ABSTRACT

This paper deals with the twin concepts of optical networking and dense wavelength division multiplexing. The paper talks about the various optical network architectures and the various components of an all-optical network like Optical Amplifiers, Optical Add/Drop Multiplexors, Optical Splitters etc. Important optical networking concepts like wavelength routing and wavelength conversion are explained in detail. Finally this paper deals with industry related issues like the gap between research and the industry, current and projected market for optical networking & DWDM equipment and future direction of research in this field.

TABLE OF CONTENTS:
a) INTRODUCTION b) WDM COMMUNICATION BASICS c) OPTICAL DWDM COMPONENTS AND TRANSMISSION PRINCIPLES 3.1 . DIFFERENT COMPONENTS OF DWDM 3.2.OPTICAL TRANSMISSION PRINCIPLESd) WDM TOPOLOGIES

CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION
st

It is needless to mention that the 21 century activities will be drastically hindered without the advent of modern communication system. Off all, the most advanced communication system has been culminated in the form of .Internet,. allowing all computers on the planet and in the orbit to be connected to each other . simultaneously! While telecommunication remains as a major medium and has its own demand for higher bandwidth, the demand for even higher bandwidth is skyrocketed by exponential growth of the Internet traffic. The cu-mulative demand for bandwidth poses a serious limitation for the existing carrier technologies. However, this extraordinary growing demand, coupled with the advent of dense wavelength division multiplexing (DWDM) fiberoptic systems to meet those demands, have sparked a revolution in the optical component and networking industry. DWDM has been proven to be one of the most capable technologies for communication systems. Although usually applied to optical networks (ONs), wavelength division multiplexing (WDM), in general, can manyfold the capacity of existing networks by transmitting many channels simultaneously on a sin.In the few short years of deployment, DWDM performance has been improved dramatically. Channel count has grown from 4 to 128 and channel spacing has shrunk from 500 GHz to 50 GHz. Although .all-optical. technologies are replacing most transmission lines, the nodes of the networks, such as switching and cross-connect nodes, still depend on relatively slow electronic technologies.fiberoptic line Presently time division multiplexing (TDM) systems are widely used in optical communication networks. TDMs are inherently dependent on electronic technology for multiplexing and demultiplexing (MUX/DMUX). The nodes in TDMs use optical-to-electronic conversion, MUX and DMUX in the electronic domain, and electronic-to-optical conversion. Thus, the throughput is limited by the processing speed in the electronic domain. Wavelength Division Multiplex-ing (WDM) technologies, on the other hand, are based on all-optical MUX/DMUX; thereby enabling construction of WDM networks where node functionality is supported by all-optical technologies without back and forth optical and electronic conversions. Finally, important parameters to characterize the MUX/DMUX components have been out-lined. This poses a problem, because, nodes in the networks will limit the throughput due to the limitations of the electronic circuitry. Only solution to this problem is to make the nodes all optical as well. . A brief review of different topologies and technologies used in WDMs is presented.

CHAPTER-2

WDM COMMUNICATION BASICS

One of the important enabling technologies for optical networking is wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) and demultiplexing (WDDM). The basic concept of a WDM is illustrated in Fig. 1. At the heart of the WDM system is the optical multiplexing and demultiplexing devices. Optical signals are generated by laser diodes (LDs) at a series of monochromatic wavelengths 1, 2, . N, (in the appropriate wave length range) and sent through N fibers to a WDM. The WDM combines these input signals into a polychromatic output signal, a process known as multiplexing. Multiplexing allows to access very large bandwidth available in an optical fiber. This multiplexed, polychromatic signal is launched into a single optical fiber for transportation. At the destination, a WDDM separates the polychromatic signal into constituent wavelengths, identified as a series of narrow band channels; this proces s is called demultiplexing.

Fig 2.1. BASIC CONCEPT OF WDM AND WDDM IN FIBEROPTIC COMMUNICATIONS

The WDDM must be designed such that the channels have center wave-lengths that are the same as the original wavelengths. The WDDM channels must also have spectral widths, N, (i.e., passbands) that are large enough to

accommodate system tolerances, but small enough to avoid overlapping of the channels. Ordinarily, the WDM and the WDDM are spectrogram devices that are not tunable; therefore, their performance depends on the perfection of design and fabrication.

