Application of heat transfer in polymer processing

1.0 Introduction

According to Dutta (2009), heat transfer is the transport of heat energy from one
point in a medium to another or from one medium to another in the presence of a
temperature gradient or a temperature difference. It is the science of heat transfer that
deals with the question of “how fast” a change of a system from one state to another is
accomplished (Vlachopoulos and Strutt, 2002). Thermodynamics is the relation
between heat and other forms of energy but the science of heat transfer is concerned
with the analysis of the rate of heat transfer taking in the system (Ozisik, 1985).

The three modes of heat transfer include conduction, convection and radiation.
Temperature differences cause the flow of heat from a high temperature to a low
temperature. The cooling system in injection moulding includes all these three types of
heat transfer.

The basic microscopic mechanism of conduction is the motion of molecules and

electrons. It can occur in solids, liquids and gases. In non-metallic solids the transfer of
heat energy is due mainly to lattice vibrations. In metallic solids we have both lattice
vibrations and random motions of free electrons. Consequently metals are more
conductive than non-metals. In gases, we have mainly random motions of molecules.
In liquids we have partly random molecular motions and some sort of vibration of the
liquid lattice structure.

Convection is associated with the transport of a mass of liquid or gas. There are
two types of convection which is forced convection and free or natural convection. It
can be forced when assisted by external mechanical agency such as a pump or fan, or
by an externally imposed pressure gradient. Whereas free (also called natural
convection) when the motion of a fluid occurs due to density differences. If there is an
electrical heating element at the corner of a room and air is blown onto the element by a
fan, this is forced convection. For example, a hot plate vertically suspended in stagnant
cool air causes a motion in the air layer adjacent to the plate surface because the
temperature gradient in the air gives rise to a density gradient, which in turn sets up the
air motion.

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 All bodies continuously emit energy because of their temperature, and the
energy thus emitted is called thermal radiation. When two objects at different
temperatures are placed a finite distance apart in a perfect vacuum, a net energy transfer
occurs from the higher temperature object to the lower temperature object, even though
no medium between them to support heat transfer. The radiation energy emitted by a
body is transmitted in the space in the form of electromagnetic waves according to
Maxwell’s classic electromagnetic wave theory or in the form of discrete photons
according to Planck’s hypothesis. The emission or absorption of radiation energy by a
body is a bulk process; that is, radiation originating from the interior of the body is
emitted through the surface (Ozisik, 1985). Radiation involves electromagnetic waves
which are emitted by a body as a result of its temperature. The earth is heated by sun’s
radiation.

Figure 1 show the three types of heat transfer (http://www.aos.wisc.edu/)

In injection moulding, these three types of heat transfer can be observed.

2.0 Objective

 To study the types of heat transfer in cooling system of injection moulding

 To study the rate of flow
 To study the polymer processing and transport phenomena in industry

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3.0 Polymer processing

Injection molding is the most commonly used manufacturing process for the
fabrication of plastic parts. A wide variety of products are manufactured using injection
molding, which vary greatly in their size, complexity, and application. The injection
molding process requires the use of an injection molding machine, raw plastic material,
and a mold. The plastic is melted in the injection molding machine and then injected
into the mold, where it cools and solidifies into the final part.

(a)

(b)

Figure 2: (a)Overview of injection moulding

(b)Details of injection moulding process

(http://www.custompartnet.com)

Injection molding is used to produce thin-walled plastic parts for a wide variety
of applications, one of the most common being plastic housings, different types of open
containers, such as buckets.

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 The process cycle for injection molding is very short, typically between 2
seconds to 2 minutes, and consists of the following four stages:

 Clamping - Prior to the injection of the material into the mold, the two halves of
the mold must first be securely closed by the clamping unit. The hydraulically
powered clamping unit pushes the mold halves together and exerts sufficient
force to keep the mold securely closed while the material is injected.

 Injection - The raw plastic material, usually in the form of pellets, is fed into the
injection molding machine, and advanced towards the mold by the injection unit.
During this process, the material is melted by heat and pressure. The molten
plastic is then injected into the mold very quickly and the buildup of pressure
packs and holds the material.

