Engr 270 AA -- Materials Science

Experiment # 4 -- Hardness Testing of Materials

Purpose:

This experiment aims to introduce the students to the Rockwell hardness testing and its relations
to other mechanical properties such as yield strength and ultimate strength. It also introduces the
students to the variability of materials properties, and the use of measures of central tendency
and dispersion to quantify such variability.

Background:

The general concept of hardness as a property of materials having to do with solidity and firmness of
outline is easily comprehended, but not a single measure of hardness that is universally applicable to all
materials has yet been devised. The fundamental physics of hardness is not yet clearly understood.

A number of different arbitrary definitions of hardness form the basis for the various hardness tests now
in use. Some of these definitions are
1. Resistance to permanent indentation under static or dynamic loads --indentation hardness
2. Energy absorption under impact loads -- rebound hardness
3. Resistance to scratching -- scratch hardness
4. Resistance to abrasion -- wear hardness
5. Resistance to cutting or drilling -- machinability

Such definitions generally develop with the necessity for some way to qualitatively express performance
requirements under differing conditions of service. In spite of their apparent divergence in meaning, the
method of test implied by each definition has a certain useful field of application.

All the hardness measures are functions of interatomic forces, but the various hardness tests do not bring
these fundamental forces into play in the same way or the same extent, thus no method of measuring
hardness uniquely indicates any other single mechanical property. Although some hardness tests seem to
be more closely associated than others with tensile strength, some appear to be more closely related to
resilience, to ductility, and so forth. In view of this situation, it is obvious that a given type of test is of
practical use only for comparing the relative hardness of similar materials on a stated basis. The result of
ball-indentation tests on steel, for example, have no meaning when compared with results of such tests
performed on rubber but serve nicely to evaluate the effectiveness of a series of heat-treatments on a
given steel or even to classify steels of various compositions.

The fact that hardness is arbitrarily defined sets hardness tests apart from most others in an important
respect: The standards must be scrupulously observed measurements must be exact. This contrasts, for
example, with a compression test on concrete: although major differences in specimen size has some
minor effect, it makes no difference, for example, whether the specimen diameter is 6 inches (152.4 mm)
or 150 mm (provided, of course, that the correct value is used to compute the area). If, however, a
concrete test were designed to check what total force breaks a standard cylinder, all cylinders would have
to be of exactly the same diameter.
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Rockwell Hardness Testing Method

In this experiment, we will use the Rockwell hardness testing method. The Rockwell hardness number is
based on the additional depth to which a test point or ball is driven by a heavy (major) load beyond the
depth to which the same penetrator has been driven by a definite light (initial or minor) load --see Figure
1. The penetrator type and the load establish the respective Rockwell hardness scale. The penetrator C,
for the scale used to test exceptionally hard bodies, is a spheroconical diamond. The standard major load
for this penetrator is 150 kg. For unhardened steels, phosphor-bronze, aluminum, brass, cast iron, and
many metals and alloys that are not extremely hard, a specially hardened steel balI, 1/16 in diameter, is
used as a penetrator. When used in combination with a standard major load of 100 kg, the respective scale
is the Rockwell B scale (denoted by the symbol R(B)).

For making special comparative tests, the Rockwell hardness testers can be furnished with ball
penetrators of 1/8, 1/4, and 1/2 and these may be used with 150 kg, 100 kg, or 60 kg major loads, each
combination establishing a different hardness scale. The material being tested and the thickness of this
material determine the type of penetrator and major load to be used (see reference Table I). A Rockwell
Superficial hardness tester uses smaller minor and major loads and is intended for very shallow
penetration of especially thin specimens.

Many precautions are necessary to obtain true hardness results with the Rockwell instrument, especially
since the scale reading is a depth of penetration measurement. Precautions include the following:

1. Both the upper and lower surfaces should be flat, smooth, and clean. Curved surfaces
give low readings. Dirt, scale, oil, grease, burrs or ridges on the lower surface will
squeeze down during the test and give low readings.

2. Assure that tilting of the specimen does not occur during major load application. A direct
vertical line of load between base and penetrator is essential. The slightest tilting of the
specimen will change the reading, while leverage (holding by hand one end of a long specimen)
may fracture the diamond penetrator.

3. Curved surfaces underestimate true hardness and with small diameters the readings are
worthless. Small round pieces should be flattened by filing and grinding.

4. Thin, hard specimens are best tested using the appropriate scale.

5. The accuracy of the hardness tester should be checked against appropriate calibration
hardness blocks before tests are made on unknown specimens.

6. Successive hardness indentations should be spaced at least one and one-half diameters apart;
otherwise, successive hardness values will overestimate true specimen hardness.

The Rockwell Hardness Tester is a fine and delicate testing machine and can be easily damaged by rough
or improper handling. Its results are reproducible when properly made but meaningless under any
condition that precludes accurate measurement.

