London

London (England), city, capital of the United Kingdom. It is situated in south-eastern England at the head of
the River Thames estuary. Settled by the Romans as an important shipping point for crops and minerals, it
gradually developed into the ealthy capital of a thriving industrial and agricultural nation. The e!pansion in
the "#th century of the $ritish Empire increased %ondon&s influence still further. Since 'orld 'ar II the city&s
prominence on the international stage has diminished, but it remains a flourishing financial centre and home to
one of the orld&s most important stoc( e!changes. In addition, it is the foremost tourist destination in $ritain, a
centre of academic e!cellence, and one of the cultural capitals of the orld)ell deserving of the observation
by Samuel *ohnson that+ ,'hen a man is tired of %ondon, he is tired of life-.
The term ,.ity of %ondon-, or ,the .ity-, is applied only to a small area (non as the S/uare 0ile 12.3# s/
(m4" s/ mi5 that as the original settlement 1ancient %ondinium5 and is no part of the financial and business
district of the metropolis. The .ity of %ondon and 62 surrounding boroughs constitute the 7reater %ondon
metropolitan area, hich covers some ",389 s/ (m 1:29 s/ mi5. The "6 inner %ondon boroughs are .amden,
;ac(ney, ;ammersmith and <ulham, ;aringey, Islington, Kensington and.helsea, %ambeth, %eisham,
=eham, Southar(, Toer ;amlets, 'andsorth, and the .ity of 'estminster. The "# outer boroughs are
$ar(ing and >agenham, $arnet, $e!ley, $rent, $romley, .roydon, Ealing,Enfield, 7reenich, ;arro,
;avering, ;illingdon, ;ounslo, Kingston upon Thames, 0erton, Redbridge, Richmond upon Thames, Sutton,
and'altham <orest.
Government and Administration
%ondon is the seat of central government in $ritain. The ;ouses of ?arliament)the ;ouse of .ommons 1the
loer house5 and the ;ouse of %ords 1the upper house5)are located at 'estminster. >oning Street 1home to
the ?rime 0inister at =o "9, and traditionally the .hancellor of the E!che/uer, at =o ""5, the <oreign and
.ommonealth @ffice, the Treasury, and the 0inistry of >efence are concentrated around 'hitehall. Aarious
other government departments and public bodies are also sited in central %ondon. 'ithin the 7overnment, the
Secretary of State for the Environment has responsibility for the capital as 0inister for %ondon. The
administrative structure of the legal system, and the central offices of the main political parties, are also based
in %ondon.
@ver B9 1out of :3#5 0embers of ?arliament are returned to 'estminster from constituencies in the 7reater
%ondon metropolitan area, and the capital returns "9 of England&s B" representatives to the European
?arliament. Unli(e other maCor cities, there is no single body governing 7reater %ondon. ?rior to the late "889s,
hen the %ondon .ounty .ouncil 1%..5 as established, the four counties of Esse!, Kent, 0iddlese!, and
Surrey administered the area, together ith the ancient .ity of %ondon and many smaller local authorities. In
"#:3 7reater %ondon as created under the Curisdiction of the 7reater %ondon .ouncil. This council as
abolished in "#8:, and today each inner and outer borough and the .ity of %ondon itself has its on governing
council. The borough councils consist of councillors elected every four years, ho in turn annually elect their
presiding official. .ouncils are responsible for the provision of most local services including education,
housing, social services, local planning, roads, refuse collection, recreation, and culture. They do not control the
police 1e!cept in the case of the .ity of %ondon5, fire service, or public transport. %ondon&s 0etropolitan ?olice
Service is the responsibility of the ;ome Secretary 1a senior government minister5. %ondon Transport is a
statutory corporation hose remit is to provide transport for the capital.
The .ity of %ondon, the ancient heart of the city, has only about 3,999 residents 1although ell over 699,999
people or( there each day5. It is governed by the .orporation of the .ity of %ondon. Dmong local authorities,
the .orporation is uni/ueE it is the oldest in the country and operates on a non-party-political basis. The ruling
body is the .ourt of .ommon .ouncil, and this consists of the %ord 0ayor, 2F aldermen, and "69 common
councilmen. The %ord 0ayor and to sheriffs are nominated annually by the .ity guilds 1livery companies
representing trades and professions and dating bac( to medieval times5 and elected by the .ourt of Dldermen.
Dldermen and councilmen are elected by businesses in the .ity&s 23 ards. The .orporation fulfils the same
functions as the borough councils but has, for historical reasons, retained some other poers+ it is responsible
for the .ity of %ondon ?oliceE is the health authority for the ?ort of %ondonE is responsible for health control of
animal imports throughout 7reater %ondon 1including ;eathro Dirport5E and is responsible for the .entral
.riminal .ourt 1the @ld $ailey5.
Population Patterns and Trends
In mid-"##F the population of 7reater %ondon as estimated at :,#:B,399 1representing about "2 per cent
of $ritain&s overall population5, ith to thirds resident in outer %ondon. Dlthough the population is no longer
as large as in mid-century 1pea(ing at about 8,6F:,999 in the "#3" census5, it has recently been increasing,
rising at an average of 29,999 per year since "#8F. %ondon&s population is heavily concentrated 1at about F,F9#
people per s/ (m4"",268 per s/ mi5 relative to other metropolitan areas in the country.
The arrival of immigrants has contributed considerably to the variations in population figures, and the capital is
the most ethnically diverse region in the United Kingdom. Ethnic minority communities account for over a third
of the population in the boroughs of $rent, ;ac(ney, =eham, and Toer ;amlets.
