MECH 401 Mechanical Design Applications

Master Notes of Dr. Marcia K. OMalley

Spring 2008 Dr. D. M. McStravick Rice University

Course Information

Meeting time

T-Th 8:00 9:15 DH 1064 MECH 311 or CIVI 300 Mechanical Engineering Design by Budynas & Nisbett (8th edition) Provide design skills to support MECH 407/408 projects Understand the application of engineering analysis to common machine elements Enhance your ability to solve practical design problems using free body diagrams, Mohrs circle, beam analysis, etc.

Prerequisites

D. M. McStravick, PhD, P.E.

Texts

Goals

MEB 224 Phone: est. 2427 dmcs@rice.edu Office hours: Wednesday 10:30 -11:30 PM Monday 10:30 11:30 AM

Syllabus

General policies (25%) Homework

Late homework is not accepted Neatness counts!

(5%) In-class Quiz on Stress Analysis (25%) In-class Fundamentals Test (25%) In-class Applications Test (20%) Project

Background Comments

My Background Practical experience in design MECH 401 Defining course for Mech Major

Tools to make your dreams into a reality

EXPERT WITNESSING All from this course TEXT If I could have only one reference book

Overview and introduction of design of machine elements

1 2

Two primary phases of design

Inventive phase creative aspect Engineering phase understanding of physical reality aspect 1 makes a design unique or clever (MECH 407/408) 2 makes a design work

This course will focus on 2nd aspect, making our designs work

Understanding of physical reality

Theoretical results Empirical results Theory helps us understand physical phenomena so that we can address design at a fundamental level Theory often falls short, however, in describing complex phenomena, so we must use empirical results

Methodology

Solving machine component problems Step 1

Define/understand Define/synthesize the structure ID interactions Draw diagrams (as a sketch) Analyze/solve using:

Step 2

Step 3

Appropriate assumptions Physical laws Relationships Rules

Step 4

Check is the answer reasonable?

Homework format

Start each problem on a new page One side of sheet only Use straight-edge, work neatly Known:

Problem statement Schematic Given data Material properties Concisely state what is to be determined Assumptions Design decisions Equations (make number substitutions last) Comments (when appropriate)

Find:

Solution:

Video -

ENGINEERING DISASTERS

Modern Marvels Program

Systems of Units

Appendix lists units (English, SI), conversion factors, and abbreviations Unit

A specified amount of a physical quantity by which through comparison another quantity of the same kind is measured Examples? Length, time, temperature U.S. customary foot-pound-second system (fps) International System of Units (SI)

2 basic systems of units

Primary Quantities

Sufficient to conceive of and measure other dimensions Examples?

Mass Length Time [what/where are the touchstones]

Secondary dimensions

Measured in terms of primary dimensions Examples?

Area Density Velocity Viscosity

SI System of Units (mLt)

Mass, length, and time m kg Lm ts F is secondary/derived unit F is in Newtons: 1 N ~ 1 apple (**) F is defined a la Newtons 3rd law F = ma 1 N = 1 kgm/s2

U.S. Customary

Foot-pound (f)-second (fps) Inch-pound-second (ips) Not a consistent system of units (Why?) fps:

Force pound-force (Derived from a pound mass) 1000 lbf = 1 kilopound = 1 kip For a consistent US customary system use 3rd law Derived unit of mass is lbf-s2/ft (slug)

Statistical Considerations

Dealing with uncertainty In engineering nothing is exact (tolerances)

Introduction to reliability engineering

We cannot assume that all the quantities that we utilize in failure analysis are deterministic quantities

We know their values absolutely!

