AT L A NT I C

OCE A N
Years of Crisis,
19191939
In the 1930s, several countriesincluding Japan, Germany, and
Italyadopted aggressive, militaristic policies. Eventually those
policies led to war. As the map at the right shows, Germany, Italy,
and Japan all invaded neighboring countries during this decade.
Use the map to help you answer the questions that follow.
1. What land did Japan invade?
2. What did Germany gain by invading Poland?
3. How might the invasions have suited the nationalistic goals
of Japan and Germany?
Connect History and Geography
1922
James Joyce
writes Ulysses.
1919
Weimar Republic
established in Germany.
For more information about the world
between the wars . . .
CLASSZONE.COM
Nazis marched, flags held
high, in a rally in Nuremberg,
Germany, in 1933. These
brown-shirted storm-
troopers were militant
followers of Adolf Hitler. He
used them to force his will
on the German nation.
792
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Page 1 of 3
Japanese expansion, 1931
No r t h
S e a
B l a c k S e a
Yellow
Sea
Sea of
Japan
Me d
i t
e
r
r
a
n
e
a
n
S
e
a
A
d
r
i
a
t
i
c
S
e
a
B
a
l
t
i
c
S
e
a
Demilitarized
Zone
AUSTRI A
HUNGARY
SWI TZ.
ALBANI A
GREAT
BRI TAI N
S O V I E T U NI O N
SOVI ET UNI ON
F R A NC E
G E R MA NY
GREECE
YUGOSLAVI A
POLAND
BULGARI A
R O MA NI A
JAPAN
MANCHURI A
CHI NA
KOREA
I TA LY
BELGI UM
NETHERLANDS
LUXEMBOURG
NORWAY
DENMARK
SWEDEN
ESTONI A
LATVI A
EAST
PRUSSI A
( Ger. )
LI THUANI A
C
Z
E
C
H
O
S
L
O
V
AKI A
45N
15E 30E
60N
30N
45N
135E
150E
0
N
250 Miles 125 0
0 250 Kilometers 125
Robinson Projection
German expansion, 1936
Germany, 1931
German expansion, 1938
German expansion, 1939
Italian expansion, 1939
Territorial Expansion, 19311939
1927 Lindbergh
crosses Atlantic in
Spirit of St. Louis.
1931
Japan seizes
Manchuria.
1929 U.S. stock
market crashes; Great
Depression begins.
1933
Hitler named
German chancellor.
1936
Spanish Civil
War begins.
1939 Germany and
Soviet Union sign
nonaggression pact.
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Page 2 of 3
Which candidate
will you choose?
Interact with History
O
n a spring evening in the early 1930s during the Great
Depression, you are one of thousands of Germans
gathered at an outdoor stadium in Munich. You are
unemployed; your country is suffering. Like everyone else,
you have come to this mass meeting to hear two politicians
campaigning for office. Huge speakers blare out patriotic
music, while you and the rest of the crowd wait impatiently
for the speeches to begin.
Before long you will have to cast your ballot.
794
Remember Germanys long
and glorious past.
Our present leadership is
indecisive; we need a
strong, effective leader.
Rebuild the army to protect
against enemies.
Regain the lands taken
unfairly from us.
Make sacrifices to return to
economic health.
Put the welfare of the state
above all, and our country
will be a great power again.
First candidates platform:
There are no simple
or quick solutions to problems.
Put people back to work,
but economic recovery will
be slow.
Provide for the poor, elderly,
and sick.
Avoid reckless military
spending.
Act responsibly to safeguard
democracy.
Be a good neighbor country;
honor our debts and treaty
commitments.
Second candidates platform:
EXAMI NI NG the I SSUES
What strategy does each candidate have
for solving the nations problems?
How does each candidate view the role
of the citizen in meeting the challenges
facing the nation?
Which candidate makes the strongest
appeal to the listeners emotions?
As a class, discuss these questions. In your
discussion, remember what you have read
about the defeated nations bitterness toward
the Versailles Treaty following World War I.
How might this influence which candidate
voters favor?
As you read this chapter, see how dictators
were voted into power as people lost faith in
democratic government in the 1920s and 1930s.
Examine the factors that influenced political
decisions in this troubled time.
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Page 3 of 3
Years of Crisis 795
SETTING THE STAGE The horrors of World War I shattered the Enlightenment
belief that progress would continue and reason would prevail. New ideas and patterns
of life developed in the 1920s that changed the way people looked at the world.
Science Challenges Old Ideas
The ideas of two remarkable thinkers became widely known during
this age of uncertainty. They were Albert Einstein and Sigmund
Freud. Both had an enormous impact on the 20th century. Einstein
and Freud challenged some of the most deeply rooted ideas that
people held about themselves and their world. They were part of a
scientic revolution as important as that brought about centuries
earlier by Copernicus and Galileo.