 Cooling - The molten plastic that is inside the mold begins to cool as soon as it
makes contact with the interior mold surfaces. As the plastic cools, it will
solidify into the shape of the desired part. However, during cooling some
shrinkage of the part may occur. The packing of material in the injection stage
allows additional material to flow into the mold and reduce the amount of visible
shrinkage. The mold cannot be opened until the required cooling time has
elapsed.

 Ejection - After sufficient time has passed, the cooled part may be ejected from
the mold by the ejection system, which is attached to the rear half of the mold.
When the mold is opened, a mechanism is used to push the part out of the mold.
Force must be applied to eject the part because during cooling the part shrinks
and adheres to the mold. In order to facilitate the ejection of the part, a mold
release agent can be sprayed onto the surfaces of the mold cavity prior to
injection of the material. Once the part is ejected, the mold can be clamped shut
for the next shot to be injected.

After the injection molding cycle, some post processing is typically required.
During cooling, the material in the channels of the mold will solidify attached to the
part. This excess material, along with any flash that has occurred, must be trimmed
from the part, typically by using cutters. For some types of material, such as

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thermoplastics, the scrap material that results from this trimming can be recycled by
being placed into a plastic grinder, also called regrind machines or granulators, which
regrinds the scrap material into pellets. Due to some degradation of the material
properties, the regrind must be mixed with raw material in the proper regrind ratio to be
reused in the injection molding process.

Cooling is an important process in the production of injection molded plastics.

First of all, the cooling time may well represent more than half of the production cycle
time. Second, a homogeneous cooling process is desired to avoid defects in the
manufactured parts. If plastic materials in the injection molding die are cooled down
uniformly and slowly, residual stresses can be avoided, and thereby the risk of warps
and cracks in the end product can be minimized.

Of this way, the polymer would be injected with the minimum of pressure and
the difference between the surface temperature and the nucleus temperature of the
injected parts would be a minimum leading a slow cooling and minimizing the
mouldings stresses. The targets that a correct cooling system has to follow are the
uniformity of the wall temperature and a gradual reduction of the polymer temperature,
in order to find a compromise between the necessity of reducing cycle time and
allowing for the crystallization.

4.0 Transport Phenomena and Processing

The fundamental rules that should be had in count in the cooling system design are:

 The circuits of the water should be symmetrical and independent relatively to

the filling zones and impression of the mould.
 Thermal variations in the walls of the impressions should not be pronounced, so
the lines of water should be designed in function of its distance to the impression
walls
 The cooling fluid input and output should be placed for the mould backwards
(opposite side to the operator), or alternative for the breaks lower.
 It’s important to guarantee that the cooling flow in the channels be turbulent.
The index of turbulence is given by Reynolds number:

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 v ×d × ρ
Re¿ (4.1)
❑

Where v is flow’s speed, d is the channel diameter, ρ is fluid density,  is dynamic

viscosity of the fluid.

According to this rule, the most important factor is the capacity of the cooling
system removes heat of the cavities of the mould. Usually the time of cooling is around
50% of the total cycle. The injected material loses temperature in the contact with the
mould surfaces, transferring itself heat through the mould.

When it proceeds to the polymer injection for inside the impression of a mould
the removal energy of the polymer in the melted state is transmitted by conduction
through the mould material up to the channels of the cooling system and to the mould
external surface.

The heat exchange mechanisms include

 the conduction for the structure of the injection moulding machine,

Fourier’s Law of Heat Conduction

Total heat transfer in x direction:

dT
qx¿−kA (4.2)
dx

Heat transfer per unit area in x direction:

qx= {{q} rsub {x}} over {A} =-kA {dT} over {dx (4.3)

Where k represent the thermal conductivity (W/m °C or Btu/ h ft °F) and is a measure
of how fast the heat flows through the materials.

 the forced convection for the fluid that circulates into the cooling
channels

Newton’s Law of Cooling:

q=h A(T s−T ∞) (4.4)

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 q =h( {T} rsub {s} - {T} rsub {∞} (4.5)

Where h=heat transfer coefficient (W/m2°C), Ts=solid surface temperature and

T∞=temperature of fluid far from surface.

 the thermal radiation and natural convection for the air that surround the
walls of the mould .
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Eb =σ T s (4.6)

Where Ts=surface temperature in Kelvin, =Stefan-Boltzmann Constant 5.67x10-

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W/m2K4.