In many cases, especially in manufacturing, this is NOT the case

A part dimension that is supposed to be 1 in diameter might vary between 0.95 and 1.05 inches due to variation in machining process (tool wear)

Statistics and random variable methods enable designers to deal with variable quantities

Reliability Engineering

Definitions

Random (stochastic) variable

Sample #

H (height in inches)

A real-valued set of numbers that result from a random process or are descriptive of a random relationship

For example, if I were to construct a list of everybodys height in this class

1 2 3 4

Then height, H, would be considered a random variable

Height example

Lets say there are 25 people in this class. Construct a histogram to represent the data If we divide the (# of people) axis by the total number of people sampled, then we have Probability density function (PFD) PDF gives the probability that a random variable will have a certain value Same shape as the histogram (its been normalized w.r.t. N)

Height example

If we integrate this function, we get the cumulative distribution function (cdf) F ( xi )

Gives the probability (likelihood) that a random variable will be less than or equal to a given value For a random variable x,

lim F ( x ) = 1
x

For a discrete random variable,

F ( xi ) =

x j xi

f (x )
j

Characterizing random variables

A random variable is not a scalar, but rather a vector In this deterministic case, we can say

x = 63.5 inches

This is a scalar, since it has only a single value In the stochastic case, we know that the variable x can take on many values

x = 63.5, 68.7, 62.1, etc

We define the discrete random variable x to be a vector of the samples x1, x2, , xn

We refer to x as the variate

x1 . x=. . xn

Note, in this sense, a vector can be considered a collection of numbers, not a quantity with direction and magnitude It is helpful to have some scalar quantities that characterize the random variable vector

Direction and magnitude wont do the trick!

Scalar quantities to characterize x

Mean

x1 + x2 + ... + xn 1 = N N
N

x
i =1

A measure of the central value of a distribution

Standard deviation

1 2 ( ) x i 1 N i =1

A measure of the dispersion or distribution of data Note this is most useful as a comparative measure

By itself, its not particularly useful!

Some people use 1/N instead of 1/(N-1), but 1/(N-1) typically gives better results for small N

The notation for mean and standard deviation of a variate are as follows:

, ) x = (

Example of Mean and Standard Deviation

Example 20-1 p. 963

Example 20-2 p. 964

Reliability Engineering, Cont.

Terminology

Population

The total set of elements in which we are interested A randomly selected subset of the total population on which measurements are taken (class vs. US Population)

Sample

Describing the shape of a distribution

Uniform Well look at these Normal Log Normal Weibull

Uniform distribution

Simplest All elements have the same value Area equal to 1 implies that all samples in the given range of x have the same value of f(x), where f(x) describes the distribution

Normal distribution

Also called Gaussian distribution

f ( x) = 1 e 2
2 1 x 2

^) Small standard deviation (

Large standard deviation (^ )

Notation

Normal distribution with mean and standard deviation: This IS a complete characterization

, ) x = N(

CDF of Normal (Gaussian) Distribution cannot be found in closed form [Use table A -10; Example 20-3 p.966] Generalized description of normal CDF:

x Z=

Note:
F ( x) =

f (u)du

Linear Regression

Obtaining a best-fit to a set of data points Linear regression when best fit is a straight line Correlation coefficient tells you how good the fit is

yi = mxi + b + i

Linear Regression Equations

Equation of a line
y = mx + b Error equation for a point yi = mi + b + ei Solving for ei^2 and minimizing ei^2 gives eqns. in m & b Allows solving for m and b of the linear regression line

How good is the fit to the data? Use a correlation coefficient r r=m^ sx/sy r is between -1-+1 +1 or -1 is perfect correlation m^ is the linear regression slope Sx is the standard deviation of the x coordinates Sy is the standard deviation of the y coordinates

Materials

Must always make things out of materials Must be able to manufacture this thing Topics first introduced in Materials Science course (MSCI 301) How do we determine the properties of a material?

Tables Generally via destructive testing

How were these values determined?

Material properties

Listed in tables Statistical variation Values listed are minimums Best data from testing of prototypes under intended loading conditions

Material parameters

Parameters of interest in material selection for design?