Depending on application needs, different types of WDM systems are deployed; the list includes point-to-point long distance transmission, local access network, reconfigurable network, etc. Each of these systems needs different WDM components. Fig. 2 shows the basic configuration of a point-to-point transmission system. At the transmitter end a laser array is used as the signal source. The lasers in the array are set to predetermined wavelengths with fixed channel parameters set by the international telecommunication union (ITU) standard. Other key components of WDM networks are optical add/drop multiplexers (OADM), optical cross connect switches (OCX), and optical amplifiers such as erbium doped fiber amplifiers (EDFAs)

FIGURE 2.2 BASIC STRUCTURE OF A POINT-TO-POINT OPTICAL TRANSMISSION SYSTEM.

The ITU has adapted a standard for optical communication that specifies that certain standard frequencies be used to identify and specify WDM channels. ITU channels begin at 190.00 THz (channel 0, 1577.86 nm) and increments by 0.10 THz for each subsequent channels. It usually spans over the C-band (1520-1570 nm). The wavelength, , and frequency, , of a wave traveling in a medium are related by, cn=,.(1)

where, n is the refractive index of the medium and c is the speed of light in vacuum. WDMs must be designed such that the center wavelength of each channel coincides with an ITU channel. For instance, a 40-channel AWG with 100GHz spacing may be used for DWDM application such that its center wavelength would coincide with the ITU channel 30 (193.00 THz, 1553.33 nm). The channel wavelengths and corresponding ITU frequencies can be calculated from Eq. 1. In terms of frequencies, the ITU channels are given by, NN1.0000.190+= (THz), N = 0, 1, 2, . . ........(2) Thus, ITU channels are spaced at a frequency of 100 GHz; the operating frequencies are called ITU grid frequencies (or wavelengths). The corresponding wavlength spacing is given by, 12=c . (3) where c = 299792.458 THz.nm,and = 0.1 THz (4) From Eq. (4) one can see that ~ 0.8 nm, however, it increases slightly with ( ). WDMs can be designed to operate at ITU grid frequencies as well as their multiples (e.g., 200 GHz, 500 GHz, etc.) and sub-multiples (e.g., 50 GHz). As indicated in Fig. 2, the laser outputs are modulated by individual electronic signals, either by direct or external electro-optic (EO) method.
2

CHAPTER-3

DWDM COMPONENTS AND OPTICAL TRANSMISSION PRINCIPLES 3.1. Different components of DWDMImportant components of a DWDM system are1. Add/Drop Multiplexor (ADM) 2. Optical CrossConnect (OXC) 3.1.1. Add/drop Multiplexor- The Add/Drop Multiplexor as the name suggests, selectively adds/drops wavelengths without having to use any SONET/SDH terminal equipment. We require the ADM to add new wavelengths to the network or to drop some wavelengths at their terminating points. There are two types of implementations of the ADM, the Fixed WADM and the Reconfiguable WDM.

FIG.3.1. BLOCK DIAGRAM OF THE WADM

The Optical CrossConnect acts a crossconnect between n-input ports and n-output ports. It allows the efficient network management of wavelengths at the optical layer. The variety of functions that it provides are signal monitoring, restoration,provisioning and grooming.
[Optical Networking And Dense Wavelength Division http://www.cis.ohio-state.edu/~jain/cis788-99/dwdm/index]

3.1.2. Optical CrossConnect (OXC)-An optical cross-connect (OXC) is a

device used by telecommunications carriers to switch high-speed optical signals in a

fiber

optic

network,

such

FIG.3.2. BLOCK DIAGRAM OF THE OXC

Optical cross-connect devices are modeled after the many-port model : that is, N input ports and N output ports , with a table that defines the connectivity between input and one or more outputs. Mathematically, this model may be represented by a matrix relationship.

FIGURE.3.3. MODELING AN OPTICAL CROSS-CONNECT, MATHEMATICALLY AND SYMBOLICALLY

.

3.2 Optical Transmission Principles The DWDM system has an important photonic layer, which is responsible for transmission of the optical data through the network. Some basic principles, concerning the optical transmission, are explained in this section. These are necessary for the proper operation of the system.

3.2.1 Channel Spacing

 The minimum frequency separation between two different signals multiplexed in

known as the Channel spacing. Since thewavelength of operation is inversely proportional to the frequency, a corresponding difference is introduced in the wavelength of each signal. The factors controlling channel spacing are the optical amplifier s bandwidth and the capability of the receiver in identifying two close wavelengths sets the lower bound on the channel spacing. Both factors ultimately restrict the number of unique wavelengths passing through the amplifier.