Impact of Einsteins Theory of Relativity A German-born
physicist, Albert Einstein, offered startling new ideas on space,
time, energy, and matter. He began by tackling a problem that baf-
ed physicists. Scientists had found that light travels at exactly the
same speed no matter what direction it moves in relation to earth.
Earth moves through space, yet its movement did not affect the
speed at which light seemed to travel. This nding seemed to break
the laws of motion and gravity discovered by Isaac Newton.
In 1905, Einstein theorized that while the speed of light is con-
stant, other things that seem constant, such as space and time, are
not. Space and time can change when measured relative to an object
moving near the speed of lightabout 186,000 miles per second.
Since relative motion is the key to Einsteins idea, it is called the
theory of relativity. Einsteins ideas had implications not only for
science but for how people viewed the world. Now uncertainty and
relativity replaced Newtons comforting belief of a world operating
according to absolute laws of motion and gravity.
Inuence of Freudian Psychology The ideas of Sigmund
Freud, an Austrian physician, were as revolutionary as Einsteins.
Freud treated patients with psychological problems. From his expe-
riences, he constructed a theory about the human mind. He believed
that much of human behavior is irrational, or beyond reason. He
called the irrational part of the mind the unconscious. In the uncon-
scious, a number of drives existed, especially pleasure-seeking drives,
of which the conscious mind was unaware. Freuds theories, rst
published in The Interpretation of Dreams (1900), met with opposition, especially his
ideas about the unconscious. His ideas weakened faith in reason. All the same, by the
1920s, Freuds theories had developed widespread inuence.
A. Possible
Answers They
changed the way peo-
ple thought about the
world; they weakened
faith in absolute
truths and reason.
THINK THROUGH HISTORY
A. Recognizing
Effects Why
were the ideas of
Einstein and Freud
revolutionary?
An Age of Uncertainty
1
TERMS & NAMES
Albert Einstein
theory of
relativity
Sigmund Freud
existentialism
Friedrich
Nietzsche
surrealism
jazz
Charles
Lindbergh
MAIN IDEA
The postwar period was one of loss
and uncertainty but also one of
invention, creativity, and new ideas.
WHY IT MATTERS NOW
Postwar trends in physics, psychiatry,
art, literature, communication, music,
and transportation still affect our lives.
Albert Einstein
18791955
Albert Einstein was the greatest
scientic genius since Isaac
Newton. He was thought to be a
slow learner as a child because he
did not talk at the same age as other
children. Later in life, he recalled
that at age two or three he wanted
to speak in sentences. But he did
not want to say sentences aloud
until he was sure he had them right.
As a child, Einstein was quiet,
serious, and solitary. He was also
a daydreamer who did not impress
his teachers. In this, he was unlike
many geniuses who showed
exceptional ability at an early age.
However, it was at this time
that Einstein developed a desire to
stay with a question until it was
answered. He later called this his
ight from wonder.


HISTORYMAKERS
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Page 1 of 6
Literature in an Age of Doubt
The brutality of World War I caused philosophers and writers to question accepted
ideas about reason and progress. Disillusioned by the war, many people also feared the
future and expressed doubts about traditional religious beliefs. Some artists and writers
expressed their anxieties by creating unsettling visions of the present and the future.
In 1922, T. S. Eliot, an American poet living in England, wrote
that Western society had lost its spiritual values. He described the
postwar world as a barren waste land, drained of hope and faith. In
1924, the Irish poet William Butler Yeats conveyed a
sense of dark times ahead in the poem The Second
Coming: Things fall apart; the centre cannot hold; /
Mere anarchy is loosed upon the world . . .
Thinkers React to Uncertainties In their search for
meaning in an uncertain world, some thinkers turned to
the philosophy known as existentialism. Leaders of this
movement included the philosophers Jean Paul Sartre
(SAHR
truh) of France and Karl Jaspers of Germany.
Existentialists believed that there is no universal mean-
ing to life. Each person gives his or her own meaning to
life through choices made and actions taken. The exis-
tentialists would have their greatest inuence after World War II.
The existentialists had been inuenced by the German philoso-
pher Friedrich Nietzsche (NEE
chuh). In the 1880s, Nietzsche
wrote that Western society had put too much stress on such ideas as
reason, democracy, and progress. This stied actions based on emo-
tion and instinct. As a result, individuality and creativity suffered.
Nietzsche urged a return to the ancient heroic values of pride,
assertiveness, and strength. He wrote that through willpower and
courage, some humans could become supermen. They could rise
above and control the common herd. His ideas attracted growing
attention in the 20th century and had a great impact on politics in
Italy and Germany in the 1920s and 1930s.
