Chapter 1 - Introduction

Why Does GIS Matter? Everything that happens, happens somewhere Location is an issue in many of the problems that society must solve Some of these problems are routine, others are monumental in scope Examples of Geographic Problems Health Care Delivery Companies Transportation Forestry Government and MANY more...

Geographic Problems
Bases for Classification Level of geographic detail or Scale Intent or Purpose Practical Objectives (Minimize cost, etc.) Driven by human curiosity (Science) Use the same tools Time Scale Operational (day-to-day) transactional databases Tactical (medium term) Strategic (long term)

Why is geographic information special?

It is Multidimensional (at least two coordinates required--x, y) It can be voluminous (some geodatabases = terabyte) It must be projected onto a flat surface It requires special methods for its analysis It can be very time consuming to integrate various types It can be complex and expensive to update It can require large amounts of data retrieval for simple tasks

from just Data to elusive Wisdom

Information Systems help us to manage what we know, by making it easy to organize and store, access and retrieve, manipulate and synthesize, and apply to solutions DATA = numbers, text, symbols INFORMATION = data serving some purpose--implies some degree of selection, organization, preparation, interpretation EVIDENCE = multiplicity of information from different sources, related to a specific problem with a validated consistency KNOWLEDGE = information to which value has been added by interpretation based on a particular context (a book is read) WISDOM = used in the context of decisions made or advice given--based on all the evidence and knowledge available

Knowledge about how the world works vs. knowledge about how the world looks.

How it works knowledge is most valuable => prediction The software of a GIS captures and implements general knowledge, while the database represents specific information an example of general knowledge = classification more sophisticated forms = rule sets

Everybody has their own definition of GIS

a container of maps in digital form a computerized tool for solving geographic problems a spatial decision support system a mechanized inventory of geographically distributed features and facilities a tool for revealing what is otherwise invisible in geographic information a tool for performing operations on geographic data that are too tedious or expensive or inaccurate if performed by hand General public decision-makers, community groups, planners management scientists, operations researchers utility, transportation, and resource managers scientists, investigators

resource managers, planners, cartographers

Brief History of GIS

1st GIS = Canada GIS, 1960s (map measuring system) U.S. Bureau of the Census - 1970 census of population 1970s - USGS, DMA, etc. (map creation/editing) 1970s - digital remote sensing satellites (LANDSAT), GPS 1980s = price of sufficiently powerful computers falls below critical threshold, commercial software companies established 1990s = digital data sets become widely available (DCW, 1992) 1993 = Xerox PARC center publishes first web-based interactive maps 1996 = Commercial Internet Map Servers introduced (MapQuest) 2000+ = GIServices (location-based services, g-commerce) The Era of Exploitation

Components of a GIS
Hardware Software Data People (SAPs) Procedures Network

GIScience and others terms

Systematic study of the fundamental issues arising from the creation, handling, storage, and use of geographic information, as a well-defined class of information in general. Other terms currently being used: geomatics geoinformatics spatial information sciences geocomputation geo-information engineering These terms have different roots and emphasize different ways of thinking about problems.

Chapter 2 - Gallery of Applications

One Day of Life with GIS GIS affects each of us, every day.

Why GIS is becoming so widespread...

Wider availability of GIS through the Internet Reductions in the price of hardware and software Greater awareness of the geographic dimension of decisionmaking, etc. Easier to use interfaces Better technology to support applications (data visualization, data management, linkage to other software). Proliferation of geo-referenced digital data (GPS, VARs, etc.) Commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) applications Accumulated experience in the industry (making it work)

Typical Goals of Scientific Applications

Rational, effective, and efficient allocation of resources Monitoring and understanding observed spatial distributions Understanding the difference that place makes Understanding processes in the natural and economic systems Prescription of strategies for environmental conservation

The five Ms of GIS Applications

Mapping Measurement Monitoring Modeling Management

Lamberts version Mapping, Monitoring, Management, Analysis, Planning

Local Government Applications

Of the tasks undertaken by local governments, 70 - 80% are geographically related. Goals Improve the quality of products, processes, and services Protect the health, safety, and welfare of citizens Inventory Applications (roads, parcels, facilities, etc.) Policy Analysis Applications (resource demand, potential capacity, etc.) Management/Policy-making Applications (facility siting, routing, allocation, projections, etc.)