The Urban Landscape
%ondon straddles the River Thames, 89 (m 139 mi5 upriver from its mouth at the =ore, here the English
.hannel Coins the =orth Sea. 0ost of%ondon, including its central districts and the maCority of its famous
landmar(s, lies to the north of the river. The original settlement that gave %ondonits name as the Roman fort
of %ondinium, founded in the first century D>. The .ity of %ondon is on the site here this stood, and the
description of the Roman ton as ,a busy emporium for trade and traders- by the Roman historian Tacitus
seems e/ually apt today. St ?aul&s .athedral stands on the estern edge of the .ity, and the Toer of %ondon,
the =orman fortress built by 'illiam the .on/ueror to defend his ne lands late in the ""th century 1and no
listed as a conservation site in the 'orld ;eritage %ist5, lies to the south-east. Spanning the river to Southar(
1est of Toer$ridge5 is %ondon $ridge, a modern replacement of the only bridge over the Thames
in %ondon until the "8th century.
To the east and north-east of the .ity are the predominantly or(ing-class districts of the East End, home to
successive aves of immigrants fromIreland, continental Europe, and the former $ritish Empire. %ively and
industrious, the East End continues to have many thriving small businesses. The area (non as >oc(lands
comprises 1on the north ban( of the Thames5 the districts of 'apping and ?oplar, the Isle of >ogs, the Royal
>oc(s, and 1to the south of the Thames5 Surrey >oc(s. >oc(lands is the site of a massive inner city
regeneration proCect. 'est of the .ity lie the ancient Inns of .ourt 1%incoln&s Inn, 0iddle Temple, Inner
Temple, and 7ray&s Inn5, the legal district occupied by barristers and firms of solicitorsE and <leet Street, once
the home of $ritain&s national press 1hich has no relocated to other parts of the capital5. <urther to the north-
est is $loomsbury, the haunt in the "#29s of a renoned group of literary intellectuals 1the $loomsbury
7roup5, than(s to its pro!imity to %ondon University and the $ritish0useum.
The 'est End is a large area of central %ondon to the est of the .ity, containing most of the best-(non
theatres and shopping districts. To the south, folloing the river as it ta(es a southard bend, is the
administrative core of %ondon and the centre of government+ 'hitehall, the ;ouses of ?arliament 1officially
called the ?alace of 'estminster5, St *ames&s ?alace 1%ondon home of the ?rince of 'ales5, and $uc(ingham
?alace 1the %ondon residence of Gueen EliHabeth II5. The 'est End also contains ;yde ?ar(, %ondon&s largest
open space, hich leads est to the districts of Knightsbridge and Kensington, both fashionable residential
areas ith such attractions as ;arrods department store, the Royal Dlbert ;all, and theSouth
Kensington museums. South of the river, upstream from the ;ouses of ?arliament, lies %ambeth ?alace, home
of the Drchbishop of .anterburyE nearby is the South $an( .entre, the arts and theatre comple!. $eyond lie
other residential districts ith historical associations, such as >ulich, .lapham, 'imbledon 1one of %ondon&s
earliest settlements5, and 7reenich 1home of the Royal =aval .ollege, the restored Cutty Sark tea clipper, and
the ?rime 0eridian at the @ld Royal @bservatory5.
Economy
Economic activity in %ondon contributes almost one si!th of $ritain&s non-oil gross domestic product 17>?5. In
mid-"##3 the total number of people employed in the capital as 6." million 1compared ith over 6.3 million in
"#8"5. Dbout 83 per cent of %ondon&s employment is no in service industries, notably in financial and
business services hich, at almost B39,999, may be the largest such concentration in any city in the orld.
@ther service sectors supporting significant levels of employment include public administration 1central and
local government and other official agencies5, retail and holesale distribution, hotels and catering, education
and health services, and transport and communications. 0anufacturing ma(es up an important, though
relatively small, part of the %ondon economy.
The financial and business services sector ma(es up over a third of the capital&s 7>?. %ondon is one of the
three main global financial centres 1ith =e Ior( and To(yo5 and is noted for having a larger number of
international ban(s than any other financial centreE a ban(ing sector that accounts for about 29 per cent of total
international ban( lendingE one of the largest international insurance mar(etsE the largest centre in the orld for
trading overseas e/uitiesE the orld&s largest foreign e!change mar(etE one of the orld&s biggest financial
derivatives mar(etsE the greatest concentration of international bond dealersE maCor mar(ets for transactions in
commoditiesE and a vast range of ancillary and support services 1legal, accountancy, management, property,
computer, and advertising consultancy5. The $ig $ang deregulation of financial mar(ets in "#8: alloed
changes in the structure of the industry that created conglomerates operating across all mar(ets 1although many
specialists still e!ist5. The insurance sector includes general insurance companies as ell as life assurance
companies and societies. It is less focused on %ondon than is ban(ing, but still generates a considerable share of
financial and business services employment in the capital. %loyd&s of %ondon, an incorporated society of private
insurers 1hich has had some highly publiciHed financial problems in recent years5, accounts for about half of
the international insurance mar(et that is based in%ondon.
Tourism is another vital service sector ithin the %ondon economy. %ondon is one of the orld&s maCor tourist
destinations and a leading conference venue, attracting over 26 million visitors annually. @f these, "6 million
are from outside the United Kingdom. Tourist e!penditure in %ondon in "##F reached J:." billion 1USK#
billion5, and overseas visitors accounted for 83 per cent of this spending. @ver 299,999 people or( in tourism-
related industries ithin the capital. There are about F89 hotels in %ondon, appro!imately a third of hich are
located in 'estminster. Tourist attractions include the many museums, art galleries, monuments, historic
buildings, gardens, churches, and shopping facilities. The most popular attractions are the $ritish 0useum 1ith
over : million visitors in "##F-"##35, the =ational 7allery, 'estminster Dbbey 1here the sovereign is
croned5, 0adame Tussaud&s a!or(s, and the Toer of %ondon.