Writers Reect Societys Concerns New attitudes also appeared
in literature. The French poet Paul Valry spoke for many writers of the 1920s when
he described how he felt restless and uneasy:
A V O I C E F R O M T H E P A S T
We think of what has disappeared, and we are almost destroyed by what has been
destroyed; we do not know what will be born, and we fear the future. . . . Doubt and dis-
order are in us and with us. There is no thinking man, however shrewd or learned he may
be, who can hope to dominate this anxiety, to escape from this impression of darkness.
PAUL VALRY, Varit
The horror of war made a deep impression on many writers. The Czech-born author
Franz Kafka wrote eerie novels like The Trial (1925) and The Castle (1926). His books
featured people crushed in threatening situations they could neither understand nor
escape. He started writing before the war, but much of his work was published after his
death in 1924. It struck a chord among readers in the uneasy postwar years.
Many novels showed the inuence of Freuds theories on the unconscious. The
Irish-born author James Joyce caused a stir with his stream-of-consciousness novel
Ulysses (1922). This lengthy book focused on a single day in the lives of three
Dubliners. Joyce broke with normal sentence structure and vocabulary, trying to mir-
ror the workings of the human mind.
Vocabulary
stream of conscious-
ness: a literary tech-
nique a writer uses to
present a characters
thoughts and feelings
as they develop.
796 Chapter 31
The Lost Generation
During the 1920s, many
American writers, musi-
cians, and painters left the
United States to live in
Europe. Among them were
writers Ernest Hemingway,
John Dos Passos, and F.
Scott Fitzgerald.
These expatriates,
people who left their
native country to live
elsewhere, often settled
in Paris. They gathered at
the home of American
writer Gertrude Stein.
There they mixed with Europes
leading artists and intellectuals.
Stein called these expatriates the
Lost Generation. She remarked,
All of you young people who served
in the war [World War I], you are the
lost generation.
In his rst major novel, The Sun
Also Rises (1926), Hemingway
captured the desperation of the
young expatriate crowd. They moved
frantically from one European city to
another, trying to nd meaning in life.
Life empty of meaning is the theme of
Fitzgeralds The Great Gatsby (1925).
SPOTLIGHTON
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Rebellion in the Arts
Although many of the new directions in painting, architecture, and music began in the
prewar period, they evolved after the war.
Painters Break Away from Tradition Artists rebelled against earlier realistic styles
of painting. They wanted to depict the inner world of emotion and imagination rather
than show realistic representations of objects. Expressionist painters like Paul Klee and
Wassily Kandinsky used bold colors and distorted or exaggerated shapes and forms.
Inspired by traditional African art, Georges Braque of France and Pablo Picasso of
Spain founded Cubism in 1907. Cubism transformed natural shapes into geometric
forms. Objects were broken down into different parts with sharp angles and edges.
Often several views were depicted at the same time.
The Dada movement (1916
1924) was as much a protest as an
art movement. Its message was that
established values had been made
meaningless by the savagery of
World War I. The term Dada,
French for hobbyhorse, was
reportedly picked at random.
Sounding like a nonsense word, it t
the spirit of the movement. Dadaist
works were meant to be absurd,
nonsensical, and meaningless.
Surrealism followed Dada.
Inspired by Freuds ideas, surreal-
ism was an art movement that
sought to link the world of dreams
with real life. The term surreal
means beyond or above reality.
Surrealists tried to call on the unconscious part of their minds. Their paintings fre-
quently had a dream-like quality and depicted objects in unrealistic ways.
Architects Move in New Directions An architectural revolution occurred when
architects rejected traditional building styles for completely new forms. Instead of
highly ornamented structures, they constructed buildings in which the design
reected the buildings function or use. The American architect Frank Lloyd Wright
pioneered this new style, known as functionalism. He designed houses featuring
clean, low lines and open interiors that blended with the surrounding landscape.
Walter Gropius led the functionalist movement in Germany. After the war, he started
an art and design school in Weimar called the Bauhaus.
Composers Try New Styles In both classical and popular music, composers moved
away from traditional styles. In his ballet masterpiece, The Rite of Spring, the Russian
composer Igor Stravinsky used irregular rhythms and dissonances, or harsh combina-
tions of sound. The audience booed and walked out of its opening performance. The
Austrian composer Arnold Schoenberg rejected traditional harmonies and musical
scales. He created his own 12-tone scale in which the notes were unrelated except as
mathematical patterns.
A new popular musical style called jazz came out of the United States. It was
developed by musicians, mainly African Americans, in New Orleans, Memphis, and
Chicago. It swept the United States and Europe. The lively, loose beat of jazz seemed
to capture the new freedom of the age. Uninhibited, energetic jazz dances, such as
the Charleston and the Black Bottom, at rst shocked respectable society before
becoming widely accepted.
The Persistence
of Memory, a
surrealist work
by Spanish artist
Salvador Dali, 1931,
shows watches
melting in a desert
landscape. Insects
feed on the
clockwork.
