S

cientists who attain a PhD are rightly

proud they have gained entry to
an academic elite. But it is not as elite
as it once was. The number of science
doctorates earned each year grew by
nearly 40% between 1998 and 2008,
to some 34,000, in countries that are members
of the Organisation for Economic Co-opera-
tion and Development (OECD). The growth
shows no sign of slowing: most countries are
building up their higher-education systems
because they see educated workers as a key
to economic growth (see The rise of doctor-
ates). But in much of the world, science PhD
graduates may never get a chance to take full
advantage of their qualifications.
In some countries, including the United
States and Japan, people who have trained at
great length and expense to be researchers con-
front a dwindling number of academic jobs, and
an industrial sector unable to take up the slack.
Supply has outstripped demand and, although
few PhD holders end up unemployed, it is not
clear that spending years securing this high-
level qualification is worth it for a job as, for
example, a high-school teacher. In other coun-
tries, such as China and India, the economies
are developing fast enough to use all the PhDs
they can crank out, and more but the quality
of the graduates is not consistent. Only a few
nations, including Germany, are successfully
tackling the problem by redefining the PhD as
training for high-level positions in careers out-
side academia. Here, Nature examines graduate-
education systems in various states of health.
JAPAN: A SYSTEM IN CRISIS
Of all the countries in which to graduate with a
science PhD, Japan is arguably one of the worst.
In the 1990s, the government set a policy to
triple the number of postdocs to 10,000, and
stepped up PhD recruitment to meet that goal.
The policy was meant to bring Japans science
capacity up to match that of the West but
is now much criticized because, although it
quickly succeeded, it gave little thought to
where all those postdocs were going to end up.
Academia doesnt want them: the number
of 18-year-olds entering higher education has
been dropping, so universities dont need the
staff. Neither does Japanese industry, which has
traditionally preferred young, fresh bachelors
graduates who can be trained on the job. The
science and education ministry couldnt even
sell them off when, in 2009, it started offering
companies around 4million (US$47,000)
each to take on some of the countrys 18,000
unemployed postdoctoral students (one of
several initiatives that have been introduced
to improve the situation). Its just hard to find
a match between postdoc and company, says
Koichi Kitazawa, the head of the Japan Science
and Technology Agency.
This means there are few jobs for the current
crop of PhDs. Of the 1,350 people awarded
doctorates in natural sciences in 2010, just over
half (746) had full-time posts lined up by the
time they graduated. But only 162 were in the
academic sciences or technological services,; of
the rest, 250 took industry positions, 256 went
into education and 38 got government jobs.
With such dismal prospects, the number
entering PhD programmes has dropped off
(see Patterns of PhD production). Everyone
tends to look at the future of the PhD labour
market very pessimistically, says Kobayashi
Shinichi, a specialist in science and technol-
ogy workforce issues at the Research Center
for University Studies at Tsukuba University.
CHINA: QUANTITY OUTWEIGHS QUALITY?
The number of PhD holders in China is going
through the roof, with some 50,000 people
graduating with doctorates across all disci-
plines in 2009 and by some counts it now
surpasses all other countries. The main prob-
lem is the low quality of many graduates.
Yongdi Zhou, a cognitive neuroscientist at
the East China Normal University in Shanghai,
THE PHD FACTORY
The world is producing more
PhDs than ever before.
Is it time to stop?
EVERYONE TENDS TO LOOK AT
THE FUTURE OF THE PHD LABOUR
MARKET VERY PESSI MISTICALLY.
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identifies four contributing factors. The
length of PhD training, at three years, is too
short, many PhD supervisors are not well
qualified, the system lacks quality control and
there is no clear mechanism for weeding out
poor students.
