Finding Subjects and Verbs

More Grammar Rules:

NOTE: We will use the convention of a thin underline for subjects and a thick underline for verbs. Being able to find the right subject and verb will help you correct errors of agreement. Example: The list of items is/are on the desk. Being able to identify the subject and verb correctly will also help you with commas and semicolons as you will see later.

Definition:
A verb is a word that shows action (runs, hits, slides) or state of being (is, are, was, were, am,and so on). Examples: He ran around the block. You are my friend.

Rule 1
If a verb follows to, it is called an infinitive phrase and is not the main verb. You will find the main verb either before or after the infinitive phrase. Examples: I like to walk. The efforts to get her elected succeeded.

Definition:
A subject is the noun or pronoun that performs the verb. Example: The woman hurried. Woman is the subject.

Rule 2
A subject will come before a phrase beginning with of. Example: A bouquet of yellow roses will lend color and fragrance to the room.

Rule 3
To find the subject and verb, always find the verb first. Then ask who or what performed the verb. Examples: The jet engine passed inspection. Passed is the verb. Who or what passed? The engine, so engine is the subject. If you included the word jet as the subject, lightning will not strike you. Technically, jet is an adjective here and is part of what is known as the complete subject. From the ceiling hung the chandelier. The verb is hung. Now, if you think ceiling is the subject, slow down. Ask who or what hung. The answer is chandelier, not ceiling. Therefore, chandelier is the subject.

Rule 4
Any request or command such as "Stop!" or "Walk quickly." has the understood subject youbecause if we ask who is to stop or walk quickly, the answer must be you. Example: (You) Please bring me some coffee. Bring is the verb. Who is to do the bringing? You understood.

Rule 5
Sentences often have more than one subject, more than one verb, or pairs of subjects and verbs.

Examples: I like cake and he likes ice cream. Two pairs of subjects and verbs He and I like cake. Two subjects and one verb She lifts weights and jogs daily. One subject and two verbs

Pronouns
More Grammar Rules:

Definition:
A pronoun is a word that takes the place of a noun. Pronouns can be in one of three cases: Subject, Object, or Possessive.

Rule 1
Subject pronouns are used when the pronoun is the subject of the sentence. You can remember subject pronouns easily by filling in the blank subject space for a simple sentence. Example: ______ did the job. I, you, he, she, it, we, and they all fit into the blank and are, therefore, subject pronouns.

Rule 2
Subject pronouns are also used if they rename the subject. They follow to be verbs such asis, are, was, were, am, and will be. Examples: It is he. This is she speaking. It is we who are responsible for the decision to downsize. NOTE: In spoken English, most people tend to follow to be verbs with object pronouns. Many English teachers support (or at least have given in to) this distinction between written and spoken English. Example: It could have been them. Better: It could have been they. Example: It is just me at the door. Better: It is just I at the door.

Rule 3
Object pronouns are used everywhere else (direct object, indirect object, object of the preposition). Object pronouns are me, you, him, her, it, us, and them. Examples: Jean talked to him. Are you talking to me? To be able to choose pronouns correctly, you must learn to identify clauses. A clause is a group of words containing a verb and subject.

Rule 4a
A strong clause can stand on its own. Examples: She is hungry. I am feeling well today.

Rule 4b

A weak clause begins with words such as although, since, if, when, and because. Weak clauses cannot stand on their own. Examples: Although she is hungry... If she is hungry... Since I am feeling well...

Rule 4c
If a sentence contains more than one clause, isolate the clauses so that you can decide which pronoun is correct. Examples: Weak [Although she is hungry,] [Although this gift is for him,] Strong [she will give him some of her food.] [I would like you to have it too.]

Rule 5
To decide whether to use the subject or object pronoun after the words than or as, mentally complete the sentence. Examples: Tranh is as smart as she/her. If we mentally complete the sentence, we would say, "Tranh is as smart as she is." Therefore, she is the correct answer. Zoe is taller than I/me. Mentally completing the sentence, we have, "Zoe is taller than I am." Daniel would rather talk to her than I/me. We can mentally complete this sentence in two ways: "Daniel would rather talk to her than to me." OR "Daniel would rather talk to her than I would." As you can see, the meaning will change depending on the pronoun you choose.