0anufacturing remains a significant part of %ondon&s economy, accounting for some "6 per cent of output, but
has been declining for many years. In general, heavy industry in %ondon has been disappearing since the ar,
and beteen "#82 and "##F the numbers employed in manufacturing almost halved to appro!imately 628,999
1about "9 per cent of total employment5. ?rinting and publishing remains one of the most healthy industries and
accounts for over a /uarter of %ondon&s manufacturing employment. This reflects %ondon&s role as an
administrative, financial, and media centre, placing heavy demands on printing. @ther important manufacturing
sectors include electrical and electronic engineeringE food, drin(, and tobaccoE and chemicals and synthetic
fibres. 7enerally, manufacturing industries are more concentrated in outer, rather than inner, %ondon, and five
outer%ondon boroughs 1$ar(ing and >agenham, Enfield, Ealing, ;ounslo, and 'altham <orest5 have about
29 per cent of their output in manufacturing.
Transport
Transport is essential to the operation of a city such as %ondon. Its very development as significantly affected
by the advent of the railays, and more recently the construction of roads 1particularly the orbital 023
motoray5 has influenced patterns of settlement and economic activity. %ondonhas one of the most e!tensive
urban railay systems in the orldE in addition to the Underground railay, there is a netor( of suburban
railays covering %ondon and the surrounding region. 0ost of the passenger-carrying Underground lines in
central %ondon ere built before "#"F. Suburban e!tensions ere added before and after 'orld 'ar II. The
most recent line, the *ubilee, opened in "#B# and in the "##9s as e!tended eastard toStratford. The
>oc(lands %ight Railay connects the .ity of %ondon ith >oc(lands and other east %ondon destinations.
0ost travel is done by rail and Underground, although there is also considerable commuting by car, particularly
in the outer boroughs. %ondon has about "8,999 licensed ta!is.
Railay services from %ondon to ?aris or $russels through the .hannel Tunnel run from the terminal
at 'aterloo station.
%ondon has three main airports. ;eathro, about 23 (m 1"3 mi5 est of %ondon, is the orld&s busiest airport
for international passengers and is $ritain&s most important airport for passengers and air freight 1handling
about 33 million passengers and over " million tonnes of freight in "##:5. 7atic( 1south of %ondon5
is $ritain&s second-busiest airport in terms of passenger traffic, and Stansted 1to the north-east, in Esse!5 is the
si!th-busiest. %ondon .ity Dirport, based in the reCuvenated >oc(lands area, lin(s >oc(lands and the .ity to
continental Europe.
The ?ort of %ondon, covering about "39 (m 1#6 mi5 of ateray along the Thames to the east coast, is the
largest port in $ritain in terms of total tonnage of cargo handled and in terms of non-fuel traffic. The total
tonnage handled in "##3 as about 32 million tonnes.
Museums and Art Galleries
%ondon&s museums and art galleries contain some of the most comprehensive collections of obCects of artistic,
archaeological, scientific, historical, and general interest. The $ritish 0useum in $loomsbury is one of the
biggest and most famous museums in the orld. Its collections range from Egyptian and .lassical anti/uities
through Sa!on treasures to more recent artefacts.
The Aictoria and Dlbert 0useum in South Kensington is an assembly of fine and decorative art collections from
all over the orld. There are magnificent e!amples of porcelain, glass, sculpture, fabrics and costume, furniture,
and musical instruments, all set in a building of Aictorian grandeur. =earby are the 0useum of =atural
;istory and the Science 0useum. @n the other side of %ondon, in the .ity itself, is the 0useum of %ondon,
hich has e!hibits dealing ith the development of the capital from its origins to the present day.
The =ational 7allery in Trafalgar S/uare contains one of the finest mi!ed collections of paintings in the orld.
=e!t door is the =ational ?ortrait 7allery, hose collection includes more than #,999 portraits. The Tate
7allery, situated on the Emban(ment beteen .helsea and 'estminster, houses the largest collection of $ritish
painting from the ":th century to the present day. In "#8B an e!tension opened to house the paintings
be/ueathed to the nation by *. 0. '. Turner. There are plans to establish a ne Tate 7allery of 0odern Drt in
Southar(, near the reconstructed Sha(espearean theatre, the 7lobe.
@ther important collections in the capital include the Imperial 'ar 0useum, the =ational Drmy 0useum, the
Royal Dir <orce 0useum, the =ational 0aritime 0useum, the 'allace .ollection 1of paintings, furniture, arms
and armour, and obCets d&art5, Sir *ohn Soane&s 0useum 1founded by the architect of the $an( of England in the
.ity5, and the %ondon Transport 0useum. The Gueen&s 7allery in $uc(ingham ?alace has e!hibitions of
pictures from the e!tensive royal collection. The Theatre 0useum displays the history of the performing arts,
hile the 0useum of the 0oving Image traces the history of film and television.
The $ritish %ibrary, the national library of $ritain, has a collection of more than "39 million separate items.
?ublishers must deposit in the %ibrary a copy of everything they publish.
Performing Arts
%ondon is one of the orld&s leading centres for theatre, and there are about "99 theatres in the capital. These
include the three auditoriums of the Royal =ational Theatre in the South $an( .entreE the to auditoriums in
the %ondon base of the Royal Sha(espeare .ompany at the .ity&s $arbican .entreE and the Royal .ourt
Theatre in Sloane S/uare, home of the English Stage .ompany, hich stages or( by ne playrights. The
largest concentration of commercial theatres is in the 'est End, around Shaftesbury Dvenue, .haring .ross
Road, and the Strand.
In "#8# the partial remains of the 7lobe Theatre, here Sha(espeare acted, and the Rose Theatre, here his
plays ere performed during his lifetime, ere e!cavated on the south ban( of the Thames in central %ondon+ a
modern reconstruction of the 7lobe Theatre, near its original site, as unveiled in "##:.
The principal concert halls in central %ondon are the Royal <estival ;all in the South $an( .entre 1ne!t to
hich are the Gueen EliHabeth ;all and the ?urcell Room, hich accommodate smaller-scale performances5,
the $arbican ;all, the Royal Dlbert ;all in Kensington, the 'igmore ;all, 1behind @!ford Street5E and St
*ohn&s .hurch in Smith S/uare, 'estminster.