Even so, most Chinese PhD holders can
find a job at home: Chinas booming economy
and capacity building has absorbed them into
the workforce. Relatively speaking, it is a
lot easier to find a position in academia in
China compared with the United States, says
Yigong Shi, a structural biologist at Tsinghua
University in Beijing, and the same is true in
industry. But PhD graduates can run into
problems if they want to enter internation-
ally competitive academia. To get a coveted
post at a top university or research institution
requires training, such as a postdoctoral posi-
tion, in another country. Many researchers
do not return to China, draining away the
cream of the countrys crop.
The quality issue should be helped by
Chinas efforts to recruit more scholars
from abroad. Shi says that more institu-
tions are now starting to introduce thesis
committees and rotations, which will
make students less dependent on a single
supervisor in a hierarchical system. Major
initiatives are being implemented in various
graduate programmes throughout China,
he says. China is constantly going through
transformations.
SINGAPORE: GROWTH IN ALL DIRECTIONS
The picture is much rosier in Singapore.
Here, the past few years have seen major
investment and expansion in the university
system and in science and technology infra-
structure, including the foundation of two
new publicly funded universities. This has
attracted students from at home and abroad.
Enrolment of Singaporean nationals in PhD
programmes has grown by 60% over the past
five years, to 789 in all disciplines and the
country has actively recruited foreign gradu-
ate students from China, India, Iran, Turkey,
eastern Europe and farther afield.
Because the university system in Singa-
pore has been underdeveloped until now,
most PhD holders go to work outside aca-
demia, but continued expansion of the
universities could create more opportuni-
ties. Not all end up earning a living from
what they have been trained in, says Peter
Ng, who studies biodiversity at the National
University of Singapore. Some have very
different jobs from teachers to bankers.
But they all get a good job. A PhD can be
lucrative, says Ng, with a graduate earning
at least S$4,000 (US$3,174) a month, com-
pared with the S$3,000 a month earned by a
student with a good undergraduate degree.
I see a PhD not just as the mastery of a
discipline, but also training of the mind,
says Ng. If they later practise what they have
mastered excellent otherwise, they can
take their skill sets into a new domain and
add value to it.
UNITED STATES: SUPPLY VERSUS DEMAND
To Paula Stephan, an economist at Georgia
State University in Atlanta who studies PhD
trends, it is scandalous that US politicians
continue to speak of a PhD shortage. The
United States is second only to China in
awarding science doctorates it produced
an estimated 19,733 in the life sciences and
physical sciences in 2009 and production
is going up. But Stephan says that no one
should applaud this trend, unless Congress
wants to put money into creating jobs for
these people rather than just creating supply.
The proportion of people with science
PhDs who get tenured academic positions
in the sciences has been dropping steadily
and industry has not fully absorbed the
slack. The problem is most acute in the life
sciences, in which the pace of PhD growth
is biggest, yet pharmaceutical and biotech-
nology industries have been drastically
downsizing in recent years. In 1973, 55%
of US doctorates in the biological sciences
secured tenure-track positions within six
years of completing their PhDs, and only
2% were in a postdoc or other untenured
academic position. By 2006, only 15% were
in tenured positions six years after graduat-
ing, with 18% untenured (see What shall
we do about all the PhDs?). Figures suggest
JAPAN AUSTRALIA POLAND UNITED
KINGDOM
UNITED
STATES
CANADA GERMANY
HUNGARY
MEXICO CHINA KOREA
INDIA DENMARK
17.1%
40%
7.1%
8.5%
10%
6.2% 6.2%
6.1% 5.2%
2.5%
1%
0%
2.2%
Te rise of doctorates
Major expansion of higher education has boosted PhD output in many countries, shown here
as average annual growth of doctoral degrees across all disciplines, 19982006.
India hopes to
dramatically increase
PhDs by 2020.

Expansion of the higher-
education system after the
fall of Communism has
led to growth.
Patterns of PhD production
1990 92 94 96 98 00 02 04 06 08
CHINA
GERMANY
49,698
16,296
16,606
25,604
50
60
40
30
20
10
0
98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08
98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08
98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08
30
20
10
0
Rate of production
stagnating in
comparison with
competitors.