B. Possible
Answers Artists
broke away from real-
ism, tried to draw on
the unconscious part
of their mind.
THINK THROUGH HISTORY
B. Making
Inferences What
was the major trend
in art?
Vocabulary
functionalism: doc-
trine that the function
of an object should
determine its design
and materials.
Background
The 1920s were
called the Jazz Age
because the music
symbolized the free-
dom and spontaneity
of the time.
Years of Crisis 797
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Page 3 of 6
Society Becomes More Open
World War I had disrupted traditional social patterns. New ideas and ways of life led
to a new kind of individual freedom during the 1920s. Young people especially were
willing to break with the past and experiment with values that often differed
from those of their parents. Their pleasure-seeking deance of accepted
conventions was the rst youth rebellion of the 20th century.
The independent spirit of the times showed clearly in the changes
women were making in their lives. The war had allowed women to take
on new roles. Their work in the war effort was decisive in helping
them win the right to vote. After the war, womens suffrage became
law in many countries, including the United States, Britain, Germany,
Sweden, and Austria.
Women abandoned restrictive clothing and hairstyles. They wore
shorter, looser garments and had their hair bobbed, or cut short.
They also wore makeup, drove cars, and drank and smoked in public.
Although most women still followed traditional paths of marriage and
family, a growing number spoke out for greater freedom in their lives.
Wives should not be second-class members of the family, feminists
argued, but equal partners with their husbands. Margaret Sanger and
Emma Goldman risked arrest by speaking in favor of birth control. As
women sought new careers, the numbers of women in medicine, educa-
tion, journalism, and other professions increased.
Technology Changes Life
World War I quickened the pace of invention. During the war, sci-
entists developed new drugs and medical treatments that helped
millions of people in the postwar years. The wars technological
advances were put to use to improve transportation and communica-
tion after the war.
The Automobile Alters Society The automobile beneted
from a host of wartime innovations and improvementselec-
tric starters, air-lled tires, and more powerful engines. Cars no
longer looked like boxes on wheels. They were sleek and brightly
polished, complete with headlights and chrome-plated bumpers. In
prewar Britain, autos were owned exclusively by the rich. British
factories produced 34,000 autos in 1913. After the war, prices
dropped, and the middle class could afford cars. In 1923 the num-
ber of autos built in Britain had almost tripled. By 1937, the British were producing
511,000 autos a year.
Increased auto use by the average family led to lifestyle changes. More people trav-
eled for pleasure. In Europe and the United States, new businesses, from motor hotels
to vacation campgrounds, opened to serve the mobile tourist. The auto also affected
where people lived and worked. People moved to suburbs and commuted to work.
Airplanes Transform Travel The war also brought spectacular improvements in air-
craft. By 1918, planes could y hundreds of miles. In the postwar era, daring iers
carried the rst airmail letters. Wartime aviators became stunt pilots, ying to country
fairs to perform aerial acrobatics and take people for their rst plane rides.
International air travel became an objective after the war. In 1919, two British
pilots made the rst successful ight across the Atlantic, from Newfoundland to
Ireland. The next major crossing came in 1927, when an American pilot named
Charles Lindbergh captured world attention with a 33-hour solo ight from New
York to Paris. Most of the worlds major passenger airlines were established during the
From Gibson girl
to Flapper, the
restrictive clothing
styles of the
pre-war period
depicted in the
early 20th-century
illustration gave
way to the comfort-
able, casual fash-
ions shown in the
1920s photograph.
Background
Gibson girl referred
to the idealized type
of young woman
drawn by illustrator
Charles Dana Gibson
in the pre-World
War I period.
THINK THROUGH HISTORY
C. Summarizing
How did the changes
of the post-war years
affect women?
C. Answer Women
won the right to vote,
changed style of
dress, sought new
careers.
798 Chapter 31
Pre-World War I
Gibson girls
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Page 4 of 6

Image not available for use

on CD-ROM. Please refer to
the image in the textbook.
Years of Crisis 799
Daily Life
in 1927
Babe Ruth Slugs
Sixtieth Homer
NEW YORK CITY, September 30:
Today George Herman Babe Ruth
thrilled 10,000 fans in Yankee Sta-
dium, swatting his sixtieth home run
of the season. He broke his own
1921 record of 59. After hitting the
pitch down the right eld foul line
into the stands, he said, Thats sixty
home runs, count em. Sixty.
The fast-living, hard-
hitting Babe delights
the press. They
employ many
colorful nick-
names to refer to
him. Among them
are the Bambino,
the Sultan of
Swat, the Mam-
moth of Maul, and
the Colossus of
Clout.
PARIS, May 21: Nearly 100,000
Parisians rushed onto the tarmac at
Le Bourget Airport this evening.