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E=εσ T s (4.7)

Where =emissivity and =absorptivity

Special case: = if surface tempearatures of all surfaces in an enclosure are

close

Special case: surface completely surrounded by another isothermal surface, no

intervening medium

} =emitted-absorbed= {T} rsub {s} rsup {4} - {T} rsub {surr} rsup {4} = ( {T} rsub {s} rsup {4} - {T} rsub {surr} rsup {4} )≠ ( {T} rsub {s} - {T} rsub {surr} {)} ^
q rad
(4.8)

Once the polymer melt has filled, the mold , the injection model wants to cool, it
as rapidly as possible to shorten the molding cycle. Here thermal conductivity of the
polymer is of prime concern. In a molten polymer, conduction is primarily due to
convection, which depend on molecular mobility and is therefore inversely related to
molecular weight. However, as the cold wall of the mold solidifies the outer layer of
polymer, further conduction through this solid polymer is required to complete the
cooling of the hot interior. Conduction through this layer of solid polymer is no longer
by convection, but by atomic vibration. This vibration is transmitted much more
efficiently down the length of the polymer molecule than they are through the spaces
between polymer molecules.

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 Figure 3 : Heat exchange in a mould of injection

To define the energy swing, is established an equilibrium between the heat

powers that are introduced in the mould, the heat power accumulated in every single
moment in their interior and the heat powers removed from the mould, being positive or
negative those that respectively increase or diminish their internal energy. In a process
analysis with accumulation of internal energy, the heat flow that is supplied to the
mould and the heat flow that is removed from the mould should be in thermal
equilibrium, in every single moment, with the heat accumulated in the structure of the
mould:

Q̇ PL + Q̇ AMB + Q̇TM =Q̇ ACCUM (4.9)

Where Q̇ PL is the heat flow supplied by the polymer, Q̇ AMB is the heat flow
transferred for the environment, Q̇TM is the heat flow transferred for the cooling fluid,
Q̇ ACCUM is the accumulated energy in the mould material per time unit.

An efficient system of cooling, with optimal cooling conditions, leads to a part

uniform distribution of temperatures, minimizing the undesired effects appeared during
the cooling process, the cycle time and the rate of rejections. The conception of an
efficient cooling system is not a simple trial, because there are different factors that can
contribute for the final intended results. Some of the factors that influence the cooling
process are the geometry of the part, the temperature of the mould, the architecture of
the cooling channels, the cooling fluid temperature and the speed of the flow.
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 It can be identified two reference terms for an iterative process of
characterization of the mould cooling system:

i) The increase of the heat transfer rate

ii) Uniform temperature distribution in the moulding surface

Whereas the increase of the heat removal rate between the plastic part and the
mould is important in the economical point of view, the uniformization of the
temperatures distribution on the parts’ surfaces will provide the obtaining of parts with
estates and quality improved.

During the molding cycle the mould temperature increase while the plastic
material is injected, diminishing progressively up to the following injection. Also the
flow regime of the cooling fluid, the temperature of the cooling fluid, the architecture of
the channels, the kind of the cooling fluid, and the mould material properties (namely
the mould material thermal conductivity), influence the mould temperature.

5.0 Conclusion

Heat is a form of energy that is transferred from high temperatures to low

temperatures by three modes: conduction, convection and radiation. The heat exchange
mechanisms include the conduction for the structure of the injection moulding machine,
the forced convection for the fluid that circulates into the cooling channels and the
thermal radiation and natural convection for the air that surround the walls of the mould.

References

Dutta,B.K.(2001).Heat Transfer:Principles and Applications.Ghosh,A.K..

Rauwendaa, C.(2009). Polymer Extrusion fourth edition, ANTEC

Sucec,J.(1985).Heat Transfer.Wm. C.Brown Publishers.

Ozisik,M.N.(1985).Heat Transfer:A Basic Approach.McGraw-Hill International

Editions.

Vlachopoulos,J. and Wagner,J.R. (2001).The SPE Guide on Extrusion Technology and

Troubleshooting. Society of Plastics Engineers, Brookfield.

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 http://www.aos.wisc.edu/~aalopez/aos101/wk5.html

http://www.custompartnet.com/wu/InjectionMolding

Appendix

(http://www.custompartnet.com/wu/InjectionMolding)

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