Business and Service Planning (Retail) Applications

Geodemographics is a shorthand term for composite indicators of consumer behavior that are available at a smallarea level (e.g., census tracts, postal zone, etc.) basis for market area analysis fastest growing application of GIS Operational day-to-day processing of routine transactions and inventory analysis (ex: stock management) Tactical allocation of resources to address specific (usually shortterm) problems (ex: store sales promotions) Strategic support for planning to achieve long-term goals (ex: opening new stores)

Logistics and Transportation Applications

Deals with the movement of goods and people from one place to another, and the infrastructure that moves them Each application requires two parts: Static - fixed infrastructure (highways, railroads, etc.) Dynamic - the goods and people that are moving around GPS provides the technology to track vehicles, etc. Recently, applications include dynamically updated maps on the Internet Many applications involve optimization methods These applications have provided substantial savings over traditional manual methods...

Environmental Applications
Earliest applications of GIS were in the environmental fields Competition between alternative uses of land has driven many applications of GIS Satellite remote sensing used to monitor land use change Dynamic simulation models Links to non-spatial models Professional standard in most fields today...

Chapter 3 - Representing Geography

Representations or Models help us assemble far more knowledge about the Earth than is possible on our own. Are reinforced by the rules and laws that we have learned to apply to the unobserved world Toblers First Law of Geography: Everything is related to everything else, but near things are more related than those far apart. Example: Spatial interpolation methods Since the world is so complex, revealing more detail the closer we look, it is necessary to make choices about what to represent, at what level of detail, over what period of time

Digital Representation of Geography

Binary representation Every item of useful information about the Earths surface is ultimately reduced to some combination of 0s and 1s. The representation itself (0s and 1s) is rarely seen by the user, instead, the user sees a view designed to present the contents in a meaningful form.

Geographic representations are among the most ancient

Sketches in the dirt or on cave walls probably preceded language that could relate equivalent information Effective media for communication between members of a small group Invention of the printing press in the 15th century Knowledge could be the common property of humanity Major restriction: representation had to be flat The Age of Discovery (15th century) Henry the Navigator of Portugal and other explorers Maps became the most valuable medium for Establishing new discoveries Administering colonial empires

A Key Issue: What to represent and how to represent it

Any application of GIS requires clear attention to questions of what to represent, and how. There is a multitude of possible ways of representing the geographic world in digital form, none of which is perfect, and none of which is ideal for all applications.

Place, Time, and Attributes

Geographic data link place, time, and attributes. Time is optional in GIS Time can be omitted in many cases Example: elevation Time is essential in some cases Example: atmospheric temperature Attributes are classified as: Nominal Serves to identify one entity from another Examples: place names Can include: Numbers, letters, colors, names, etc. IMPORTANT: It makes no sense to apply arithmetic operations to this class of data!

Attributes, Continued
Ordinal Values have a natural order Example: Class 1 is best, Class 2 is not as good, etc. IMPORTANT: Adding, averaging, or taking ratios makes no sense with this class of data! Medians are legitimate and can be a useful value Interval Difference between values makes sense. Example: Celsius temperature scale It makes sense to say that 30 and 20 are as different as 20 and 10 However, 20 is not twice as hot as 10 Any scale data with an arbitrary zero point

Attributes, Continued
Ratio Ratios between values makes sense... Example: Weight (100 lb is twice as heavy as 50 lb) Cyclic, or Directional Special type of data with special problems Example: Compass Directions 0 degrees to 359 degrees Cannot average all values (ex: (359 + 1)/2 = 180) Example: flow directions on linear segments Degrees, Minutes, Seconds VS. Decimal Degrees

The Fundamental Problem with representations

The world is infinitely complex, but computer systems are finite. Therefore, representation is all about the choices that are made in capturing the knowledge about the world. A representation must be partial Limit level of detail Ignore changes through time Ignore certain attributes Simplify by classifying into ranges, etc. Example: spatial resolution for representation of worldwide elevation the Earths surface covers 500 million sq km, therefore, 10km resolution = 5 million cells of info, 1km resolution = 500 million cells of info, and 1 meter resolution = 500 trillion cells of info