3.2.2.Signal Direction An optical fiber helps transmit signal in both directions. Based on this feature, a DWDM system can be implemented in two ways: a) Unidirectional: All wavelengths travel in the same direction within the fiber. It is similar to a simplex case. This calls in for laying one another parallel fiber for supporting transmission on the other side. Optical Networking And Dense Wavelength Division http://www.cis.ohio-state.edu/~jain/cis788-99/dwdm/index.html b) Bi-directional: The channels in the DWDM fiber are split into two separate bands, one for each direction. This removes the need for the second fiber, but, in turn reduces the capacity or transmission bandwidth n. 3.2.3.Signal Trace The procedure of detecting if a signal reaches the correct destination at the other end. This helps follow the light signal through the whole network. It can be achieved by plugging in extra information on a wavelength, using an electrical receiver to extract if from the network and inspecting for errors. The receiver the reports the signal trace to the transmitter. Taking into consideration the above two factors, the international bodies have established a spacing of 100GHz to be the worldwide standard for DWDM. This means that the frequency of each signal is less than the rest by atleast 0.1THz.

CHAPTER-4

WDM TOPOLOGIES
For instance, long-haul transmission spans over hundreds to thousands of kilometers while for metro systems it is typically up to 100 km. Both fiber and traffic topologies are linear (point-to-point) in long-haul, while a ring, mesh or cross-connect topology is used in metro. Metropolitan solutions must also have multiple features suitable for a diversity of services. Fig. 3 shows the main WDM topologies that an engineer can choose from to suit a given design need.

FIG. 3. DIFFERENT WDM TOPOLOGIES. A) POINT-TOPOINT,B)STAR, C) RING, D) MESH, E) CROSSCONNECT.

In long-haul, optical amplification becomes necessary because of fiber attenuation losses associated with much longer distance. Addition of optical amplifiers, however, significantly increases the overall network cost, complicates network de-sign, and can reduce available channels. While for long-haul transport these addi-tional complicacies and cost factors are justified, for metro networks that is not the case. Moreover, in a metro optical network, it is likely that a traffic channel will transmit through many add/drop sites before reaching its destination. Therefore, equipment related attenuations become very important, demanding a fine balance be-tween fiber and component losses in the metro design. With efficient design, inte-grated WDM components such as arrayed waveguide gratings (AWGs), use of opti-cal amplifiers can be avoided in metro design. systems use different wavelengths for different channels. Each channel may transport homogeneous or heterogeneous traffic, such as SONET/SDH (synchronous optical network/synchronous digital hierarchy) over one wavelength, ATM (asynchronous transfer mode) over another, and yet an-other may be used for TDM voice, video or IP (internet protocol). WDMs also make it possible to transfer data at different bit rates. Thus, it offers the advent that one channel may carry traffic at OC-3, OC-12, OC-48, OC-192 or up to OC-768 rate and another channel may carry a different rate transmission; all on the same fiber. These functions are accomplished by a MUX at the transmitter end and a DMUX at the receiver end .

CHAPTER-5 DIFFERENET TYPE OF MUX/DMUX USED IN DWDM

5.1. Different Type Of MUX/DMUX Used In DWDM There are mainly three kinds of MUX/DMUXes commercially available for
WDM applications.These are a).thin-film interference filters, b).fiber bragg gratings (FBGs) and c). arrayed waveguide gratings (AWGs). The first two categories are discrete component devices, i.e., multiple discrete components are assembled together to perform MUX/DMUX functions. The AWGs are Photonic Integrated Circuits (PICs) formed on silicon substrate. This emerging technology is very important and requires a complete discussion to appreciate its capabilities and usefulness. Other technologies such as free space diffraction gratings also promise lower channel cost and higher channel count with better performance. Here a brief description of the three compet-ing technologies is provided.

5.2.Filter Based WDM The structure of a thin-film interference filter is based on that of a Fabry-Perot
etalon (Fig. 4). Composed of stacked mirrors separated by cavities (usually 4 or 5 cavities), these act as a bandpass filter.

The passband wavelength is determined pri-marily by the cavity length. Because the mirrors are partially silvered, some of the incident light enters the cavity while most light is reflected back. Multiple mirror and cavity combinations help to select a very narrow band to exit from the etalon; the cav-ity length can be adjusted to choose a particularwavelength. This way, etalons can be designed for any given ITU channel. While conceptually simpler, filter based WDMs are complicated to manufac-ture. Precision fiber alignment and bonding is necessary to stabilize the passband for each ITU channel. Also, for every channel, a different filter corresponding to its pass-band is necessary (Fig. 5). Therefore, the center wavelength of each passband can differ from the ITU frequency at random.

FIG. 4. BASIC STRUCTURE OF A FABRY-PEROT ETALON FILTER.

