in some mos:uitos2 *enicillin resistant strains o/ bacteria as a result o/ the wides*read use o/ the antibotic and a war/arin strains o/ rat in res*onse to the wides*read use o/ the *estcide. -#olution is the change in a *o*ulations o#erall traits and usually re/ers to the genes *assed on /rom generation to generation. -#olution is used to ma* out the growth o/ a

*o*ulation as well as the mutations that a//ect) change it. %atural selection is one way o/ causing a *o*ulation to e#ol#e and natural selection means that heritable traits that are more hel*/ul to sur#i#al are the ones most likely to be *assed on /rom generation to generation -#olution as a theory was /irst de#elo*ed by "arwin and @allace. Be/ore that2 there was the Aamarckian theory which stated that traits ac:uired during a li/etime would be *assed on to the ne>t generation. Some reasons why it is belie#ed that =umans e#ol#ed /rom (rimates: <$ "igit =ands...(entadactyl <Gras*ing &bility <-rectness <Stereosco*ic Nision Recombination and assortment allow /or #ariation Band mutationsC in a *o*ulation. 4iller and Frey simulated the conditions on *re<biotic -arth in order to test /or chemical e#olution. ;hey sealed @ater2 =ydrogen2 &mmonia2 and 4ethane in a /lask B@=&4C in order to model the conditions. -lectrodes were used to simulate lightning. =umans ha#e e#ol#ed /rom mammal<like re*tiles that e>isted o#er 2DD million years ago. -arly humans were classi/ied under the genus &ustralo*ithecus. ;he s*ecies include: a/aransis2 a/ricanus2 and robustus. %e>t came the genus =omo. S*ecies include: habilis2 erectus2 neanderthalensis2 and sa*iens. Current humans are classi/ied as =omo sa*ien sa*iens. 6kay (ans*ermia basically rules because it says li/e may ha#e come /rom another *lanet. I/ you watch Star ;rek there was an e*isode discussing this. It also linked se#eral s*ecies such as &ndorians2 3lingons2 Nulcans2 Romulans2 and most im*ortantly =umans to a common ancestor /rom another *lanet. 6ther then (ans*ermia and e#olution2 another theory that is used to e>*lain e#olution is creationism. ;his describes how God created the -arth and e#erything that surrounds it. &nother theory that describes e#olution is the theory o/ intelligent design. ;his talks about some higher being created e#erything on -arth and is guiding them through their e>istence. -ndosymbiosis is the theory *ro*osed by Aynn 4argulis which suggests that eukaryotic cells e#ol#ed /rom *rokaryotic cells. 6kay basically endosymbiosis states that a *rokaryotic cell consumed other *rokaryotic cells2 in this case mitochondria and chloro*lasts. ;hey grew to ha#e a symbiotic relationshi* and e#entually went on li#e together in *eace. ;he reason this is belie#ed to be true is because mitochondria and chloro*lasts ha#e their own "%&. "arwinism &da*tation: &n e#olutionary modi/ication that causes thechances o/ sur#i#al and success/ul re*roduction much higher. %atural Selection: 6rganisms that are better ada*ted ha#e a greater chance o/ being able