Rule 6
Possessive pronouns show ownership and never need apostrophes. Possessive pronouns: mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, theirs NOTE: The only time it's has an apostrophe is when it is a contraction for it is or it has. Examples: It's a cold morning. The thermometer reached its highest reading.

Rule 7
Reflexive pronouns - myself, himself, herself, itself, themselves, ourselves, yourself, yourselves - should be used only when they refer back to another word in the sentence. Correct: I worked myself to the bone. Incorrect: My brother and myself did it. The word myself does not refer back to another word. Correct: My brother and I did it. Incorrect: Please give it to John or myself. Correct: Please give it to John or me.

Who vs. Whom

More Grammar Rules:

Rule

Use the he/him method to decide which word is correct. he = who him = whom Examples: Who/Whom wrote the letter? He wrote the letter. Therefore, who is correct. For who/whom should I vote? Should I vote for him? Therefore, whom is correct. We all know who/whom pulled that prank. This sentence contains two clauses: We all know and who/whom pulled that prank. We are interested in the second clause because it contains the who/whom. He pulled that prank. Therefore, who is correct. (Are you starting to sound like a hooting owl yet?) We want to know on who/whom the prank was pulled. This sentence contains two clauses: We want to know and the prank was pulled on who/whom. Again, we are interested in the second clause because it contains the who/whom.The prank was pulled on him. Therefore, whom is correct.

Whoever vs. Whomever

More Grammar Rules:

Rule 1
To determine whether to use whoever or whomever, here is the rule: him + he = whoever him + him = whomever Examples: Give it to whoever/whomever asks for it first. Give it to him. He asks for it first. Therefore, Give it to whoever asks for it first. We will hire whoever/whomever you recommend. We will hire him. You recommend him. him + him = whomever We will hire whoever/whomever is most qualified. We will hire him. He is most qualified. him + he = whoever

Rule 2
When the entire whoever/whomever clause is the subject of the verb that follows the clause, look inside the clause to determine whether to use whoever or whomever. Examples: Whoever is elected will serve a four-year term. Whoever is elected is the subject of will serve. Whoever is the subject of is. Whomever you elect will serve a four-year term. Whomever you elect is the subject of will serve. Whomever is the object of you elect.

Who vs. That vs. Which

More Grammar Rules:

Rule 1
Who refers to people. That and which refer to groups or things. Examples: Anya is the one who rescued the bird. Lokua is on the team that won first place. She belongs to an organization that specializes in saving endangered species.

Rule 2
That introduces essential clauses while which introduces nonessential clauses. Examples: I do not trust products that claim "all natural ingredients" because this phrase can mean almost anything. We would not know which products were being discussed without the that clause. The product claiming "all natural ingredients," which appeared in the Sunday newspaper, is on sale. The product is already identified. Therefore, which begins a nonessential clause. NOTE: Essential clauses do not have commas surrounding them while nonessential clauses are surrounded by commas.

Rule 3
If this, that, these, or those has already introduced an essential clause, you may use which to introduce the next clause, whether it is essential or nonessential. Examples: That is a decision which you must live with for the rest of your life. Those ideas, which we've discussed thoroughly enough, do not need to be addressed again. NOTE: Often, you can streamline your sentence by leaving out which. Example: That is a decision which you must live with for the rest of your life. Better: That is a decision you must live with for the rest of your life.

Adjectives and Adverbs

More Grammar Rules:

Definitions:
Adjectives are words that describe nouns or pronouns. They may come before the word they describe (That is a cute puppy.) or they may follow the word they describe (That puppy is cute.). Adverbs are words that modify everything but nouns and pronouns. They modify adjectives, verbs, and other adverbs. A word is an adverb if it answers how, when, or where. The only adverbs that cause grammatical problems are those that answer the question how, so focus on these.

Rule 1
Generally, if a word answers the question how, it is an adverb. If it can have an -ly added to it, place it there. Examples: She thinks slow/slowly. She thinks how? slowly. She is a slow/slowly thinker. Slow does not answer how, so no -ly is attached. Slow is an adjective here. She thinks fast/fastly. Fast answers the question how, so it is an adverb. But fast never has an -ly attached to it. We performed bad/badly. Badly describes how we performed.