The leading symphony orchestras in %ondon include the %ondon Symphony, the %ondon ?hilharmonic, the
Royal ?hilharmonic, the ?hilharmonia, and the $$. Symphony. There are also several %ondon chamber
orchestras and choirs. The Royal @pera and the Royal $allet, hich ran( among the orld&s finest companies,
perform at the Royal @pera ;ouse, .ovent 7arden. Seasons of opera in English are given by the English
=ational @pera at the %ondon .oliseum. English <estival $allet 1founded as %ondon <estival $allet5 performs
at the Royal <estival ;all, and the Rambert >ance .ompany provides regular seasons of modern dance in the
capital.
There is a ide range of cinemas throughout %ondon. The =ational <ilm Theatre on the South $an(,
administered by the $ritish <ilm Institute, annually mounts the %ondon <ilm <estival.
;ighly respected music, dance, and drama colleges in %ondon include the Royal Dcademy of >ramatic Drt, the
Royal .ollege of 0usic, the Royal $alletSchool, and the %ondon .ontemporary >ance School.
Pars
To thirds of %ondon is intensively built up, yet the capital is ell endoed ith par(s and open spaces. ;yde
?ar(, adCoining Kensington 7ardens, as formerly (non as the ,lung of %ondon-. Regent&s ?ar(, to the north
of the 'est End, is surrounded by elegant buildings designed by *ohn =ash for the ?rince Regent 1hence its
name5 and contains the Loological 7ardens 1the %ondon Loo5. @ther important open spaces in %ondon, some of
them royal par(s, include 7reen ?ar(, St *ames&s ?ar(, ;ampstead ;eath, ;olland ?ar(, $attersea ?ar(,
?arliament ;ill <ields, and ?rimrose ;ill. In outer %ondon there are some e!tended green areas such as
Richmond ?ar(, $ushey ?ar(, Ke 7ardens 1incorporating the famous Royal $otanic 7ardens5, and 7reenich
?ar(.
Education
%ondon University as founded in "86B and is the largest university in $ritain, comprising many prominent
colleges, institutes, and schools. These include the medical schools attached to %ondon&s teaching hospitals
1such as the ancient foundations of 7uy&s, St Thomas&s, and St $artholome&s5, and other renoned centres of
educational e!cellence, including University .ollege %ondonE King&s .ollegeE the Imperial .ollege of Science,
Technology, and 0edicineE and the %ondon School of Economics and ?olitical Science. @ther universities
located in the capital include the .ityUniversity, the University of East %ondon,
the University of 7reenich, Kingston University, %ondon 7uildhall University, 0iddlese! University,
theUniversity of =orth %ondon, South $an( University, Thames Aalley University, and
the University of 'estminster. The Royal .ollege of Drt, ne!t to the Royal Dlbert ;all, aards postgraduate
degrees.
%ondon is also the home of the $ritish Dcademy, hich promotes historical, philosophical, and philological
studiesE the Royal Dcademy 1of fine arts5E the Royal Dcademy of EngineeringE and the Royal Society,
devoted to the encouragement of the sciences.
The !istory of London
Site and Origins
'hen *ulius .aesar overcame the native $ritish forces in a s(irmish by the Thames in 3F $., he may possibly
have left behind an encampment on the site of hat became %ondonE hoever, there is no firm evidence of the
founding of the city until the Romans invaded again during the reign of .laudius in D> F6. Dfter another
victorious battle, the invaders founded a settlement on the north ban( of the Thames, at a point here it could
conveniently be forded and bridged. This first ,%ondinium- did not last long+ in D> :9 the Roman settlement
as overrun and burnt to the ground by avenging $ritons led by Gueen $oudicca.
The Romans proved resolute, retoo( the city, rebuilt it, fortified it ith alls, and thereafter for the ne!t three
centuries %ondon flourished as one of the most important outposts of the Roman Empire north of the Dlps. $y
around D> 299 the city had a population of about 69,999, and it could boast a fort, an e!tensive basilica, a
forum, an amphitheatre, temples, and public baths for its citiHens. Drchaeological finds have demonstrated the
opulence of the villas built by the leading citiHens and the rich lifestyles they folloed. %ondon as the natural
geographical site for the Romans to choose as the focus of their colony. Situated on $ritain&s chief river, it
formed a bridgehead, a hub for the military road system, and a superb port for trade ith 7aul and the %o
.ountries.
Decline and Fall of Roman London
'ith the groing barbarian assaults on the empire at the end of the Fth century, Rome ithdre its troops and
the RomaniHed population as left to fend for itself. <ierce raids by ?icts, Dngles, and Sa!ons led to the
abandonment of the city and there is little evidence of urban activity during the 3th century. Ds the Dnglo-
Sa!on settlement too( root, hoever, %ondon revivedE by the 8th century trade as prospering again across the
English .hannel and the =orth Sea.
Medieval London
Ai(ing raids in the #th century affected all England. %ondon as a prime target and for that reason strategically
ever more important for the survival of the Dnglo-Sa!on (ingdoms. In conse/uence %ondon replaced
'inchester as the de facto capital of the southern (ingdoms. Time and again in the #th and "9th centuries the
city as assailed, and chroniclers report savage attac(s and heroic defences. >efence needs led to the
emergence of aldermen)headmen of the precincts 1or ards5 of the city, ho served as its military defenders.
;ere lie the roots of %ondon&s later local government system.
Though the Ai(ing threat as eventually seen off, the Dnglo-Sa!on monarchy could not repulse the =ormans.