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There are other hardness testing machines in addition to the Rockwell and Brinell systems. In table Ill and
IV, hardness conversion data are provided for some of the more common hardness scales. The data of
Table IV include empirical correlation between hardness and strength for hardenable carbon and allow
steels. As a rule-of-thumb, the tensile strength of such steel can be approximated to be one-half of the
Brinell hardness value in KSI (1 KSI = 1000 psi).


Testing of Workpieces

The instructor will first calibrate the Rockwell Tester with the correct scale. After the unit has been
calibrated to the proper scale, testing can be done on the sample.

Select the anvil that will properly support the workpiece. The V anvils are for round test pieces and the
flat anvils are for flat pieces. If long pieces are to be tested, an accessory item, the jack rest, should be
used to properly support these workpieces.

Workpieces should be free of scale, dirt, grease, etc. The smoother the surface to be tested, the more
accurate the readings. Follow the procedure summarized below to make the actual tests:
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1. The scale pointer should be located in the proper scale zone. This is accomplished by
turning the wing nut located on the underside of the body so that the scale pointer is
centered to the correct load zone. Turning clockwise will lower the scale pointer, while
counter-clockwise will raise it.
2. Insert penetrator.
3. Select test block that corresponds to the scale being used. Select the proper anvil to
properly support the sample.
4. Rest test block on anvil, turn handknob clockwise to raise the anvil assemble. When
contact is made with the penetrator, the dial pointer will move in a clockwise direction.
Continue turning handknob until dial pointer makes two revolutions of the dial, coming
to rest at the twelve oclock position. Move dial bezel so that pointer reads absolute zero.
The minor load has now been applied.

Caution: If pointer travels past the twelve oclock position and cannot be compensated by turning
the dial bezel, repeat step #4 above. Do not back up the pointer by turning handknob counter-
clockwise,

5. Raise cam handle with a smooth, steady motion to its vertical position (2-3 seconds). Do not
snap!! Dial pointer will move counter-clockwise. Wait until dial pointer stops (approximately 4-6
seconds). Lower the cam handle with a smooth steady motion to its horizontal position. Pointer
will move clockwise. The number indicated by the pointer is the Rockwell number. See the scale
chart to determine which color numbers to read for the particular scale being used. Note that
superficial testers have only one set of numbers.
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Laboratory Activity:

Obtain samples to be tested from the instructor. Measure and record the Rockwell hardness of each
sample using the C scale first. If the readings obtained are too low, measure the hardness again using
the B scale. Make sure that the surfaces have been properly prepared; prepare surfaces by removing
oxides if necessary.

Prepare a table for the test data. Always take three or more readings for each workpiece to insure that
representative readings are being obtained. Calculate the average and standard deviations of the readings
for each sample tested. Identify the sample tested (type of metal) based on the observed physical
properties (color, texture) and the observed hardness using Table II on page 5 of this lab handout.

Report:

1. Please follow the recommended format for laboratory reports.
2. Describe in detail the Rockwell test procedures. Include any relevant observations or
comments.
3. Summarize the results of observations in a table.
Specimen Rockwell Hardness Metal Type Brinell Hardness Yield Strength Tensile Strength
1
2
3
4
5

4. Construct the following:
a. A graph correlating the Rockwell hardness readings versus yield strength for both the B scale and the C
scale for all the materials.
b. A graph correlating the Brinell hardness versus yield strength for all the materials.
c. A graph correlating the Brinell hardness versus tensile strength.
5. Describe and discuss the significance of the results shown in the graphs generated in 4.

Figure 1. Diagram of the Principle of the Rockwell Hardness Test.
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Table I: DESIGNATIONS FOR THE VARIOUS SCALES OF ROCKWELL HARDNESS TESTER


Scale Symbol Penetrator Major Load, kg Dial Figures
B 1/16 ball 100 Black
C Diamond 150 Black
A Diamond 60 Black
D Diamond 100 Black
E 1/8 ball 100 Red
F 1/16 ball 60 Red
G 1/16 ball 150 Red
H 1/8 ball 60 Red
K 1/8 ball 150 Red
L 1/4 ball 60 Red
M 1/4 ball 100 Red
P 1/4 ball 150 Red
R 1/2 ball 60 Red
S 1/2 ball 100 Red
V 1/2 ball 150 Red


Table II: HARDNESS PROPERTIES OF SOME METALS

METAL ROCKWELL HARDNESS
Aluminum
a. Annealed B27
b. Cold rolled B38
c. Precipitation hardened B75
Brass
a. Soft B42
b. Hard B77
Cast Iron
a. Gray B83 to B99
b. Chilled or White C42 to C60
c. Malleable B31
Copper
a. Soft B37
b. Hard B60
Iron (Wrought) B48
Magnesium B37
Nickel B54
Steel
a. 1020 B74
b. 1040 B76
c. 1050 B86
d. 1090 B95
e. 2340 C48
f. 4140 C25
g, 5150 C4 5