to sur#i#e and bring /orth the ne>t generation. Charles "arwin < "arwin belie#ed that the -arth was #ery old and its /orm had trans/ormed o#er a *eriod o/ time. &rti/icial selection su**osedly could allow breeders to choose traits that they liked. "arwin used this *rocess to e>*lain a similar *rocess that occurs in nature. &l/red @allace < Sent "arwin a *ublished *a*er o/ his ideas2 which were :uite similar to those o/ "arwin himsel/. ;hus2 the "arwin<@allace ;heory o/ -#olution was born2 ;his theory held that /our key as*ects o/ li/e lead to e#olution: *o*ulation #ariation2 o#er*roduction2 limits on *o*ulation growth2 and de//erential re*roducti#e success. ;homas 4althus < @rote &n -ssay on the (rinci*le o/ (o*ulation as It &//ects the Euture Im*ro#ement o/ Society. In it2 he stated that growth in a *o*ulation is not always desirable. (o*ulations can increase e>*onentially2 while the *o*ulation5s /ood su**ly can only increase arithmetically. Because o/ this *roblem between /ood su**ly and *o*ulation2 /amine2 disease and war can occur2 halting *o*ulation growth. -#idence /or -#olution: < Geological "istribution o/ li#ing organisms < Eossili?ation< Radioacti#e "ating < Biochemical e#idence: the uni#ersality o/ "%& and *rotein structures < -mbryo e#idence because all embryos look alike in the early stage o/ de#elo*ment < (entadactyl limb 0edit1 Classi/ication)-cology 0edit1 Block 1B Classi/ication is *retty much the single greatest thing since sliced bread. 4aybe e#en be/ore sliced bread. It allows organisms to be grou*ed together based on their similar characteristics. ;here are a lot o/ organisms2 so this is im*ortant. ;his #ariety o/ organisms Band their ecosystems!C is known as biological di#ersity. ;he study o/ said di#ersity is systematics. Classi/ying and naming organisms is known as ta>onomy. @e use a binomial nomenclature when re/erring to organisms. ;he binomial nomenclature was designed by Carolus Ainnaeus and consists o/ an organisms genus and s*ecies. Both words ha#e latin roots. In case you were wondering2 the system o/ classi/ication is as /ollows: kingdom *hylum class order /amily genus s*ecies @ait a minuteR @=&;5S & S(-CI-SR @ell2 let me tell you. 0*lease do so1 & s*ecies is a *otentially interbreeding *o*ulation. Remember2 the o//s*ring must also be able to re*roduce. & *o*ulation is a grou* o/ the same s*ecies. & community is a grou* o/ *o*ulations2 cohabitating. ;his habitat is known as the ecosystem. & grou* o/ ecosystems makes u* a biome Bthink tem*erate /orest2 or tundra!C ;he entire world2 and)or all the biomes and li/e and e#erything2 makes u* the bios*here.

(A&%;S ;here are /our ma9or grou*s o/ *lants: Bryo*hytes < %on #ascular < "ominant Gameto*hyte generation < Seedless *lants < Small2 re:uire moist en#ironment2 re*roduce by s*ores < mosses2 li#erworst Eilicino*hytes < Nascular < "ominant S*oro*hyte generation < Seedless *lants < Re*roduced by S*ores < Eerns2 =orsetails Coni/ero*hytes < Nascular < "ominant S*oro*hyte Generation < Seed *lants Bnaked seedsC < re*roduce by seeds < Coni/ers2 Cycads2 Ginkgoes &ngios*ermo*hytes < Nascular < "ominant s*oro*hyte gen < Seed *lants Bseeds encased in /ruitC < Re*roduce by seeds

< Elowering *lants2 monocots2 dicots 0edit1 Block B Classi/ication System & classi/ication system is something that hel*s scientists to organi?e animals2 *lants2 and other li/e into categories so that we can see similarities and di//erences. 6ur modern classi/ication system consists o/: "omain 3ingdom (hylum Class 6rder Eamily Genus S*ecies Binomial %omenclature ;his is the s*eci/ic system o/ naming in which scientists deri#e names o/ organisms with res*ect to their Genus and S*ecies. Eor instance2 humans are classi/ied as =ome BGenusC Sa*iens BS*eciesC. ;his allows /or a continuity and common ground /or naming organisms throughout science2 /acilitating research and building a /oundation /or /urther study into biology. (lants can be catergor?ed into se#eral di//erent grou*s: 1. Bryo*htyes< %on<#ascular seedles *lants that are small and re:uire moist en#iroments. Such e>am*les are mosses and li#erworts and their dominant generation is the gameo*hyte. 2. ;racheo*htyes which are broken down /urther into <<O a.C Eilicino*htyes< Nascular seedless *lants that re*roduce by s*ores. ;he dominant generation id the s*oro*htye and e>am*les are /erns and horsetails. b.C Coni/ero*htyes< Nascular seed *lants Bnaked seeds!! heheC that also re*roduce by s*ores. ->am*les are coni/er and ginkgo tree and the dominant generation is the s*oro*htye. c.C&ngios*ermo*htyes< Nascualr seed *lants Bencased in /ruitC that re*roduce by s*ores. ;he dominant generation is also s*oro*htye and e>am*les are monocots and dicots.