UNITED KINGDOM
Trends in annual PhD graduation across all disciplines.
All fgures given in thousands of PhDs.
5
0
10
15
20 JAPAN
0
5
10
15
20
By some counts, China has
overtaken the United States
to become the worlds
biggest producer of PhDs.
A policy to increase PhDs
in science has not been
matched by jobs, leading
to a slowdown.
Growth has been fuelled by
overseas doctoral students;
recent cost-cutting has
slowed growth.
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FEATURE NEWS
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that more doctorates are taking jobs that do
not require a PhD. Its a waste of resources,
says Stephan. Were spending a lot of money
training these students and then they go out
and get jobs that theyre not well matched for.
The poor job market has discouraged
some potential students from embarking on
science PhDs, says Hal Salzman, a professor
of public policy at Rutgers University in New
Brunswick, New Jersey. Nevertheless, produc-
tion of US doctorates continues apace, fuelled
by an influx of foreign students. Academic
research was still the top career choice in a
2010 survey of 30,000 science and engineer-
ing PhD students and postdocs, says Henry
Sauermann, who studies strategic manage-
ment at the Georgia Institute of Technology
in Atlanta. Many PhD courses train students
specifically for that goal. Half of all science
and engineering PhD recipients graduating
in 2007 had spent over seven years working
on their degrees, and more than one-third of
candidates never finish at all.
Some universities are now experimenting
with PhD programmes that better prepare
graduate students for careers outside academia
(see page 280). Anne Carpenter, a cellular biolo-
gist at the Broad Institute of the Massachusetts
Institute of Technology (MIT) and Harvard
University in Cambridge, Massachusetts, is
trying to create jobs for existing PhD holders,
while discouraging new ones. When she set up
her lab four years ago, Carpenter hired expe-
rienced staff scientists on permanent contracts
instead of the usual mix of temporary postdocs
and graduate students. The whole pyramid
scheme of science made little sense to me, says
Carpenter. I couldnt in good conscience churn
out a hundred graduate students and postdocs
in my career.
But Carpenter has struggled to justify the
cost of her staff to grant-
review panels. How do
I compete with labora-
tories that hire postdocs
for $40,000 instead of a
scientist for $80,000?
she asks. Although she remains committed to
her ideals, she says that she will be more open
to hiring postdocs in the future.
GERMANY: THE PROGRESSIVE PHD
Germany is Europes biggest producer of
doctoral graduates, turning out some 7,000
science PhDs in 2005. After a major redesign
of its doctoral education programmes over the
past 20 years, the country is also well on its way
to solving the oversupply problem.
Traditionally, supervisors recruited PhD
students informally and trained them to fol-
low in their academic footsteps, with little
oversight from the university or research insti-
tution. But as in the rest of Europe, the number
of academic positions available to graduates in
Germany has remained stable or fallen. So
these days, a PhD in Germany is often mar-
keted as advanced training not only for aca-
demia a career path pursued by the best of
the best but also for the wider workforce.
Universities now play a more formal role
in student recruitment and development, and
many students follow structured courses outside
the lab, including classes in presenting, report
writing and other transferable skills. Just under
6% of PhD graduates in science eventually go
into full-time academic positions, and most will
find research jobs in industry, says Thorsten
Wilhelmy, who studies doctoral education for
the German Council of Science and Humani-
ties in Cologne. The long way to professorship
in Germany and the relatively low income of
German academic staff makes leaving the uni-
versity after the PhD a good option, he says.
Thomas Jrgensen, who heads a programme
to support and develop doctoral education for
the European University Association, based
in Brussels, is concerned that German institu-
tions could push reforms too far, leaving stu-
dents spending so long in classes that they lack
time to do research for their thesis and develop
critical-thinking skills. The number of Ger-
man doctorates has stagnated over the past
two decades, and Jrgensen worries about this
at a time when PhD production is growing in
China, India and other increasingly powerful
economies.