Two Conceptual Schemes for Representation of Geography

A fundamental choice has to be made between representing the geographic world as: Discrete Objects Or Fields

The Discrete Object View

Represents the world as objects with well-defined boundaries in empty space. Objects are instances of generally recognized categories. Objects can be counted Good Examples: biological organisms, manufactured objects Messy Examples: mountains (where does it start/end?) Offers powerful way of linking attribute information about each object (row in a data table corresponds to each object and the columns hold attribute data on each object)

Dimensionality in the Object View

Two-dimensional objects areas (most often referred to as polygons) Examples: lakes, administrative regions One-dimensional objects Lines Examples: roads, rivers Zero-dimensional objects Points Examples: individual animals, buildings

Limitations of the Object View

In reality, all objects are 3-dimensional, so representation in fewer dimensions is just an approximation. Ability of GIS software to handle true 3-D objects as volumes is very limited. Can assign height attributes to each coordinate that describes the object (sometimes called 2.5D) 2-Dimensional networks handle overpasses by assigning turning options at each intersection (no turns= overpass) Works poorly for continuous surfaces

The Field View

Continuous surfaces are represented better in the field view. In this view the geographic world can be described by a finite number of variables, each measurable at any point on the Earths surface, and changing in value across the surface. Fields are distinguished by what varies, and how smoothly.

Field or Object View?

Fields can represent continuous variation across space OR lines Examples that may also be represented in the object view: Elevation Population density Land use Soil type Traffic density along a road network Lakes (degrees of lakeness assign every point a value describing the condition.dry, sometimes flooded, etc.)

Raster and Vector Data Models

Fields and Discrete Objects are conceptual views. Two methods are used to reduce geographic phenomena to forms that can be coded into computer databases, called Raster and Vector data models. Raster Representation Model Geographic space is divided into an array of cells (or pixels) The cells are usually square Variation is expressed by assigning values to cells Vector Representation Model Points, Lines, Areas (Polygons)

Raster Data
Spatial resolution of raster data = length of a cell side Square cells do not fit together neatly on a curved surface. When information is presented in raster form all detail about variation within cells is lost, and instead the cell is given a single value. Must establish rules for assigning cell values Majority or plurality method Central point of the cell method Common form of raster data is satellite imagery.

Vector Data
Points are captured as x and y coordinates. Lines are captured as points connected by precisely straight lines (also called polylines when representing a curved line) Areas captured by as a series of points (vertices) connected by straight lines (also called polygons).

Raster vs. Vector

Raster is vaster, and vector is correcter Raster model requires very small cells sizes to accurately represent the location of features (lots of cells with attribute data for every cell). Vector model just requires that the vertices that make up the line or polygon be stored. Apparent precision of vector is often an unreasonable representation of the spatial accuracy of the data. Issues: Volume of Data Sources of data Applications Software Resolution

Paper Maps
Analog representation, or physical model of the world scaled to fit the size of the paper Limitations include: static, hard to update, limited 3-D Scale or Representative Fraction is defined as the ratio of the distance on the map to the distance on the Earths surface. Example: 1:24,000 (1 inch on the map represents 24,000 inches on the surface of the Earth, AND, 1 foot on the map represents 24,000 feet on the surface, or 1 meter:24,000 meters, etc.) Scale for a digital geographic database refers to the scale of the source paper map. Large scale vs. small scale maps 1:2000 map is a larger scale map than a 1:100,000 map

Chapter 5 - Georeferencing
Atomic element of geographic information Location (essential) Time (optional) Attributes (usually included) Without locations, data is non-spatial (or aspatial) The act of assigning locations to information Common Terms: georeference, geolocate, geocode

Primary Requirements
A georeference must be unique Only one location associated with a given georeference No confusion about the location that is referenced Meaning must be shared among all that work with the info Can link different kinds of info to based on a common location

To be most useful, georeferences should stay constant through time.