Rule 2
A special -ly rule applies when four of the senses - taste, smell, look, feel - are the verbs. Do not ask if these senses answer the question how to determine if -ly should be attached. Instead, ask if the sense verb is being used actively. If so, use the -ly. Examples: Roses smell sweet/sweetly. Do the roses actively smell with noses? No, so no -ly. The woman looked angry/angrily. Did the woman actively look with eyes or are we describing her appearance? We are only describing appearance, so no -ly. The woman looked angry/angrily at the paint splotches. Here the woman did actively look with eyes, so the -ly is added.

She feels bad/badly about the news. She is not feeling with fingers, so no -ly.

Good vs. Well

Rule 3
The word good is an adjective, while well is an adverb. Examples: You did a good job. Good describes the job. You did the job well. Well answers how. You smell good today. Describes your odor, not how you smell with your nose, so follow with the adjective. You smell well for someone with a cold. You are actively smelling with a nose here, so follow with the adverb.

Rule 4
When referring to health, use well rather than good. Example: I do not feel well. You do not look well today. Note: You may use good with feel when you are not referring to health. Example: I feel good about my decision to learn Spanish.

Rule 5
A common error in using adjectives and adverbs arises from using the wrong form for comparison. For instance, to describe one thing we would say poor, as in, "She is poor." To compare two things, we should say poorer, as in, "She is the poorer of the two women." To compare more than two things, we should say poorest, as in, "She is the poorest of them all." Examples: One sweet bad efficient* Two sweeter worse more efficient* Three or More sweetest worst most efficient*

*Usually with words of three or more syllables, don't add -er or -est. Use more or most in front of the words.

Rule 6
Never drop the -ly from an adverb when using the comparison form. Correct: She spoke quickly. She spoke more quickly than he did. Incorrect: She spoke quicker than he did. Correct: Talk quietly. Talk more quietly. Incorrect: Talk quieter.

Rule 7
When this, that, these, and those are followed by nouns, they are adjectives. When they appear without a noun following them, they are pronouns. Examples: This house is for sale. This is an adjective here. This is for sale. This is a pronoun here.

Rule 8

This and that are singular, whether they are being used as adjectives or as pronouns. Thispoints to something nearby while that points to something "over there." Examples: This dog is mine. That dog is hers. This is mine. That is hers.

Rule 9
These and those are plural, whether they are being used as adjectives or as pronouns.These points to something nearby while those points to something "over there." Examples: These babies have been smiling for a long time. These are mine. Those babies have been crying for hours. Those are yours.

Rule 10
Use than to show comparison. Use then to answer the question when. Examples: I would rather go skiing than rock climbing. First we went skiing; then we went rock climbing.

Problems with Prepositions

More Grammar Rules:

Rule 1
You may end a sentence with a preposition. Just do not use extra prepositions when the meaning is clear without them. Correct: That is something I cannot agree with. That is something with which I cannot agree. Correct: Where did he go? Incorrect: Where did he go to? Correct: Where did you get this? Incorrect: Where did you get this at? Correct: I will go later. Incorrect: I will go later on. Correct: Take your shoes off the bed. Incorrect: Take your shoes off of the bed. Correct: You may look out the window. Incorrect: You may look out of the window. Correct: Cut it into small pieces. Incorrect: Cut it up into small pieces.

Rule 2
Use on with expressions that indicate the time of an occurrence.

Examples: He was born on December 23. We will arrive on the fourth.

Rule 3
Of should never be used in place of have. Correct: I should have done it. Incorrect: I should of done it.

Rule 4
Between refers to two. Among is used for three or more. Examples: Divide the candy between the two of you. Divide the candy among the three of you.

Rule 5
The word like may be used as a preposition and in informal writing, as a conjunction. In formal writing, use as, as if, or as though rather than like as the conjunction. Examples: Prepositional usage You look so much like your mother. Conjunction usage You look like you are angry. OR You look as if you are angry.