(lants Bryo*hytes <non#ascular <"ominant Gameto*hyte generation <seedless <small <thri#es in moist en#ironments

<re*roduce by s*ores <-.>.: mosses Bhornwarts etcC Eilicerno*hytes <#ascular <"ominant S*or. generation <seedless <re*roduce by s*ores Coni/ero*hytes <#ascular <"om. S*or. Gen. <seeds Bbut naked seedsC <-.>. C6n/ers Bginkoes2 Cyands...C &ngios*ero*hytes <#ascular <"om. S*or. Gen. <ha#e seeds2 in /ruit <re*roduce by seeds <e.>. Elowering *lants Bda//odills2 roses2 monocots2 dicotsC 0edit1 Block !B Classi/ication is how scientists grou* di//erent organisms and thier s*ecies. ;hey can be determined through di//erent methods. ;his is how a regular classi/ication system works: "omainJO 3ingdomJO (hylumJO ClassJO 6rderJO EamilyJO GenusJO S*ecies & way to remember this although its really dirty is 3ing (hili* Came 6#er Eor Gay Se> E6R =F4&%S: &nimalia2 Chordata2 4ammalia2 (rimate2 =omindae2 =ome2 Sa*ien2 Cro<4agnon) Sa*ien S*ecies<a *articular kind o/ organismI members *osess similar automatical characteristics and ha#e the ability to interbreed and *roduce /ertile o//s*ring. ;here are /our main grou*s o/ *lants. Eilicino*hytes2 Coni/ero*hytes2 and &ngios*ermo*hytes are grou*ed together under a larger set called ;racheo*hytes. Bryo*hytes and Eilicino*hytes re*roduce by s*ores2 while Coni/ero*hytes and &ngios*ermo*hytes re*roduce by seeds. ;he seeds in &ngios*ermo*hytes are encased in /ruit2 while Coni/ero*hytes ha#e naked seeds. ->am*les: Bryo*hytes< moss2 li#erworts2 hornwortsI Eilicino*hytes< /erns2 club mosses2 horsetailsI Coni/ero*hytes< coni/ers2 cycads2 ginkgoesI &ngios*ermo*hytes< /lowering *lants2 monocots2 dicots.

(lants and the Cell (lants show &lteration o/ Generation in which they s*end some o/ their li#es in a ha*loid stage2 and another *art in a di*loid stage. In the gameto*hye generation2 the ha*loid stage leads to gametes through mitosis2 while meiosis is used in the s*oro*hyte generation2 where the di*loid state leads to ha*loid s*ores. Gameto*hytes *roduce a small gametangia called antheridia Bthe /emale #ersion is called archegoniaC. ;he ?ygote /orms when an egg and s*erm cell unite. ;he /irst stage in the s*oro*htye generation2 the newly</ormed di*loid ?ygote2 di#ides by mitosis and becomes a young2 multicellular s*oro*hyte *lant. 6nce it matures2 it gains s*ecial cells that di#ide using meiosis to /orm ha*loid cells known as s*ores. ;hese s*ores di#ide by mitosis2 *roducing a multicellular gameto*hyte2 thus restarting the cycle. Seed Germination< 1. Imbibition< Seed absorbs water 2. -mbryo releases Gibberellic &cid BG&C . G& triggers the alueron layer to release amylase !. &mylase digests amylose into maltose $. 4altose is used by embryo to grow -#ery seed needs water and o>ygen to grow. 6ther things that might be necessary include: Aight2 digestion by mammal birds2 bacterial digestion2 and)or /ire. In the seed their consists many di//eretn *arts. ;he /irst one that *eo*le meet is the testaBseed coatC2 then there is the aleurone layer. Because the embryo has to go through these two layers that is why germination takes so long. ;hen in the seed is the cotyledon and the embryo. ;he embryo is made o/ the embryonic shoot and the embryonic root. Binomial nomenclature is the /ormal system o/ naming s*ecies. It in#ol#es names /or the genus2 then the s*ecies. ;he name /or the genus is always ca*itali?ed2 but the s*ecies name is lower case. Both names are italisi?ed howe#er. Eor e>am*le: (asser domesticus Biological 6rgani?ation: 6rganism2 (o*ulation2 Community2 -cosystem2 Biome2 Bios*here