Georeferencing Concepts
Every georeference has an associated spatial resolution equal to the size of the area that is assigned. note: mailing address, state, zip, etc. can vary in size Many systems of georeferencing are unique only within an area or domain of the Earths surface. Examples: City Namesthere is a Jacksonville in Florida and in North Carolinaand street namesthere are many Main Streets, but only one per city.

Metric Georeferences
Based on measurements instead of names Examples: latitude and longitude, UTM coordinates, etc. Biggest Advantage: potential for infinitely fine spatial resolution limited only be the measuring devices that we have Another advantage: from measurements of two or more locations, it is possible to compute distances Note: other types of georeference systems, like street addresses, only order locations

Placenames
Simplest, most ancient method Language extends the usefulness for georeferencing Ex: between two places or near a place or 1 mile north of some place But, usefulness is limited because: Meanings vary between people and within context used Coarse resolution (ex: within Asia is vague) Placenames can vary with time

Postal Addresses and Postal Codes

Assumptions: Every dwelling and office is a potential destination for mail Dwellings and offices are arrayed along roads and numbered accordingly Roads have names that are unique within local areas Local areas have names that are unique within larger regions Regions have names that are unique within countries Zip codes vary in size (and are changed frequently), but are useful for mapping summarized data

Postal Addresses dont always work

Dont work for natural features Dont work when dwellings are not numbered consecutively along streets (such as in Japan, where the number reflects date of construction). Dont work well in high-rise buildings where many dwellings occupy the same horizontal space

Linear Referencing Systems

Often used for managing transportation infrastructure Defines location on a network by measuring the distance from a defined point of reference along a defined path in the network. Closely related to the street address system, but provides a more explicit measurement of distance

Cadasters
The Cadaster is the map of land ownership in an area The property appraiser maintains the cadastral map for purposes of taxing land and keeping public records of land ownership Parcels of land have unique numbers or codes that are consistent through time, but hard to remember!

Public Land Survey System (PLSS)

Used to survey the vast areas beyond the original colonies beginning in the early 19th Century A metric system of georeferencing (with some problems due to curvature of the earth) Description of property location by section/township/range Prime Meridian (north-south line) Ranges (rows that are six miles apart and perpendicular to the prime meridian line, N or S) Townships (columns that are six miles apart form blocks that are on either side (E or W) of the prime meridian) Sections (each township is divided into 36 sections, roughly 640 acres each (5280 ft/mi and 43560 sq. ft. / acre) Describe smaller parcels with quarter sections, etc.

Latitude and Longitude

The most comprehensive system Potential for very fine spatial resolution Can compute distances between locations Supports other forms of spatial analysis Often called the geographic system of coordinates

Longitude Defined
Based on the axis of the Earths rotation Center of mass lies on this axis The plane through the center of mass perpendicular to the axis of rotation is the equator Slices through the Earth parallel to the axis and perpendicular to the plane of the equator define lines of constant longitude. A line of constant longitude is called a meridian. Zero longitude (the prime meridian) goes through a line at the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, England

Measuring Longitude
All longitude slices are measured as angles from the prime meridian 360 total degrees 180 degrees West or East East longitudes are stored in computers as positive numbers West longitudes are stored as negative numbers 60 minutes in a degree 60 seconds in a minute Use decimal degrees to accommodate computers Decimal Degrees = Degrees + minutes/60 + seconds/3600

The Earth is not a perfect sphere

The term ellipsoid or spheroid is used to describe the shape The Earth is slightly flattened, such that the distance between the Poles is about 1/300 less than the diameter at the Equator. Many ellipsoids have been used over the years The WGS84 ellipsoid (the World Geodetic System of 1984) is the basis for most new mapping Or the North American Datum of 1983 (NAD83, NAD83 HARN, etc.) Others are still used by other countriesbe careful.