POLAND: EXPANSION AT A COST
Growth in PhD numbers among Europes old
guard might be waning, but some of the former
Eastern bloc countries, such as Poland, have
seen dramatic increases. In 199091, Polish
institutions enrolled 2,695 PhD students. This
figure rose to more than 32,000 in 200809
as the Polish government, trying to expand
the higher-education system after the fall of
Communism, introduced policies to reward
institutions for enrolling doctoral candidates.
Despite the growth, there are problems.
A dearth of funding for doctoral studies causes
high drop-out rates, says Andrzej Kraniewski,
a researcher at Warsaw University of Technol-
ogy and secretary-general of the Polish Rectors
Conference, an association representing Polish
universities. In engineering, more than half of
students will not complete their PhDs, he says.
The countrys economic growth has not kept
pace with that of its PhD numbers, so people
with doctorates can end up taking jobs below
their level of expertise. And Poland needs to
collect data showing that PhDs from its insti-
tutions across the country are of consistent
quality, and are comparable with the rest of
Europe, says Kraniewski.
Still, in Poland as in most countries,
unemployment for PhD holders is below 3%.
Employment prospects for holders of doc-
torates remain better than for other higher-
education graduates, says Laudeline Auriol,
author of an OECD report on doctorate
holders between 1990 and 2006, who is now
analysing doctoral-student data up to 2010.
Medical and life sciences
Biological sciences
4000
Humanities
0
2,000
4,000
6,000
8,000
10,000
Physical sciences
Social sciences
PHDS AWARDED
TIME TO COMPLETION
EMPLOYMENT OF DOCTORATES
1993 95 97 99 01 03 05 07

0
2
4
6
8
10
Biological sciences
Earth, atmospheric
and ocean sciences
Full-time tenured or tenure-track
Physical sciences
United States: What shall we do about all the PhDs?
83 87 91 95 99 03 07 1979
1981 85 89 93 97 01 05
10
20
30
40
50
%
Y
e
a
r
s
N
u
m
b
e
r

o
f

P
h
D
s
Postdoc
Full-time nontenured nonfaculty
Part time
The annual number of science and engineering doctorates graduating from US universities rose to almost 41,000 in 2007 (left), with the
biggest growth in medical and life sciences. It took a median of 7.2 years to complete a science or engineering PhD (middle) yet the
proportion fnding full time academic jobs within 13 years of graduating is dwindling (right).


THE RELATIVELY LOW INCOME OF
GERMAN ACADEMIC STAFF MAKES
LEAVING THE UNIVERSITY AFTER
THE PHD A GOOD OPTION.
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Tell us what you
think about the
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Still, a survey of scientists by Nature last year
showed that PhD holders were not always
more satisfied with their jobs than those with-
out the degree, nor were they earning sub-
stantially more (see Whats a PhD worth?).
EGYPT: STRUGGLE TO SURVIVE
Egypt is the Middle Easts powerhouse for
doctoral studies. In 2009, the country had
about 35,000 students enrolled in doctoral
programmes, up from 17,663 in 1998. But fund-
ing has not kept up with demand. The major-
ity comes through university budgets, which
are already strained by the large enrolment of
students in undergraduate programmes and
post graduate studies other than PhDs. Universi-
ties have started turning to international funding
and collaborations with the private sector, but
this source of funding remains very limited.
The deficit translates into shortages in equip-
ment and materials, a lack of qualified teaching
staff and poor compensation for researchers. It
also means that more of the funding burden is
falling on the students. The squeeze takes a toll
on the quality of research, and creates tension
between students and supervisors. The PhD
student here in Egypt faces numerous prob-
lems, says Mounir Hana, a food scientist and
PhD supervisor at Minia University, who says
that he tries to help solve them. Unfortunately,
many supervisors do not bother, and end up
adding one more hurdle in the students way.