Effective Writing
More Grammar Rules:

Rule 1
Use concrete rather than vague language. Vague: The weather was of an extreme nature on the west coast. Concrete: California had very cold weather last week.

Rule 2
Use active voice whenever possible. Active voice means the subject is performing the verb. Examples: Active: Barry hit the ball. Passive: The ball was hit. Notice that the responsible party may not even appear when using passive voice.

Rule 3
Avoid overusing there is, there are, it is, it was, and so on. Example: There is a case of meningitis that was reported in the newspaper. Correction: A case of meningitis was reported in the newspaper. Even better: The newspaper reported a case of meningitis. (Active voice)

Example: It is important to signal before making a left turn. Correction: Signaling before making a left turn is important. OR Signaling before a left turn is important. OR You should signal before making a left turn.(Active voice) Example: There are some revisions which must be made. Correction: Some revisions must be made. Even better: Please make some revisions. (Active voice)

Rule 4
To avoid confusion, don't use two negatives to make a positive. Incorrect: He is not unwilling to help. Correct: He is willing to help.

Rule 5
Use similar grammatical form when offering several ideas. This is called parallel construction. Correct: You should check your spelling, grammar, and punctuation. Incorrect: You should check your spelling, grammar, and punctuating.

Rule 6
If you start a sentence with an action, place the actor immediately after or you will have created the infamous dangling modifier. Incorrect: While walking across the street, the bus hit her. Correct: While walking across the street, she was hit by a bus. OR She was hit by a bus while walking across the street.

Rule 7
Place modifiers near the words they modify. Incorrect: I have some pound cake Mollie baked in my lunch bag. Correct: In my lunch bag, I have some pound cake that Mollie baked.

Rule 8
A sentence fragment occurs when you have only a phrase or weak clause but are missing a strong clause. Example of Sentence Fragment: After the show ended. Example of Sentence: After the show ended, we had coffee.

Either/or and neither/nor

1.Either / or - used in a sentence in the affirmative sense when referring to a choice between two possibilities We can either eat now or after the show - it's up to you. 2. Neither / nor - used in a sentence in the negative sense when you want to say that two or more things are not true Neither my mother nor my father went to university.

Singular or plural
When using either/or and neither/nor, note the following rules: 1. If both elements are singular, then the verb is singular too.

Either the father or the mother has to attend the meeting. (father and mother are singular; so the verb has is singular too) Neither Leila nor Nancy is going to write the report. (Leila and Nancy are singular; so the verb is is singular too)

2. However, if one of the elements is plural, then use a plural verb.

Either Sue or the girls are going to prepare dinner tonight. (the girls is plural; so the verb are is plural too) Neither the teacher nor the students were in the classroom this morning. (the students is plural; so the verb were is plural too)

Gerunds and Infinitives Part 1

1. A gerund is a noun made from a verb by adding "-ing." The gerund form of the verb "read" is "reading." You can use a gerund as the subject, the complement, or the object of a sentence. Examples:

Reading helps you learn English. SUBJECT OF SENTENCE Her favorite hobby is reading. COMPLEMENT OF SENTENCE I enjoy reading. OBJECT OF SENTENCE Gerunds can be made negative by adding "not." Examples:

He enjoys not working. The best thing for your health is not smoking. 2. Infinitives are the "to" form of the verb. The infinitive form of "learn" is "to learn." You can also use an infinitive as the subject, the complement, or the object of a sentence. Examples:

To learn is important. SUBJECT OF SENTENCE The most important thing is to learn. COMPLEMENT OF SENTENCE He wants to learn. OBJECT OF SENTENCE Infinitives can be made negative by adding "not." Examples:

I decided not to go. The most important thing is not to give up. 3. Both gerunds and infinitives can be used as the subject or the complement of a sentence. However, as subjects or complements, gerunds usually sound more like normal, spoken English, whereas infinitives sound more abstract. In the following sentences, gerunds sound more natural and would be more common in everyday English. Infinitives emphasize the possibility or potential for something and sound more philosophical. If this sounds confusing, just remember that 90% of the time, you will use a gerund as the subject or complement of a sentence. Examples:

Learning is important. NORMAL SUBJECT To learn is important. ABSTRACT SUBJECT - LESS COMMON The most important thing is learning. NORMAL COMPLEMENT The most important thing is to learn. ABSTRACT COMPLEMENT - LESS COMMON 4. As the object of a sentence, it is more difficult to choose between a gerund or an infinitive. In such situations, gerunds and infinitives are not normally interchangeable. Usually, the main verb in the sentence determines whether you use a gerund or an infinitive. Examples:

He enjoys swimming. "ENJOY" REQUIRES A GERUND. He wants to swim. "WANT" REQUIRES AN INFINITIVE.