Dfter the defeat of King ;arold at the $attle of ;astings in "9::, 'illiam, >u(e of =ormandy, /uic(ly
installed himself in %ondon, had himself croned on .hristmas >ay, and made it his head/uarters, building the
'hite Toer, a monumental stone (eep that as to form the core of the Toer of %ondon. The =ormans
restored the alls and rebuilt %ondon $ridge in stone for the first time. 'illiam II, the .on/ueror&s son,
developed 'estminster ;all 6(m 12 mi5 upriver from the Toer as his royal palace and a bolt-hole safe from
fractious burghers. Thereafter, the capital&s history as alays in some measure a tale of to cities+ the .ity of
%ondon itself, the s/uare mile first circumscribed by the Roman alls, settled by the Sa!ons and =ormans, and
destined to become the centre of economic activityE and, on the other hand, the .ity of 'estminster ith its to
focuses of 'estminster Dbbey and 'estminster ;all, hich became the home of the royal court and later of
?arliament.
The =ormans, and later the ?lantagenets, made England strong, and %ondon flourished as their capital and as a
port and manufacturing centre. 0uch of England&s lucrative trade in ool and agricultural produce as floated
don the Thames and e!ported via the harves and Cetties Cust donstream of %ondon $ridge. 'ithin the
alls, s(illed crafts flourished and, especially from the "Fth century, these ere organiHed into over "99 guilds,
such as the 0ercers, Salters, <ishmongers, and Aintners. D mi!ture of trade union and employers& company,
guilds ere self-regulating bodies ith the poer to admit apprentices and appoint freemen 1ho thereby
became citiHens5. Trades ere localiHed and often associated ith a particular street that still survives today+ for
e!ample, 'ood Street, 0il( Street, Ironmonger %ane, and ?oultry still branch off .heapside 1,cheap- is from
the Dnglo-Sa!on for ,mar(et-5.
%ondon developed administrative institutions. <rom Cust before "299 there is evidence of a mayor. This official
seems to have had dual loyalties, being in part an officer of the .ron charged ith carrying out royal business,
hile also serving as a focus for citiHen loyalty)a tension indicative of the often strained relationships beteen
the .ity and the .ron in the latter part of the 0iddle Dges. 0any (ings, notably the Edards, treated the .ity
of %ondon as a milch co, a handy source of ta!es and revenues. Iet only a foolish monarch ould ris(
permanently alienating the loyalties of the merchant princes of the .ity of %ondon, as .harles I as later to
discover to his cost.
<rom the "3th century, %ondon&s government as conducted from the 7uildhall, an impressive stone building
that in part survives. $eneath the 0ayor there as the .ourt of Dldermen, the .ommon .ouncil, and the
.ommon ;all. Tensions often arose among these bodies, and also beteen the assemblies and the guilds, but
%ondon managed to escape the internecine urban arfare so common in late medieval Italy. The emergence of
?arliament conferred further importance on %ondon, since its meetings ere increasingly held in 'estminster
;all.
%ondon&s prosperity as temporarily affected by the $lac( >eath of "6F8-"6F#, a bubonic plague epidemic that
(illed up to one third of the entire population. That did not, hoever, prove a long-term setbac(, and much
evidence suggests that %ondon enCoyed self-confident prosperity in the late 0iddle Dges. The guilds staged
elaborate pageantry ith their calendar festivities, and the Canterbury Tales, ritten by 7eoffrey .haucer
around "6#9, gives a vivid picture of pilgrims setting off to .anterbury from the Tabard Inn in Southar(, at
the south end of %ondon $ridge.
Tudor London
D great atershed in %ondon&s history as the Reformation instigated by ;enry AIII, furthered by his son
Edard AI, and completed by his daughter EliHabeth I. Unli(e the e!perience of many European cities, in
%ondon the Reformation did not involve mass bloodshed. .ity fathers and educated preachers generally
cooperated in bringing about a gradual shift from .atholicism to ?rotestantism. 'hat proved more disruptive,
hoever, and yet a golden opportunity, as the abolition of the monasteries and chantries. Ds a conse/uence of
the >issolution, much of the freehold property ithin the .ity and Cust beyond the alls changed hands. The
.ron redistributed priories, nunneries, chantries, and charities into the hands of royal supporters ho sold
them off, turned them into spectacular houses for themselves, or redeveloped them for industrial and
commercial or residential purposes. The result as a vigorous land mar(et, and the unleashing of a property
boom, ith housing of all sorts for rich and poor ali(e becoming Cammed into every noo( and cranny of the old
city and spilling over into the suburbs.
This building boom as both a cause and a conse/uence of the other great ":th-century change in the capital+
rapid population groth. %ondon boomed from a population of about 39,999 in "399 to perhaps "F9,999 in
":99, and to about B39,999 by "B99. 0ost of these people had floc(ed in from the country, but many migrants
came from abroad, often as religious refugees, such as the ;uguenots. These or(ed in %ondon&s burgeoning
or(shops and industries, notably eaving, laboured in the port, or found employment in domestic service.
%ondon as becoming one of Europe&s great commercial centres, its trade spreading to the %evant, to Russia,
and after ":99 increasingly to =orth Dmerica. %ondon as a beneficiary of the incessant arfare raging after
"339 on the .ontinent, especially the 'ars of Religion. The destruction of Dnterp by the Spaniards in "3B2
handed %ondon supremacy as a =orth Sea commercial entrepMt.
England&s monopoly trading companies, such as the Russia .ompany, set up by royal charter in "333, and the
East India .ompany 1":995, had their head/uarters in %ondon. Its commercial dominance as epitomiHed by
the career of Sir Thomas 7resham and his establishment of the Royal E!change in "3:: as a commercial
head/uarters. @pened by Gueen EliHabeth in "3B9, the E!change as the .ity&s finest attempt at Renaissance
architecture, a four-storeyed bric( building 1later stuccoed5 built around a courtyard ith covered arcades and
dominated by a bell toer. Dbove the arcades ere haberdashers, armourers, goldsmiths, drapers, and glass-
sellers. It symboliHed %ondon&s groing confidence as a orld trading-centre.