Strength Stiffness PRIMARY CONCERNS Weight Toughness Conductivity Thermal Corrosion resistance

Primary parameters of interest in material selection

Strength

Amount of load (or weight, or force) a part can take before breaking or bending Amount of deflection or deformation for a given load

Stiffness

Weight All of these depend on geometry

EXTENSIVE values

We would like to derive results that are independent of size (geometry)

INTENSIVE values

Extensive vs. Intensive values

Extensive

Intensive

Weight (kg) Strength (N) Stiffness (N/m)

Density (kg/m3) Yield strength or Ultimate Strength (N/m2) Modulus of Elasticity (N/m2)

How do we determine these values?

Types of quasistatic material testing

Tension Compression Bending Torsion

Tensile tests specimens

What is the difference between these specimens?

Mild ductile steel tensile test specimen

Brittle cast iron tensile test specimen

Tensile testing

Best for general case Why?

Uniform loading and uniform cross-section generate uniform stress Compression poses stability problems (buckling) Torsion and bending impose non-uniform stress

Other test specimens Ductile and Brittle

Compression

Bending

Torsion

Stress-Strain (-) Curves

Point A Proportional limit Point B Elastic limit Point C Yield point Usually defined by permanent set of = 0.002 (0.2% offset) For purposes of design, we often assume A~B~C, and call this the yield point Slope of O-A = E G true (accounting for A) Youngs Modulus Modulus of elasticity F C Like stiffness B A Point F Onset of failure G measured (F vs. x) Point G, G - Fracture
E

Important design considerations

Sy = Yield strength

It is the stress level

That will result in permanent set At which material undergoes marked decrease in stiffness At which Hookes Law is no longer valid

Su

Sy

A, B, C

Su = Ultimate strength

Stress level that will result in fracture

Ductile vs. Brittle Material Behavior

Remember the Titanic video -- Temperature issue

Ductile material

Brittle material

Sustains significant plastic deformation prior to fracture

No significant plastic deformation before fracture

Su Sy Su Sy E O O E

Ductile vs. Brittle Material Behavior

The only true means of determining if a material is ductile or brittle is by testing it (tensile test) Note: The same alloy can be either ductile or brittle, depending upon temperature and/or how it was formed Some general indications of brittle behavior

Glass, ceramic, and wood Cast ferrous alloys Materials in extreme cold temperatures Also, if you cant find Sy in a handbook (only Su given)

Fatigue testing measuring endurance

Most machines are loaded cyclically

Any piece of rotating machinery Fatigue strength depends on number of cycles and the material

Strength decreases over time

How to test?

Use a rotating beam More often vary axial loading over time

Common metals in machine design

Magnesium

Specific stiffness ~ 25 MPa/(kg/m3) Extremely light (~1/5 steel) Extremely flammable Specific stiffness ~ 26 Stiffness-to-weight and strength-to-weight comparable to steel 1/3 stiffness of steel 1/3 density of steel

Aluminum (very common)

More metals

Gray cast iron

Specific stiffness ~ 15 Decent strength Used where casting makes sense and weight doesnt matter

Gears, engine blocks, brake disks and drums

Brass, bronze

Generally soft Good for bearings (bronze)

More metals

Titanium

Specific stiffness ~ 26 Excellent strength-to-weight Non-magnetic Non-corrosive (implants) Can be cast Expensive Stronger than gray cast iron Heavy-duty gears, automobile door hinges

Ductile cast iron

More metals

Stainless steel

Non-magnetic Much less corrosive than steel Difficult to machine Specific stiffness ~ 27 Excellent fatigue properties Good stiffness-to-weight Better alloys have excellent strength-to-weight

Steel

Chromoly bicycle frames

Comparison of Youngs Modulus for various metals

Alloying and Crystal Structure Question

Does all steel have the same strength? Does all steel have the same stiffness? Strength (Sy, Su) depends on alloy and state Stiffness (E) depends only on metal type

i.e., E is a property of the metal and does not change with alloy or state

So what affects the strength of a metal?