Latitude Defined
If we draw a line through any point on the Earths surface that is perpendicular to the ellipsoid at that location, then measure the angle made by this line with the plane of the Equator, this angle defines the latitude of that point. Angles vary from 90 degrees North to 90 degrees South. North angles are stored in computers as positive numbers and South angles as negative numbers. Lines of constant latitude are called parallels

Distances in longitude and latitude

Latitude distances are constant Two points on the same meridian, separated by one degree of latitude are about 111 km apart (1/360th) One minute of latitude ~= 1.86 km (a nautical mile) One second of latitude ~= 30 meters Longitude distances vary Meridians converge on the poles, hence Lines are farthest apart at the equator (111 km) One degree of longitude ~= 96 km at 30 degrees North or South (~58 miles) ~ 78 km at 45 degrees ~ 55 km at 60 degrees

Map Projections
Much work in GIS deals with a flattened or projected Earth Paper is flat, rasters are flat, etc. A map projection transforms a position identified by latitude and longitude into a position in Cartesian coordinates (x,y) It is very important to know the map projection of a data set. Projections distort at least one of these properties Shape Area Distance Direction

Projection Properties and Classes

A map projection can have either property (but not both): Conformal preserves local shape (useful for navigation) Equal area preserves area measurements (useful for analysis) Other projections are termed equidistant and true-direction Three major classes of projections Cylindrical Azimuthal or planar Conic Graticule shows how the lat/long lines map onto the projection

Using Unprojected Data

Be careful using a GIS to analyze data in latitude and longitude rather than projected coordinates, because serious distortions in distance and area may result Projection on-the-fly

Common Coordinate Systems

Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) Global or national mapping use 60 zones (6 degrees of longitude for each zone) Problems: Maps dont fit together across zones Arbitrary definition of zones Conformal (shape is preserved) and scale is same in all directions Standard coordinate system used Coordinates are in meters 500,000m Easting

Common Coordinate Systems (cont.)

State Plane Coordinate System More accurate than UTM Coordinates in feet No problem with arbitrary zones Established in the 1930s, each state adopted its own map projection based on minimizing distortion Some large states have internal zones to minimize distortion even more Most GIS software have the named projections stored so that it is relatively easy to convert between the most common map projections.

Chapter 4 - The Nature of Geographic Data

Reminder: The fundamental problem of GIS is that of selecting what to leave in and what to leave out of digital representations of the real world. Smoothness and irregularity are important distinguishing characteristics of geographic data. The scale or level of detail may determine whether spatial and temporal phenomena appear regular or irregular. Spatial heterogeneity = the tendency of geographic places and regions to be different from each other. Spatial data tend to exhibit an increasing range of values, or increased heterogeneity, with increased distance.

Isopleth and Choropleth Maps

Isopleth maps are used to visualize phenomena that are conceptualized as fields and measured on interval or ratio scales. (see Figure 4.9) An Isoline connects points of equal attribute values created from sample points measurements Choropleth maps are constructed from values describing properties of non-overlapping areas. Areas are shaded/colored to show value of variable spatially extensive variables - values are true only for entire areas (ex: total population) Important: Can be misleadingsee Figure 4.10 spatially intensive variables - values that could potentially be true for every part of an area (if it is homogeneous), (ex: densities, rates, proportions)

The Lengths of Geographic Objects?

Coastline Example as you measure with more precision, the length gets longer any approximation is scale-dependent length is indeterminate where small deviations resemble larger deviations in form, the coastline is self-similar as the path of the coast traverses space, its intricate structure comes to fill up more space than a onedimensional straight line but less space than a twodimensional area.as such it is said to be of fractional dimension (a fractal) between 1(a line) and 2 (an area).

Chapter 8 - Geographic Data Modeling

Decisions about the type of model to be adopted are vital to the success of a GIS project. Levels of abstraction (see Figure 8.2) reality (buildings, streets, wells, etc.) conceptual discrete object or field models logical raster or vector models diagrams physical actual format of files or database tables Dependent on your selected software, etc.