For multiple channels, the filters are cascaded; and since the losses are cumulative, this yields highest loss for the last channel in a module. To adjust the insertion loss uniformity within tolerable range, attenuation is added to low loss channels to bring them closer to the highest loss channel. Since many filters are involved, packag-ing is tedious and prone to various kind of failure. The overall yield of filter based WDM is only about 40%, making this technology not the best choice for WDM ap-plications. Nevertheless, other technologies are still not matured enough to claim ma-jor market share, therefore, filter based WDM enjoy a sizable market share.

CHAPTER-6 WDM SPECIFICATIONS

The key parameters that define the WDMs are listed below. Conventional singlemode fibers transmit wavelengths in the 1300 nm and 1550 nm ranges and absorb wavelengths in the 1340-1440 nm ranges.

FIG. 7. PHOTOMICROGRAPH OF THE INTERFACE BETWEEN THE SLAB AND ARRAY WAVEGUIDES OF AN AWG CHIP (ARBITRARY MAGNIFICATION).
WDM systems, therefore, use wavelengths in the two regions of 1310 and 1550 nm. For a WDM system, independence of MUX/DMUX function to data rate and format is also important. A design engineer cares for the following criti-cal parameters of the MUX and DMUX components. Insertion loss and its uniformity over all channels. a)Channel passband width (or bandwidth), passband accuracy, stability and ripple b)Center wavelength stability and accuracy i.e., offset from ITU grid. c)Crosstalk between adjacent and non-adjacent channels. d)Polarization dependent loss (PDL). e)Return loss or back reflection (for DMUX). f)Directivity or forward reflection (for MUX).

g)Chromatic dispersion and group delay

FIG. 8. SPECTRAL RESPONSE OF A 40 CHANNEL ARRAYED WAVEGUIDE GRATING (MID 16 CHANNELS SHOWN HERE).
These parameters are defined in Telcordia documents [4] as well as reviewed by manufacturers [5,6]. Figs. 8 & 9 depicts graphical definitions of some of the key parameters; their typical values are given in Table 1. However, there are significant variations from technology to technology, as well as on perfection of a particular technology. Table 1 represents a reasonable set of WDM parameters; most vendors are able to meet these values with existing technologies.

FIG. 8. GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF INSERTION LOSS, INSERTION LOSS UNIFORMITY, AND PASSBANDUNIFORMITY.

FIG. 9. GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF CHANNEL ISOLATION AND ADJACENT CROSSTALK.

Table 1. Typical values for MUX/DMUX Parameters

Parameter (Unit) Passband width (GHz) or (nm) Passband uniformity (dB) Insertion loss and uniformity (dB) PDL (dB) Adjacent and non-adjacent crosstalk (dB) Integrated average crosstalk (dB) Return loss (dB) Directivity (dB) Value 25 or 0.8 1.5 5 and 1.5 0.5 25 and 30 20 45 50

Differential group delay (ps)

0.5

CONCLUSION
In this paper we have discussed various concepts that are integral to the development of the All-Optical Network. Various new technologies available in a DWDM system were introduced. A proposed optical layer was described in much detail.Issues such as Network Control and Network Management was also discussed. Finally the state of the market for optical networking, company profiles and research scope in optical networking and DWDM were discussed.It is very much possible that a day will come when only two optical layers will exist: WDM layer and IP layer. However,SONET equipment has two features: restoration and trouble-shooting capabilities. For this reason and also for the reason that a lot of investment into SONET has already taken place, SONET will survive. As routers become faster, it will be difficult to convert every wavelength to add or drop off bandwidth. Thus, managing 100+ wavelength systems is probably the next big challenge. Companies like Alcatel have developed OADMs. Standard bodies like ITU-T, ANSI have declared that optical standards will come into picture only after 2000. Research work is also being done to try and achieve the difficult goal of a high-speed all-optical network. New concepts such as All-optical switching are coming up. 1 Tbps systems are expected in the market by early 2002/2003. Network providers will start leasing out wavelengths (or "lambdas") instead of leasing lines. Cost will be an important issue in widespread deployment of optical systems. A lot of implementation issues, the setting up of standards need to be addressed for an alloptical network to come out at a reasonable cost. How long or for that matter whether we will ever achieve an all-optical network is a moot question.

Advantage: fewer wires or channels to transmit and recieve data. A single fiber-optic cable can handle dozens of channels, instead of using 12 cables, you only use 1. For cell phone wireless communication, it means that you only use 1 band of frequencies instead of many bands. There is only so much electromagnetic spectrum space (they aren't making any more of it), and that space is at a premium -- everyone wants their piece so it gets expensive. So, if a cell phone company only uses a small portion instead of a large portion -- it is cheaper for them.

Disadvantage: Complex transmitters and receivers. They must be wide-band, which means they are more expensive and possibly less reliable.

REFERENCES
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