%ondon&s glory as reflected in its cultural radiance. It became a maCor boo(-publishing centre, hile the courts
of ;enry AIII and EliHabeth I at 'hitehall attracted painters, poets, and performers. %ondon also became the
focus for the study and practice of la, centred upon the Inns of .ourt+ %incoln&s Inn, the Temple, the Inner
Temple, 7ray&s Inn, and other lesser halls, situated beteen the .ity and 'estminster. South of the river,
$an(side flourished as a lively amusement precinct, boasting innumerable taverns and hostelries, coc(pits, bull-
and bear-baiting rings, and brothels. Theatres sprang up, notably the 7lobe 1"3#85, here some of
Sha(espeare&s plays here premiered. These theatres ere closed by the ?uritans in the ":F9s as threats to
public morals and order.
0any feared that spiralling population groth ould unleash social disorder. %urid pamphlets arned about the
surge of criminals, pic(poc(ets, and a disruptive lo-life subculture. Iet in the event Tudor %ondon seems to
have been remar(ably stable. 0uch as oed to the great resilience of its local government system. The city&s
"99 parishes operated ell as small, face-to-face neighbourhood communitiesE the rotation of elective offices
absorbed a high proportion of the citiHenry in running their on affairs. 7uilds also continued to regulate trade
and employment, integrating outsiders and giving some semblance of reality to the myth of >ic( 'hittington
1the apprentice boy ho rose to become lord mayor5. %ondon as fortunate in remaining essentially self-
governing under its on mayor, rather than having a royal governor imposed, as ith so many other European
cities. ?rosperity (ept discontent don.
1t!"Century London
%ondon e!perienced several disasters in the "Bth century. The first as political. 7roing tensions beteen the
early Stuart (ings and ?arliament provo(ed from ":F" a chain of events that led to the .ivil 'ar. Dfter the .ity
gave refuge in *anuary ":F2 to five 0embers of ?arliament hom .harles I had tried to arrest, the bonds
beteen ?arliament and %ondon became cemented. In Dugust ":F2 the (ing raised his standard in =ottingham.
;is flight from %ondon left the ay open for radicals to ta(e over the city.
'ith ar declared, .harles&s first priority as to capture the unruly city, hich ould have on the ar at a
stro(e. ;is chance came early, before the parliamentary army as organiHed. @n =ovember "2, ":F2, royalists
overhelmed the parliamentary troops at $rentfordE to parry the inescapable attac(, %ondon gathered its trained
bands in a force of 2F,999 at Turnham 7reen, to the est by .hisic( .ommonE .harles hesitated, retired to
Reading, and missed his golden chance of seiHing the mutinous capital. %ondon then thre up an impressive
defence system, ringing the .ity ith a vast system of ditches and fortifications. Thereafter, during the
remaining four years of civil ar, %ondon remained securely in parliamentary hands, and the city&s ealth
ensured ultimate parliamentary victory.
<urther turmoil hit %ondon soon after the restoration of the monarchy in "::9. In "::3 plague bro(e out. There
had been outbrea(s of groing severity throughout the Tudor and Stuart eras, but the "::3 attac( as
particularly severe. ?lague erupted early in the summer, especially in the overcroded slum areas beyond the
alls, pea(ing in September, hen thousands ere dying every ee(. Dll ho could, fled, leaving it a ghost
ton. The diarist Samuel ?epys left moving accounts of the suffering in a decimated city. The cold inter
eather finally put don the outbrea(, but not before it had (illed up to 89,999 %ondoners.
Soon afterards came the <ire of %ondon. This bro(e out on the night of September 2, "::: in a ba(er&s shop in
?udding %ane, Cust north of old $illingsgate <ish 0ar(et. >rought conditions and a strong easterly ind meant
the flames spread rapidly, all the more so as the mayor as unilling to ta(e drastic action by pulling don
houses in the path of the flames. The fire stretched estard for three days, eventually crossing the River <leet
by $lac(friars and moving into ;olborn. Dbout :9 per cent of the old city as destroyed, including old St
?aul&s .athedral, 8B parish churches, FF %ivery .ompany halls, "6,299 houses, 7resham&s Royal E!change,
and the .ustom ;ouse. Surprisingly, very fe lives ere lost.
Sir .hristopher 'ren and other architects rapidly tendered maCestic redevelopment designs but in the rush to get
the city operational again all such plans ere forgotten, and individual landoners and householders ere
encouraged to build more or less as they ished on their on sites. =e building regulations, hoever,
stipulated that post-fire buildings should be constructed of stone, bric(, tile, and slate, rather than of ood and
thatch as before. Ds a result, %ondon escaped subse/uent disastrous firesE the more salubrious urban
environment perhaps also helped stamp out plague.
Restoration to Regency
'ith .harles II&s restoration and the post-fire rebuilding, %ondon enCoyed a golden age. .ommerce boomed
than(s to the success of $ritain as a European poer and ith the groth of empire. Dround "B99, %ondon&s
/uays ere handling about 89 per cent of the country&s imports, :# per cent of its e!ports, and 8: per cent of its
re-e!ports, notably tobacco, sugar, sil(s, and spices. Everything came to %ondon. Sil(, tea, sugar, and tobacco
arehouses lined the ?ool of %ondonE and commodity e!changes sprang up, such as the tea e!change near East
India ;ouse in %eadenhall Street. .ontemporaries described the Thames as a forest of masts.
0eanhile, the .ity of %ondon gre into a orld financial centre, rivalled only by Dmsterdam. The $an( of
England as founded in ":#F at more or less the same time as the development of the Stoc( E!change, bro(ers,
and ban(ers.
.ommercial prosperity produced a ne urban geography. To the east of the old alled city, the port&s activities
attracted multitudes of or(ing people ho lived in slum conditions in 'hitechapel, 'apping, Stepney, and
%imehouse)sailors, atermen, and all those involved ith the processing and distributive trades that gre up
around the port. This area became the core of the classic East End, the haunt of .oc(neys, especially after the
construction of %ondon&s artificial doc(s early in the "#th century. 0aCor riverside industries included
shipbuilding 1until the "839s5, breeries, and chemical firmsE and, in the "#th century, gasor(s, railay
marshalling yards, and tanneries.