5. Some verbs are followed by gerunds as objects. List of Verbs Followed by Gerunds Examples:

She suggested going to a movie. Mary keeps talking about her problems. 6. Some verbs are followed by infinitives. List of Verbs Followed by Infinitives Examples:

She wants to go to a movie. Mary needs to talk about her problems.

Gerunds and Infinitives Part 2

7. Gerunds can often be modified with possessive forms such as his, her, its, your, their, our, John's, Mary's, the machine's, and so on. This makes it clearer who or what is performing the action. Examples:

I enjoyed their singing. THEY WERE SINGING. She understood his saying no to the offer. HE SAID NO. Sam resented Debbie's coming late to the dinner. DEBBIE CAME LATE TO THE
DINNER.

We discussed the machine's being broken. THE MACHINE IS BROKEN.

8. Some verbs are followed by a noun plus an infinitive. In some situations, the noun is required. In other situations, the noun is optional. List of Verbs Followed by a Noun + an Infinitive Examples:

The police ordered the man to stop. NOUN IS REQUIRED She asked to leave. NOUN IS OPTIONAL She asked him to leave. NOUN IS OPTIONAL 9. Some verbs are usually followed by a gerund, BUT they can also be followed by a noun plus infinitive. Using a noun plus infinitive will usually change who is performing the action. List of Verbs followed by a Gerund OR a Noun + Infinitive Examples:

I advised taking the train. IN GENERAL I advised him to take the train. HE WILL TAKE THE TRAIN. 10. There are many "go + gerund" expressions used for adventure sports and individual recreational activities. List of Go + Gerund Combinations Examples:

I go swimming every weekend. Would you ever go skydiving? 11. Gerunds are used after prepositions. Most commonly, these are "verb + preposition" combinations. For reference, see the Verb + Preposition Dictionaryand the Phrasal Verb Dictionary. You don't have to memorize these resources, you just need to remember that gerunds are used after prepositions! Examples:

They admitted to committing the crime. Leslie made up for forgetting my birthday. He is thinking about studying abroad. 12. Remember that there are many "adjective + preposition" combinations and "noun + preposition" combinations in English as well. These are also followed by gerunds. List of Adjective + Preposition Combinations Followed by Gerunds and List of Noun + Preposition Combinations Followed by Gerunds. Once again, you don't have to memorize these resources, you just need to remember that gerunds are used after prepositions! Examples:

Sandy is scared of flying. ADJECTIVE + PREPOSITION Nick is anxious about taking the examination. ADJECTIVE + PREPOSITION His interest in becoming a professional snowboarder was well known.
PREPOSITION

NOUN +

Thomas' story about seeing a grizzly bear was really exciting. NOUN +
PREPOSITION

Gerunds and Infinitives Part 3

13. Some verbs can be followed by a gerund or an infinitive, but with a difference in meaning. List of Verbs Followed by a Gerund or Infinitive (Different Meaning) Examples:

 Nancy remembered getting married. NANCY HAS A MEMORY OF GETTING MARRIED. Fred remembered to bring sunblock to the beach. FRED REMEMBERED THAT HE NEEDED TO BRING
SUNBLOCK.

14. Some verbs can be followed by a gerund or an infinitive with little difference in meaning. List of Verbs Followed by a Gerund or Infinitive (Similar Meaning) Examples:
She likes swimming. She likes to swim.