They ran to greet the worlds newest
heroCharles Lindbergh.
Lindbergh had just touched down
safely at 10:24 p.m. in the Spirit of
St. Louis, after completing the rst
solo ight across the Atlantic.
Looking pale and worn out,
Lindbergh smiled and said, Well,
I made it. He had just own 33
hours and 39 minutes nonstop
from New York to Paris. His ight
has great implications for the
future of air travel.
NEW YORK CITY, December 4:
Featuring jazz pianist and com-
poser Edward Kennedy Duke
Ellington, Ellingtons band
opened today at Harlems Cotton
Club for what looks like a long
run. Sources say Ellingtons nick-
name Duke comes from the band-
leaders expensive taste.
Duke Ellington
at Cotton Club
People in the News
Analyzing Causes What fac-
tors contributed to the phenom-
enon of popular public heroes
such as Charles Lindbergh, Babe
Ruth, and Helen Wills?
Researching Using the library or
the Internet, compare a recent
sporting or popular event to one
from the 1920s in terms of audi-
ence and effect. Be sure to indi-
cate how todays mass media
create popular heroes and fans.
Connect to Today
Connect to History
Helen Wills Captures Wimbledon Title
WIMBLEDON, England, July 2: Helen
Wills won the womens singles title at the
All-England Tennis matches here today. She
captured the famous tennis trophy for the
United States for the rst time in 20 years,
beating Ella de Alvarez of Spain.
Little Miss Poker Face, as
she is called, is an intense com-
petitor. She took the American Open
title at age 17 in 1923 and repeated in
1924 and 1925. Wills also won gold medals
in singles and doubles competition at the
1924 Olympics in Paris.
Parisians Greet Lindy
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Page 5 of 6
2. TAKING NOTES
Draw a chart like the one below.
For each category shown, name
two people you read about who
contributed to that eld.
Write one or two sentences about
their beliefs or contributions.
3. FORMING AN OPINION
In your opinion, whose ideas had
a bigger impact on the world
Einsteins or Freuds? Give reasons
to support your position.
THINK ABOUT
the state of knowledge before
their contributions
the eld in which they worked
how life would be different
without their contributions
4. THEME ACTIVITY
Science and Technology As a
class, hold a media event. In small
groups, choose a topic from the
scientic and technological
contributions of the 1920s. Collect
pictures, audio tapes, biographies,
or literature that represent the
people or ideas you have chosen.
Present your topic to the class
and use your collection to help
create a multimedia effect.
1. TERMS & NAMES
Identify
Albert Einstein
theory of relativity
Sigmund Freud
existentialism
Friedrich Nietzsche
surrealism
jazz
Charles Lindbergh
Section Assessment 1
FIELD CONTRIBUTORS
philosophy
literature
art
architecture
music
1920s. At rst only the rich were able to afford air travel. Still, every-
one enjoyed the exploits of the aviation pioneers, including Amelia
Earhart. She was an American who, in 1932, became the rst woman
to y solo across the Atlantic.
Radio Reaches Millions Guglielmo Marconi conducted his rst
successful experiments with radio in 1895. However, the real push
for radio development came during World War I. The advantages of
wireless communication in battle were so great that all countries
gave radio research a high priority. Armies developed a wide range of
radio equipment that would also have uses in peacetime.
In 1920, the worlds rst commercial radio stationKDKA in
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvaniabegan broadcasting. Almost overnight,
radio mania swept the United States. Soon every major city had sta-
tions broadcasting news, plays, and even live sporting events. In
many European nations, unlike the United States, radio broadcasting
was controlled by the government. In Great Britain, radio was a pub-
lic monopoly run solely by the British Broadcasting Company, or
BBC. Like Americans, however, Europeans eagerly listened to a vari-
ety of radio broadcasts. Soon most families owned a radio.
Movies Revolutionize Popular Entertainment In the 1920s,
motion pictures were a major industry. Many countries, from Cuba
to Japan, produced movies. In Europe, lm was a serious art form.
Directors like Sergei Eisenstein in Russia and Fritz Lang in
Germany created lms that explored psychological or political
themes. However, in the Los Angeles suburb of Hollywood,
where 90 percent of all lms were made, movies were entertainment.
From Hollywood in the 1920s came the zany, slapstick comedies of
Mack Sennett and his Keystone Kops, and dramas that starred Mary
Pickford or Rudolph Valentino. But the king of the silent screen was
the English-born Charlie Chaplin, a comic genius best known for his
portrayal of the lonely little tramp bewildered by life. In the late
1920s, the addition of sound transformed movies. By the mid-1930s,
nearly 90 million Americans escaped from the hardships of life by
attending movies each week.
The advances in transportation and communication that followed the
war had brought the world in closer touch. Countries had become more
interdependent economically. Global prosperity came to depend on the
economic well-being of all major nations, especially the United States.