Graduates face a tough slog. As elsewhere,
there are many more PhD holders in Egypt
than the universities can employ as researchers
and academics. The doctorate is frequently a
means of climbing the civil-service hierarchy,
but those in the private sector often complain
that graduates are untrained in the practical
skills they need, such as proposal writing and
project management. Egyptian PhD holders
also struggle to secure inter national research
positions. Hana calls the overall quality of
their research papers mediocre and says
that pursuing a PhD is worthless except for
those already working in a university. But the
political upheaval in the region this year could
bring about change: many academics who had
left Egypt are returning, hoping to help rebuild
and overhaul education and research.
Few PhDs are trained elsewhere in the
Middle East less than 50 a year in Lebanon,
for example. But several world-class universi-
ties established in the oil-rich Gulf States in
recent years have increased demand for PhD
holders. So far, most of the researchers have
been imported after receiving their degrees
from Western universities, but Saudi Arabia
and Qatar in particular have been building up
their infrastructure to start offering more PhD
programmes themselves. The effect will be felt
throughout the region, says Fatma Hammad,
an endocrinologist and PhD supervisor at
Al-Azhar University in Cairo. Many graduates
are now turning to doctoral studies because
there is a large demand in the Gulf States. For
them, it is a way to land jobs there and increase
their income, she says.
INDIA: PHDS WANTED
In 2004, India produced around 5,900 sci-
ence, technology and engineering PhDs, a fig-
ure that has now grown to some 8,900 a year.
This is still a fraction of the number from
China and the United States, and the coun-
try wants many more, to match the explosive
growth of its economy and population. The
government is making major investments in
research and higher education including
a one-third increase in the higher-education
budget in 201112 and is trying to attract
investment from foreign universities. The
hope is that up to 20,000 PhDs will gradu-
ate each year by 2020, says Thirumalachari
Ramasami, the Indian governments head of
science and technology.
Those targets ought to be easy to reach:
Indias population is young, and undergraduate
education is booming (see Nature 472, 2426;
2011). But there is little incentive to continue
into a lengthy PhD programme, and only
around 1% of undergraduates currently do so.
Most are intent on securing jobs in industry,
which require only an under graduate degree
and are much more lucrative than the public-
sector academic and research jobs that need
postgraduate education. Students dont think
of PhDs now, not even masters a bachelors
is good enough to get a job, says Amit Patra, an
engineer at the Indian Institute of Technology
in Kharagpur.
Even after a PhD, there are few academic
opportunities in India, and better-paid indus-
try jobs are the major draw. There is a shortage
of PhDs and we have to compete with industry
for that resource the universities have very
little chance of winning that game, says Patra.
For many young people intent on postgraduate
education, the goal is frequently to go to the
United States or Europe. That was the course
chosen by Manu Prakash, who went to MIT for
his PhD and now runs his own experimental
biophysics lab at Stanford University in Califor-
nia. When I went through the system in India,
the platform for doing long-term research I
didnt feel was well-supported, he says.
Reporting by David Cyranoski, Natasha
Gilbert, Heidi Ledford, Anjali Nayar and
Mohammed Yahia.
Location
Working
conditions
Opportunities
to advance
Intellectual
challenge
Level of
responsibility
Degree of
independence
Contribution
to society
35
40
30
25
20
15
10
5
People with a PhD
arent much happier
WITHOUT A PHD WITH A PHD
SCALE OF DISSATISFACTION
Whats a PhD worth?
0
10,000
20,000
30,000
40,000
50,000
60,000
70,000
Asia Europe United States
Salary
Benefts
Number satisfed with their
job 610 years after
achieving their highest
qualifcation.
they gripe about benets,
but like the intellectual challenge
and most arent much richer.
Satisfed
Satisfed
Neutral
Neutral
Not
Not
PhDs
S
a
l
a
r
y

(
U
S
$
)
Average salary 610 years after achieving
highest qualifcation.
Non-PhDs
Job security
Social status
Percentage of doctorate holders dissatisfed
with employment situation, by reason
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