Although the difference in meaning is small with these particular verbs, and gerunds and infinitives can often be used interchangeably, there is still a meaning difference. Using a gerund suggests that you are referring to real activities or experiences. Using an infinitive suggests that you are talking about potential or possible activities or experiences. Because of this small difference in meaning, gerunds and infinitives cannot always be used interchangeably, such as in the examples below. Examples:
The British reporter likes living in New York. HE LIVES IN NEW YORK AND HE LIKES WHAT HE
EXPERIENCES THERE.

The British reporter likes to live in New York whenever he works in the United

States. HE LIKES THE OPTION OR POSSIBILITY OF LIVING IN NEW YORK WHEN HE WORKS IN THE UNITED STATES.
I like speaking French because it's such a beautiful language. I LIKE THE EXPERIENCE OF
SPEAKING FRENCH, AND THE WAY IT MAKES ME FEEL WHEN I SPEAK THE LANGUAGE.

I like to speak French when I'm in France. I PREFER THE OPTION OF SPEAKING FRENCH WHEN I AM IN

FRANCE.

15. There are many "be + adjective" combinations that are commonly followed by infinitives. List of Be + Adjective Combinations Followed by Infinitives Examples:
They were anxious to begin. She was delighted to receive such good feedback. He is lucky to have such good friends.

16. There are also many nouns that are commonly followed by infinitives. List of Nouns Followed by Infinitives Examples:
It was a good decision to move to San Francisco.

 His wish to become an actor was well known. Laura's desire to improve impressed me.

17. Sometimes infinitives are used to express the idea of "in order to do something." Examples:
He bought the English dictionary to look up difficult words. IN ORDER TO LOOK UP Janine sold her car to get the money that she needed. IN ORDER TO GET Juan uses Englishpage.com to learn English. IN ORDER TO LEARN

This idea of "in order to do something" is found in many English patterns.

too + adjective/adverb + infinitive

Examples:
The box is too heavy to carry. The television is too expensive to buy. Fiona ran too slowly to win the race. We arrived too late to see the beginning of the movie.

adjective/adverb + enough + infinitive

Examples:
She is tall enough to reach the book on the shelf. Brian was smart enough to enter college at the age of 12. Linda runs quickly enough to win the race.

enough + noun(s) + infinitive

Examples:
He has enough money to buy his own car. Cheryl owns enough books to start her own library! Diane needs enough time to finish writing her book.

18. Certain expressions are followed by "ING" forms. List of Expressions followed by Verb+ing Forms Examples:
He had fun fishing. They had difficulty finding a parking place.

 She spent her time practicing the piano.

19. Verbs which indicate location can often be followed by "ING" forms. This pattern is VERB OF LOCATION + LOCATION + VERB+ING. List of Verbs of Location Examples:
Sarah stood at the corner waiting for Tom. Melissa lay in bed thinking about her future. Don clung to the side of the cliff looking down.

20. In addition to simple gerund and infinitive forms, there are progressive gerund and infinitive forms, passive gerund and infinitive forms and perfect gerund and infinitive forms as well as combinations of these forms. Progressive forms are used to emphasize that an action is taking place now. Passive forms are used to emphasize that the subject of the sentence is being acted upon. Perfect gerund and infinitive forms are used to emphasize completion in both the past and the future. Study the examples below to help understand these concepts. To learn more about progressiveness, the passive voice and the perfect aspect, complete the Englishpage.com Verb Tense Tutorial.
GERUND FORMS INFINITIVE FORMS

SIMPLE

The teacher enjoys teaching.

The teacher wants to teach.

PROGRESSIVE

Mr. Smith is really enjoying teaching his class. LOOKS THE SAME AS SIMPLE FORM ABOVE.

Mr. Smith would like to be teaching his class.

PASSIVE

The students enjoy being taught.

The students want to be taught.

PERFECT

The retired teacher recalled having taught.

The teacher was expecting to have taught that already.

PASSIVE + PROGRESSIVE

The students are enjoying being taught by such an exciting new teacher. LOOKS THE SAME AS THE PASSIVE FORM ABOVE.

The students would like to be being taught by Mr Smith.

PASSIVE + PERFECT

The older students recalled having been taught that already.

The students were expecting to have been taught that by now.

Exercises Based on Part 3 of the Gerunds and Infinitives Tutorial