Two primary forms

Alloying Crystal state

Metal alloys

Adding certain elements in trace amounts to a metal can significantly change its strength Since the alloying elements are present in trace amounts, they dont significantly alter modulus (stiffness) or density

Alloying

Steel Primary alloying elements:

Manganese Nickel Chromium Molybdenum Vanadium

The alloy is identified by AISI/SAE or ASTM numbering system

AISI American Iron and Steel Institute SAE Society of Automotive Engineering ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials

Altering crystal state

Crystal state of steel can be altered by heat treatment or cold working Quenching

Heat to very high (~1400F) temp and cool rather suddenly by immersion in water Creates crystal structure called martensite which is extremely strong but brittle

More methods

Tempering

Reheat to moderate temperature and cool slowly Adds ductility at the expense of decreased strength Resets the alloy to original low strength, ductile state Reheat alloy above critical temperature and allow to cool slowly

Annealing

More methods

Normalizing

Between tempering and annealing Another means of increasing strength at the expense of ductility Reheating as the metal is deformed to maintain ductility

Cold working

Hot working

Question

If youre going to have a piece of metal machined, would you rather use a cold worked or hot worked metal?

Steel numbering systems

Used to define alloying elements and carbon content 1st two digits

Indicate principal alloying elements Indicate amount of carbon present In 100ths of a percent

Last 2 digits

Steel number systems

Plain carbon steel

1st digit 1 2nd digit 0 No alloys other than carbon are present AISI 1005-1030: Low-carbon steels (*) AISI 1035-1055: Medium-carbon steels AISI 1060-1085: High-carbon steels AISI 11xx series adds sulfur (***)

Improves machinability Called free-machining steels Not considered alloys

Sulfur does not improve mechanical properties Makes it brittle (Titanic)

Steel number systems

Alloy steels Have various elements added in small quantities Improve materials Strength Hardenability Temperature resistance Corrosion resistance Other Nickel Improve strength without loss of ductility Enhances case hardenability Molybdenum In combination with nickel and/or chromium Adds hardness Reduces brittleness Increases toughness Other alloys used to achieve specific properties

Steel numbering systems

Tool steels

Medium- to high- carbon alloy steels Especially formulated to give:

Very high hardness Wear resistance Sufficient toughness to resist shock loads experienced in machining

Stainless steels

Alloy steels with at least 10% chromium Improved corrosion resistance over plain or alloy steels

Steel numbering systems

Martensitic stainless steels 11.5 to 15% Cr and 0.15 to 1.2% C Magnetic Can be hardened by heat treatment Cutlery Ferritic stainless steel Over 16% Cr and low C content Magnetic Soft Ductile Not heat treatable Cookware Both martensitic and ferritic called 400 series

Steel numbering systems

Austenitic stainless steel

17 to 25% Cr and 10 to 20% nickel Better corrosion resistance (due to Ni) Nonmagnetic Excellent ductility and toughness Cannot be hardened except by cold working 300 series

300 series very weldable 400 series less so

Aluminum alloys

Principal alloying elements

Copper Manganese Silicon Zinc

Alloys are designated by the Aluminum Association (AA) numbering system

Aluminum alloys, cont.

Aluminum alloys are also heat-treatable, as designated by the T classification in the AA numbering system

Aluminum alloys

Wrought-aluminum alloys

Available in wide variety of stock shapes

I-beams, angles, channels, bars, etc

1st digit indicates principal alloying element Hardness indicated by a suffix containing a letter and up to 3 numbers Most commonly available and used in machine design applications:

2000 series 6000 series

Aluminum alloys

2024 Oldest alloy Among the most machinable One of the strongest Al alloys High fatigue strength Poor weldability and formability 6061 Widely used in structural applications Excellent weldabilty Lower fatigue strength than 2024 Easily machined and popular for extrusion 7000 series Aircraft aluminum Strongest alloys

Tensile strengths of metals

Aluminum alloys

Steel alloys

Look-up tables for Material properties (in the appendix)