In Modern Times
(1936) Charlie
Chaplin captured
the discomfort
many felt about the
increasing
automation of life.
800 Chapter 31
How Technology
Revolutionized Life
The spread of technological innova-
tions in the postwar period changed
the way people lived. Autos made
people less dependent on public
transportation and made travel to work
and recreation more convenient.
The telephone instantly con-
nected family and friends, and
buyers and sellers. Radio brought
entertainment into the home. The
whole family could listen to sports,
comedy, drama, music, and news.
The drudgery of housework was
lightened by labor-saving appli-
ances, including refrigerators,
vacuum cleaners, and washing
machines. Convenience foods saved
time in the kitchen. The United
States was far more advanced than
most nations in the use of these
technological innovations.
Daily Life
D. Possible
Answers Autos
were mass produced;
airlines carried mail
and passengers; most
families owned a
radio.
THINK THROUGH HISTORY
D. Recognizing
Effects What were
the results of the
peacetime adapta-
tions of the technol-
ogy of war?
CLASSZONE . COM
NET ACTIVITY
For an Internet activity on Daily Life1920s . . .
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Page 6 of 6
Years of Crisis 801
SETTING THE STAGE By the late 1920s, European nations were rebuilding war-torn
economies. They were aided by loans from the more prosperous United States. In the
United States, Americans seemed condent that the country would continue on the
road to even greater economic prosperity. One sign of this was the booming stock
market. Yet the American economy had serious weaknesses that were soon to bring
about the most severe economic downturn the world had yet known.
Europe After the War
In both human suffering and economic terms, the cost of World War I was immense.
The Great War left every major European country nearly bankrupt. Only the United
States and Japan came out of the war in
better nancial shape than before. Nei-
ther had been a wartime battleeld. In
fact, both had expanded their trade dur-
ing the war. In addition, Europes domi-
nation in world affairs had declined since
the war. The long and brutal ght had
drained the continents resources.
New Democracies Are Unstable
Wars end saw the sudden rise of new
democracies. From 1914 to 1918,
Europes last absolute rulers had been
overthrown. The dynasties of the Hohen-
zollerns in Germany, the Hapsburgs in
Austria-Hungary, the Romanovs in
Russia, and the Ottomans in Turkey all
ended. The rst of the new governments
was formed in Russia in 1917. The Provisional Government, as it was called, hoped to
establish constitutional and democratic rule. However, within months it had fallen to a
Communist dictatorship. Even so, for the rst time, most European nations had
democratic governments.
Many citizens of the new democracies had little experience with representative
government. For generations, kings and emperors had ruled Germany and the new
nations formed from Austria-Hungary. Even in France and Italy, whose parliaments
had existed before World War I, the large number of political parties made effective
government difficult. Some countries had a dozen or more political groups. In these
countries, it was almost impossible for one party to win enough support to govern
effectively. When no single party won a majority, a coalition government, or tempo-
rary alliance of several parties, was needed to form a parliamentary majority. Because
the parties disagreed on so many policies, coalitions seldom lasted very long. France,
THINK THROUGH HISTORY
A. Drawing
Conclusions How
did World War I
change the balance of
economic power in
the world?
A. Possible
Answers Europes
resources had been
drained by World War
I. Japan and the U.S.
were economically
strong.
Demonstrators ee
gunre in the
streets of Petrograd
in 1917 as the
Russian Provisional
Government tries to
ght off Bolshevik
(Communist)
revolutionaries.
#
A Global Depression
2
TERMS & NAMES
coalition
government
Weimar
Republic
Great
Depression
Franklin D.
Roosevelt
New Deal
MAIN IDEA
An economic depression in the United
States spread throughout the world and
lasted for a decade.
WHY IT MATTERS NOW
Many social and economic programs
introduced worldwide to combat the
Great Depression are still operating.
801-806-0731s2 10/11/02 4:53 PM Page 801
Page 1 of 6
for example, endured some 40 changes of govern-
ment from 1919 to 1939.
Frequent changes in government made it hard
for democratic countries to develop strong leader-
ship and move toward long-term goals. In peaceful
times, a country could get by with weak leadership.
However, the weaknesses of a coalition govern-
ment became a major problem in times of crisis.
Voters in several countries were then willing to sac-
rice democracy for strong, totalitarian leadership.
Weimar Republic Is Weak Germanys new
democratic government was set up in 1919. Known
as the Weimar (WY
mahr) Republic, it was
named after the city where the national assembly
met. The Weimar Republic had serious weaknesses
from the start. First, Germany lacked a strong
democratic tradition. Furthermore, postwar Ger-
many had several major political parties and many
minor ones. Worst of all, millions of Germans
blamed the Weimar government, not their wartime
leaders, for the countrys defeat and postwar humil-
iation. It was, after all, the Weimar government
that had signed the Treaty of Versailles.