To the est of the old city the environs of 'estminster attracted the elite. .ity ban(ers and merchants, no
ishing to live aay from their business, ere beguiled by the idea of a smart domicile to the est, aay from
the smo(e, dirt, and bustle of the city. Dbove all, landoners and gentlemen needing a ton house ere
attracted to the 'est End, so as to be near ?arliament and the royal court at St *ames&s. The 'est End thus
developed as a fashionable residential area beteen the Restoration and the Regency 1"::9-"8295.
The first maCor speculative development had emerged in the ":69s, ith .ovent 7arden, the property of the
Earl of $edford. This he developed as an elegant residential area focused upon a ?iaHHa, built either on the
Italian model, or in imitation of the ?lace des Aosges in ?aris. $loomsbury S/uare came ne!t, developed by the
Earl of Southampton, and soon afterards St *ames&s S/uare as built up in the ":B9s by the Earl of St Dlbans
as the most fashionable residential area of ton.
>evelopment folloed development+ ;anover S/uare, .avendish S/uare, $er(eley S/uare, 7rosvenor S/uare,
0anchester S/uare, and ?ortman S/uareE and lin(ing them ere the stylish streets and shops of ?iccadilly,
0ayfair, and, slightly later, 0arylebone.
The freeholds to these areas ere typically oned by principal aristocratic landoners ho ould lease out
plots of land to speculative builders ho ould be compelled to uphold high standards in their developments so
as to sustain high rental values. D chief style involved s/uares and terraces of elegant bric(-built dellings in
classical proportions ith clean straight lines, tall sash indos, basements for services, and attics for servants
)a mode of urban living that as economical on space yet e!tremely smart.
The 'est End also generated entertainment and pleasure centres);yde ?ar( and other royal par(s, theatres,
clubs, spectacles, taverns, inns, shops, bagnios 1genteel brothels5)a range of sights and places here the
affluent could enCoy themselves, parade, and mingle in chic company. $y the time *ohn =ash developed Regent
Street and Regent&s ?ar( for the ?rince Regent, %ondon as bigger than ?aris and as proud of its reputation as
the most lively city in the orld.
1#t!"Century London
7eorgian %ondon had remained topographically compact, restricted by the limitations of contemporary
transport. In the "#th century the metropolis gre rapidly in numbers because a series of maCor transportation
innovations permitted geographical spread.
<rom "82# the introduction of public horse-dran omnibuses made it easy for city tradesmen and cler(s to live
in leafy suburbs such as .lapham, .hisic(, and Richmond. The invention of the railay then changed things
radically. %ondon&s first railay termini, including Euston, ere built in the "869s, but it as not until the
"839s that a suburban commuter railay netor( began to emerge north and south of the Thames. Stations
ere built to get hite-collar or(ers rapidly to their city offices. Aillages rapidly turned into densely built-up
suburbs, as speculative builders crammed villas and terraces into them.
Initially, the railays catered mainly for the middle classes, but from the "8:9s ?arliament stipulated that
railay companies must run special cheap or(men&s trains to ensure that the or(ing classes could relocate
from the old central slums to ne and affordable housing being built up particularly to %ondon&s north-east and
east around Tottenham, ?oplar, and 'est ;am. The ability of the or(ing classes to travel considerable
distances to or( as also enhanced from about "8:9 by horse-dran trams.
The greatest revolution lay in the underground railay, beginning in the "8:9s ith the 0etropolitan %ine
beteen ?addington and <arringdon, and folloed by the .ircle and >istrict lines. Initially these ere shallo
tunnels built on a ,cut-and-cover system-, ith carriages hauled by steam locomotives. It as only ith the
coming of efficient electric traction in the "8#9s that a deep tube system became feasible)the =orthern and
.entral lines ere constructed first, and then, in the 29th century, the ?iccadilly %ine folloed. Underground
railays proved crucial in getting commuters and shoppers rapidly into the very heart of %ondon ithout
further contributing to the traffic Cams that had become all too common.
%ondon&s groth startled natives and visitors ali(e. In "899 the capital&s population had been around a million.
$y "88" it had soared to F" million, by "#"" to over B million, and by "#F9 to nearly # million. In "899 "9 per
cent of England and 'ales delt in the metropolisE by "#99, it as 29 per cent. %ondon had become a ,polypus
N a vast irregular groth-, Cudged the pioneering 29th-century urban planner ?atric( 7eddes, ,perhaps li(est to
the spreading of a great coral reef-.
Aictorian %ondon as a city of contrasts. The East End as poor, sollen by masses of immigrants, in
particular Irish labourers and *es from Eastern Europe. 'hitechapel as the haunt of *ac( the Ripper. The
'est End as rich and fashionable, ith stylish department stores, theatres, music halls, and grand hotels that
included the Savoy and later the RitH. Such contrasts ere depicted by a succession of authors and Cournalists,
notably .harles >ic(ens, ;enry 0ayhe, and slightly later, Airginia 'oolf, and analysed by social scientists
such as .harles $ooth.
Iet this enormous groth brought immense problems. ;ealth as endangered as %ondon e!perienced
orsening epidemics, notably of cholera, in the early-"#th century as a result of festering slums, filth, and
deteriorating sanitation. D series of maCor public health reformers, notably Edin .hadic( in the "8F9s and
his successor >r *ohn Simon, battled to improve public health provisions. The crucial sanitary improvement
as the moderniHation of seage disposal, than(s to the vision of Sir *oseph $aHalgette. .ompleted in "8B3, his
drainage system connected every household to main drains that emptied into the Thames donriver on the ebb-
tide, thus reducing the ris( of contamination of the drin(ing-ater supply, much of hich as still ta(en from
the higher reaches of the river. The scheme also involved building the Thames emban(ments. There as a
groing recognition that %ondon&s government had become an anachronism. @rganiHed crime had gron in the
"8th century and the <rench Revolution brought an!ieties of massive public disorder in the metropolis. In the
"#th century the capital as still being presided over by a .ity of %ondon .orporation and a model of parochial
administration barely changed since the 0iddle Dges. >ic(ens and other critics a!ed indignant against parish-
pump politics, claiming that the system as venal, blin(ered, and inefficient. Iet vested interests dug in their
heelsE above all the .orporation as ealthy, ell-connected, and resistant to reform.