Phases of GIS Modeling

First phase define main types of real objects to be represented choose conceptual model Second Phase creation of diagrams, lists of attributes, etc. for each object to be modeled a logical model is independent of the software used Final Phase create a model showing how objects will be digitally implemented in a specific GIS software package physical models describe the exact files or tables used

Types of Data Models Used in GIS

Computer-aided design (CAD) Graphical Image Raster/Grid Vector/geo-relational topologic Network Triangulated irregular network (TIN) Object

Raster Data Model

Stored as an array of cells (often called a grid) Satellite images are stored as stacks of arrays representing each spectral band in the image air photos are usually just one array associated with the field conceptual model Integer or floating point values for cells Integer values can be associated with an attribute table Metadata about the array often held in a file header geographic coordinate of the upper-left corner of array cell size number of rows and columns Primary operational problem = large size of raw datasets

Raster Compression Techniques

Compression techniques (see Box 8.1) Lossless run-length encoding (encoding row cells with a pair of values---no. of cells with same value, value) block encoding (quadtree data structure) lossy wavelet (remove information recursively by examining patterns in the data at different scales) highest level of data compression only useful for satellite images, air photos, etc. MrSID (Multiresolution Seamless Image Database) fast viewing at different scales with appropriate amounts of detail for the scale (.sid extension)

Vector Data Model

Associated with the discrete object conceptual model point, line, and polygon objects see figure 8.7 2, 3, or 4 dimensions associated with each coordinate 3-D = height, 4-D for time, offsets, etc. geographic entities are called features feature table - each feature occupies a row and each property or attribute of the feature occupies a column Two types of features simple topologic

Simple Features
Also called spaghetti features lines and polygons can overlap there are no relationships between any of the objects Example: ESRI shapefiles

Advantages easy to create and store draws quickly on the screen Disadvantages lack of any connectivity relationships (limits network and polygon adjacency analysis methods) inefficient for modeling phenomena conceptualized as fields because adjacent boundary coords are stored twice potential for overlap can cause problems (ex: ownership)

Topologic Features
Simple features that are structured using topologic rules Topology is the science and mathematics of relationships used to validate the geometry of vector entities, and for operations such as network tracing and tests of polygon adjacency Relationships are non-metric (qualitative) properties of geographic objects that remain constant when geographic space is distorted. Example: When a map is stretched , properties like distance change, but topological properties like adjacency do not. Line data are also sometimes called 1-cell, arc, edge, or link polygon data sometimes called 2-cell, area, or face

Topology and Line Features

Example uses related to line features force all line ends that are within a user-defined distance to be snapped together so that they have the same coordinate values and share a single node (for instance, snapping tolerance can be set during digitizing) where there are overlapping lines, place a node at the point of intersection can have attributes associated with each node ex: turn tables (no left turn, etc.) maintain direction info with each line (tracing analysis) info on from node and to node is maintained

Topology and Polygon Features

In a topologically structured polygon data layer, each polygon is defined as a collection of lines, that in turn are made up of an ordered list of coordinates (nodes and vertices). SEE Figure 8.8 polygon-line list table and line coordinate list table a line number may appear more than once in the polygon-line list table, but the actual coordinates for the line are only stored once in the line coordinate table advantages: avoids gaps (slivers) and overlaps fewer coordinates are stored compared to simple features model primary disadvantage is that drawing time is slower

Planar Enforcement and Contiguity

Planar enforcement implies that: all space on a map must be filled any point on a map must fall in only one polygon, in other words, there can be no overlaps phenomenon is conceptualized as a field special cases include islands and the universal polygon Contiguity or adjacency between polygons also defined during the process of topologic structuring list of polygons on the left and right-hand side of each line, in the direction defined by the list of coordinates SEE Figure 8.9

Chapter 10 - Creating and Maintaining Geographic Databases

Standard DBMS (Data Base Management Systems) functions standard data models data loading tools tools to index standard database data types structured query language (SQL) security (controlled access to parts of database) controlled updating (mutli-user transaction management) backup and recovery utilities database administration tools applications for creating, using, and maintaining programmable API (application programming interface)

Chapter 11 - METADATA
Data about data We need metadata to be able to: automate the process of search and discovery over distributed archives(ex: www.geographynetwork.com) similar to librarys catalog, but can also search for data based on location determine whether a dataset, once discovered, will satisfy the users requirements sufficient spatial resolution? Date of creation? Spatial extent?