Ination Causes Crisis in Germany Germany also faced enormous economic
problems that began during the war. Unlike Britain and France, Germany did not
greatly increase its wartime taxes. To pay the expenses of the war, the Germans simply
printed money. After Germanys defeat, this paper money steadily lost its value.
Burdened with heavy reparations payments to the Allies and with other economic
problems, Germany printed even more money. The result was the value of the mark, as
Germanys currency was called, fell sharply. Severe ination set in. Germans needed
more and more money to buy even the most basic goods. For example, in Berlin a loaf
of bread cost less than a mark in 1918, more than 160 marks in 1922, and some 200
billion marks by late 1923. People took wheelbarrows full of money to buy food. The
mark had become worthless.
Consequently, people with xed incomes saw their life savings become worthless.
The money people had saved to buy a house now barely covered the cost of a table.
Many Germans also questioned the value of their new democratic government.
Attempts at Economic Stability Germany recovered from the 1923 ination
thanks largely to the work of an international committee. The committee was headed
by Charles Dawes, an American banker. The Dawes Plan provided for a $200 million
loan from American banks to stabilize German currency and strengthen its economy.
The plan also set a more realistic schedule for Germanys reparations payments.
Put into effect in 1924, the Dawes Plan helped slow ination. As the German econ-
omy began to recover, it attracted more loans and investments from the United States.
By 1929, German factories were producing as much as they had before the war.
Efforts at a Lasting Peace As prosperity returned, Germanys foreign minister,
Gustav Stresemann (STRAY
zuhmahn), and Frances foreign minister, Aristide
Briand (bree
AHND), tried to improve relations between their countries. In 1925,
they met in Locarno, Switzerland, with officials from Belgium, Italy, and Britain. They
signed a treaty promising that France and Germany would never again make war
against each other. Germany also agreed to respect the existing borders of France and
Belgium. It then was admitted to the League of Nations.
Money to burn
this German woman
uses millions of
marks made worth-
less by ination as
heating fuel in the
early 1920s.
B. Possible
Answers lack of
democratic tradition,
too many political par-
ties, new government
bore the blame for
defeat.
THINK THROUGH HISTORY
B. Identifying
Problems What
political problems did
the Weimar Republic
face?
Background
Germanys reparations
payments for dam-
ages caused during
World War I totaled
$33 billion.
802 Chapter 31
801-806-0731s2 10/11/02 4:53 PM Page 802
Page 2 of 6
In 1928, the hopes raised by the spirit of Locarno led to the
Kellogg-Briand peace pact. Frank Kellogg, the U.S. Secretary of
State, arranged this agreement with Frances Briand. Almost every
country in the world, including the Soviet Union, signed. They
pledged to renounce war as an instrument of national policy.
Unfortunately, the treaty had no means to enforce its provisions. The
League of Nations, the obvious choice as enforcer, had no armed
forces. The refusal of the United States to join the League also weak-
ened it. Nonetheless, the peace agreements seemed a good start. In
addition, Europeans were enjoying an economic boom based largely on
massive American investment.
The Great Depression
In the late 1920s, the world economy was like a delicately balanced
house of cards. The key card that held up the rest was American
economic prosperity. If the United States economy weakened, the
whole worlds economic system might collapse. In 1929, it did.
A Flawed U.S. Economy Despite prosperity, three weaknesses in
the U.S. economy caused serious problems. These were uneven dis-
tribution of wealth, overproduction by business and agriculture, and
lessening demand for consumer goods.
By 1929, American factories were turning out nearly half of the
worlds industrial goods. The rising productivity led to enormous prof-
its. However, this new wealth was not evenly distributed. The richest 5
percent of the population received 33 percent of all personal income in
1929. Yet 60 percent of all American families earned less than $2,000 a
year. Thus, most families were too poor to buy the goods being pro-
duced. Unable to sell all their goods, store owners eventually cut back their orders from
factories. Factories in turn reduced production and laid off workers. A downward eco-
nomic spiral began. As more workers lost their jobs, families bought even fewer goods. In
turn, factories made further cuts in production and laid off more workers.
During the 1920s, overproduction affected American farmers as well. Scientic
farming methods and new farm machinery had dramatically increased crop yields.
American farmers were producing more food. Meanwhile they faced new competition
from farmers in Australia, Latin America, and Europe. As
a result, a worldwide surplus of agricultural products
drove prices and prots down.
Unable to sell their crops at a prot, many farmers
could not pay off the bank loans that kept them in busi-
ness. Their unpaid debts weakened banks and forced
some to close. The danger signs of overproduction by fac-
tories and farms should have warned people against gam-
bling on the stock market. Yet no one heeded the warning.
The Stock Market Crashes In 1929, Wall Street, in
New York City, was the nancial capital of the world.