Set up in "833, the 0etropolitan $oard of 'or(s as the first local government body for %ondon as a hole,
hich possessed a /uasi-democratic character. Set up for ,the better management of the metropolis in respect of
the seerage and drainage and the paving, cleansing, lighting, and improvements thereof-, its functions
included planning ne roads 1to of hich ere Shaftesbury Dvenue and .haring .ross Road5 and the
maintenance of %ondon&s public health. It as not until the late "889s that a genuinely democratically elected
organiHation for %ondon as set up. This, the %ondon .ounty .ouncil 1%..5, had responsibility for %ondon&s
schools, hospitals, roads, sanitation and transport system, though the .ity of %ondon .orporation still retained
its independence and the metropolitan police remained the responsibility of the ;ome Secretary.
The %.. had many achievements to its credit in the first half of the 29th century. Dbove all it initiated an
energetic policy of public housing, decanting or(ing-class %ondoners from central slums to ne estates built
on the perimeter. It later promoted the building of subsidiHed flats in the inner suburbs too. It as also energetic
in the preservation of %ondon&s par(s and open spaces, in the improvement of public education, and in the
consolidation of %ondon&s hospitals.
T!e $%t! Century
Dfter 'orld 'ar I, %ondon continued to thrive and spral. Electric trams, the underground railay system, the
building of ne arterial roads, the motor bus, and eventually the rise of car onership led to the mushrooming
of outer suburban dormitory areas "3 to 23 (m 1"9 or "3 mi5 from the centre. Some became employment centres
in their on right. The Empire E!hibition of "#2F boosted 'embley, hile air travel led to the construction of
%ondon Dirport 1later called ;eathro5, hich gave a lasting boost to the economy of est %ondon. D ne
suburban culture highlighted the semi-detached house, built in huge numbers from the "#29s, affordable by the
loer middle classes ith the aid of cheap mortgages. It as not to everyone&s taste. ,The life of the suburb,-
declared Sir 'alter $esant, one of %ondon&s most eminent historians, as life ,ithout any societyE no social
gatherings or institutionsE as dull a life as man(ind ever tolerated.-
So long as the $ritish Empire remained poerful, %ondon&s economy boomed, overriding the disruptions of
'orld 'ar I. The .ity&s finance-houses, merchant ban(s, and insurance companies had no e/ual, and the port
handled immense /uantities of trade from all over the orld. %ondon also remained a maCor manufacturing
centre, particularly for high-/uality goods, becoming an early home of the motor-car and electrical industries.
>uring 'orld 'ar II, the $litH, from "#F9 to "#F", resulted in massive damage, affecting up to a third of all
%ondon&s housing. .asualties ere substantial+ about 29,999 %ondoners died and another 23,999 ere inCured
beteen September "#F9 and 0ay "#F" alone. $ombing continued throughout the ar. ?ost-ar %ondon
enCoyed a brief Indian summer, and in the "#:9s the metropolis bas(ed in a reputation as ,singing %ondon-,
than(s to its associations ith the orld of pop, fashion, film, and youth culture. Iet danger signals ere
flashing. The ending of the empire and the decline in the significance of the .ommonealth undermined
traditional imports and e!ports and, ith freight containeriHation, %ondon&s doc(s closed and moved donriver
to Tilbury. 0any of the capital&s traditional industries ere collapsing or ere beginning to move out of ton,
being threatened by stri(es, high ages, rentals, and costs. <rom the "#B9s there as a groing e!odus of
businesses and people out of %ondon, moving instead into ne tons 1some deliberately planned to ta(e
%ondon overspill5 and green-field sites believed to offer pleasanter, cheaper, and safer environments. @ne
conse/uence as that many inner-city and inner-suburban districts began to decline.
This groing sense of trouble, even crisis, coincided ith the setting up in "#:3 of a ne governing authority to
replace the %... The 7reater %ondon .ouncil 17%.5 represented a greater geographical area 1see 7reater
%ondon5, an indication of the fact that %ondon as continuing to spread. ;opes ere high that the 7%. ould
moderniHe and revitaliHe %ondon. Its housing problems ould be solved by high-rise flats, its traffic Cams by a
gigantic ring-road system of motorays, flyovers, and underpasses. Dll such proposals, hoever, proved deeply
controversial and ere tharted. ?lans to redevelop historical areas such as .ovent 7arden also ran into
resolute opposition. The 7%. itself became the centre of controversy, partly because of the flamboyant politics
of its socialist leadership. This precipitated its abolition in "#8: by ?rime 0inister 0argaret Thatcher, an act
idely read as a party-political manoeuvre, irrelevant to the real needs and interests of %ondon as such. Since
then, %ondon has been governed by a pot-pourri of agenciesE it is the only maCor city in the 'est not to have its
on elected assembly or mayor.
Dt the close of the 29th century, %ondon&s future remains somehat enigmatic. Ds a great historical city it is a
vast tourist attraction. The capital&s old industrial base has, hoever, dramatically declinedE unemployment
remains high, and crime and poverty are escalating as in many 'estern cities. %ondon&s orld position depends
heavily upon the continuing success of its financial sector, but the uneasy relations beteen $ritain and the
European Union threaten to put that in doubt. 0eanhile, being an old city, the up(eep of its infrastructure is
e!tremely e!pensive, and its transport system is out of date. 0any believe that the emergence of impoverished,
run-don inner-city areas, the groing contrast beteen rich and poor, and the absence of a proper democratic
government for the metropolis bode ill for the future. @n the other hand, %ondon has alays been multifaceted,
ith many distinct groth points, and a mi!ture of strengths enables it to respond positively to economic
challenges.