METADATA
Provides the information needed to handle the dataset effectively. Tech specs on format map projection provides useful information about the contents of the dataset attribute definitions, etc. Metadata generation can be expensive and time-consuming

METADATA Standards
To be most useful, standards are useful FGDC Standards US Federal Geographic Data Committees Content Standards for Digital Geospatial Metadata, 1993 Content standard - describes the items that should be included but not the exact format or structure see Box 11.2 for a list of types of content Metadata LITE - limited set of properties that is cheaper to produce but still useful for search/discovery see Box 11.3

Chapter 13 - Visualization and User Interaction

Maps can be used as decision support tools to create, support, or reinforce a particular message GIS (or just maps) can mislead viewers Historically, many maps were created to support national interests (warfare, inventory of territories, trading routes, etc.) time frame for changes was relatively slow Today, time frame for change is rapid

Limitations of Paper Maps

Paper Maps are of fixed scale generalization of detail is not recoverable GIS can allow different levels of detail at different scales Paper Maps are of fixed extent GIS can be seamless (no adjoining maps to deal with) Paper Maps present a static view GIS can be linked to dynamically changing data Paper Maps are flat GIS can include 2.5D data and visualization Paper Maps are limited to what information is on the map GIS allows supplementation with further data Paper Maps provide only one map-producer centric view of the world, GIS users can create their own view

Attribute Representation
Many conventions for symbols exist Ex: highway shields, etc. (symbol sets in ArcMap) Graphic primitives graduated size of symbols principally used for ordinal or interval/ratio data value and saturation of color variation in attribute values hue - use of colors discriminate between nominal categories shape or orientation of symbols used to relate some value of attribute arrangement, texture, focus within/between-symbol properties, patterns

Attribute Representation (cont.)

Standard labeling method issues centroid placement, splines, overlap, alignment Issues in choropleth mapping visual implication of implied within-zone uniformity Dot Density maps represent relative density of zonally averaged data (not location of point events) Proportionally-sized circles problem of overlapping circles in busy areas of map

Classification of Interval and Ratio Data

Interval = difference between values makes sense ex: temperature Ratio = ratios between values makes sense ex: weight Natural Breaks apparently natural groupings of data values deductive assignment - based on known breakpoints ex: arid, semi-arid, temperate, humid, etc. inductive assignment - software finds relatively large jumps in the data values

Classification of Interval/Ratio Data (cont)

Quantile Breaks each of the predetermined number of classes contains an equal number of observations can be problematic when values with widely different values get placed in the same class, etc. can have as many classes as required Equal Interval Breaks best used where data ranges are familiar to user Standard Deviation distance of observation from the mean value two-color ramps help to visualize the above/below ranges

Cartograms and Dasymetric Mapping

Cartograms Distort area or distance in the interest of some objective Examples: subway maps (see Figure 13.9) typical objectives: make patterns more obvious promote legibility Dasymetric mapping ancillary data sources used to improve the model of a spatial distribution See example in Figure 13.12 - allocation of population figures to areas smaller than census tracts

Chapter 17 and 18 - GIS Management

GIS has two obvious relationships to management: First - GIS can help manage many types of projects so as to produce a more effective, more efficient, more equitable, or more productive outcome. Many decisions have consequences which are geographically and existing geographic variations can influence key decisions Second - GIS projects themselves need to be managed specification of needs selection and procurement of tools training of staff etc.

Management is best when it evolves

GIS implementations should evolve to take advantage of: new technologies internet map servers handheld GIS wireless communications organizational developments serendipity

Dave Says...
To be a Good GIS manager, you must: stay up-to-date on technology attend conferences join local or regional User Groups subscribe to journals bookmark GIS websites and visit them often attempt to understand the business objectives and processes in all departments of the company or institution look for opportunities to add GIS educate others about GIS demonstrate to anyone that will take the time pass around articles describing how others have used GIS to their advantage always consider yourself part of a team GIS does not stand alone for long.

Potential Benefits that The Boss will relate to...

Tell your boss that GIS can: Provide factual information about the location of resources Compute derived facts (such as, the fastest route, changes in customer distribution, etc.) Help select, compress, and visualize complex information to facilitate better understanding and hence, better decision-making Can help search for patterns and correlates of geographic distributions Can link information from different sources in one more intuitive map-centric interface Can help predict future events that are geographically distributed

Geographic Information (GI) from a management perspective...

In the past, most GI was produced by and for governments, increasingly, GI is being developed by businesses sometimes, GI is just value-added government data its not going to be free anymore (and no sharing) GI is an experience good that consumers have to experience in order to appreciate and value GI does not wear out through use, though it may diminish in value as time passes However much it costs to collect/create, or update, the first instance of GI, the marginal costs to copy and distribute it (especially by the Internet) is negligible.

Special characteristics of the GI market

Since GI has traditionally been supplied by govt. agencies for free, many consumers are not yet used to paying for data Some detailed GI has some of the characteristics of a natural monopoly ex: an organization has developed a very detailed GI dataset that was very expensive to createand they are unwilling to distribute for freeand all costs are sunk Geographic Framework Information = it may be in the best interest of everybody to use a standardized data set Many GI data sets dont change very fastconsumers may not need to buy updated data very often

Special characteristics (cont.)

The value of GI also depends on the skills of the user and the available of software Value of a particular dataset varies with the user Because metadata was not a priority in the past, we often know very little about the fitness of a dataset for a purpose. The legal implications of data quality have not yet been fully tested in court Many value-added GI products are centered around providing standardized data sets and analysis methods that are appropriate for the data providedsince many consumers dont have the skills, or the time, or the knowledge The GI market is not efficientconsumers do not fully understand the market and there are major distortions due to subsidies, legal constraints, etc. that vary by country, etc.

Advantages of the WWW for GIS Managers

The ease of setting up and using information location tools clearinghouses or geolibraries The possibility to preview simplified versions of datasets to determine suitability for purpose (quality, etc.) The capacity for customizing applications for the needs of a specific market or group inexpensive way to distribute wide array of applications Its ability to transfer data at a very low cost share data without requiring staff to duplicate, mail, etc. The ability to transfer costs to the user from the producer let them make their own maps! Efficient business method (charging for data/services, etc.) Familiarity of web interface for users--less training needed

G-Business
The rise of the commercial sector until recently most GI was produced by government many agencies now outsource data creation some governments now charge for data ISSUE - cost of reproduction vs. cost of production GI as a business asset can be protected by copyright often encapsulated with software to give it an advantage de facto data standards as a result of major vendors

Information Ownership?
Can geographic data, information, and knowledge be regarded as property? Yes, but who owns it can be difficult to define ex: personal data on spending habits Can geographic facts properly by protected? in USA, factual information collected by the sweat of the brow -- as opposed to original, creative activities -is not protectable by copyright law. ISSUE - each representation of the same fact involves some art in the creation (each version is different) what is it about a compilation of data that is sufficiently original to merit copyright protection?

Information Ownership?
Is GI collected directly by a machine, such as a satellite sensor, protectable? Very expensive to collect, hence few suppliers Strongest and easiest enforcement of copyrights What is the half-life of GI? Varies by information type and application historical information can have value cyclic transiency of value ex: Census data loses value over 10 years until the next set of data is available, then it is valuable again for comparison analysis

Information Ownership?
How can you prove theft of your data or information? Watermarking obvious - like watermark in paper (can be removed) non-visible - a series of groups of small numbers or colored pixels scattered apparently randomly throughout a raster dataset (salting) can be effective (need good documentation) Finger-printing ex: add the occasional fictitious road, place name Who owns information derived by adding new material to source information produced by another party? Both you and the originator of the first dataset(s) common issue in GIS

People as a Business Asset

Survey Saysmost GIS industry people think of themselves as technical experts unfortunately, this attitude means that many GIS people dont make it into higher-level management positions Many GIS managers have had little formal GIS education, instead having learned on the job over the years or by going to industry training courses Accreditation issues are controversial and not resolved

Some Legal Issues for GIS Managers To Consider

Privacy Government information access laws Liability for bad decisions based on poor quality data

Geographic Framework Information

Forms the base or template for all other data sets In the USA, the FGDC defines the following information as the US framework: geodetic control elevation hydrography public land cadaster information digital orthoimagery transportation the geography of governmental/administrative units

The End