Banks and investment companies lined its sidewalks. At
Wall Streets New York Stock Exchange, optimism about
the booming U.S. economy showed in soaring prices for
stocks. To get in on the boom, many middle-income
people began buying stocks on margin. This meant that
they paid a small percentage of a stocks price as a down
payment and borrowed the rest from a stockbroker. The
THINK THROUGH HISTORY
C. Identifying
Problems What
major weaknesses
had appeared in the
American economy by
1929?
C. Possible
Answers uneven
distribution of wealth,
overproduction by
business, lessening
demand for consumer
goods, dropping farm
prots from overpro-
duction and foreign
competition.
Years of Crisis 803
Stocks and the Market
Stocks are shares of ownership in
a company. Businesses get money
to operate by selling shares of
stock to investors, or buyers.
Companies pay interest on the
invested money in the form of
dividends to the shareholders.
Dividends rise or fall depending on
a companys prots.
Investors do not buy stocks
directly from the company; stock-
brokers transact the business of
buying and selling.
Investors hope to make more
money on stocks than if they put
their money elsewhere, such as in
a savings account with a xed rate
of interest. However, if the stock
price goes down, investors lose
money when they sell their stock at
a lower price than when they
bought it.
Speculators are investors who
are not interested in long-term
success. They want to make money
quickly and hope for sudden
increases in the value of a stock.
They try to buy at a lower cost and
sell when prices rise.
SPOTLIGHTON
Stock Prices, 19251933
SKI LLBUI LDER:
Interpreting Graphs
1. What year did stock prices fall lowest
before beginning to rise again?
2. What was the average stock price in 1929?
in 1932?
5
10
15
20
25
30
1925 1926 1927 1928 1929 1930 1931 1932 1933
P
r
i
c
e

I
n
d
e
x
Graph-Source:Historical Statistics of the United States
801-806-0731s2 10/11/02 4:53 PM Page 803
Page 3 of 6
system worked well as long as stock prices were rising. However, if
they fell, investors had no money to pay off the loan.
In September 1929, some investors began to feel that stock prices were unnaturally
high. They started selling their stocks, believing the rates would soon go down. By
Thursday, October 24, the gradual lowering of stock prices had became an all-out
slide downward. A panic resulted. Everyone wanted to sell stocks, and no one wanted
to buy. Prices sank quickly. The wild shouting of 1,000 brokers and their assistants at
the Stock Exchange became what one observer called a weird roar. Prices plunged
to a new low on Tuesday, October 29. A record 16 million stocks were sold. Then the
market collapsed.
In the stock market crash, billions of dollars in paper wealth simply vanished.
People could not pay the money they owed on margin purchases. Stocks they had
bought at high prices were now worthless. Within months of the crash, unemploy-
ment rates began to rise as industrial production, prices, and wages declined. A long
business slump, or depression, followed. The Great Depression, as it came to be
called, touched every corner of the American economy. By 1932, factory production
had been cut in half. Thousands of businesses failed, and banks closed. Around 9 mil-
lion people lost the money in their savings accounts when banks had no money to pay
them. Many farmers lost their lands when they could not make mortgage payments.
By 1933 one-fourth of all American workers had no jobs.
A Global Depression The collapse of the American economy sent shock waves
around the world. Worried American bankers demanded repayment of their over-
seas loans, and American investors withdrew their money from Europe. The
American market for European goods dropped sharply as the U.S. Congress placed
high tariffs on imported goods so that American dollars would stay in the United
States and support American workers. The government was trying to force
Americans to buy American goods. This policy backfired. Conditions worsened for
the United States. Many countries who depended on exporting goods to the United
States also suffered. Moreover, when the United States raised tariffs, it set off a
chain reaction. Other nations imposed their own higher tariffs. World trade dropped
804 Chapter 31
Life in the Depression
During the Great Depression of 1929
to 1939, millions of people world-
wide lost their jobs or their farms.
They faced a future without hope.
At rst the unemployed had to
depend on the charity of others to
survive. Here unemployed workers
in Paris wait in line for free bread.
Many jobless and their families
begged for food, clothing, and
shelter. Some lost their homes and
had to live in shanties, or shacks.
Others turned to thievery or
abandoned their families.
Local governments and charities
opened soup kitchens to provide
free food. There were long lines of
applicants for what work was
available, and these jobs usually
paid low wages.
Conditions improved when
national governments established
programs for relief. However,
recovery came slowly. The
Depression ended only when
nations began gearing up for war.
Daily Life
Background
The day of the stock
market crash, Tues-
day, October 29, 1929,
is called Black
Tuesday.
Vocabulary
tariffs: taxes charged
by a government on
imported or exported
goods.
801-806-0731s2 10/11/02 4:53 PM Page 804
Page 4 of 6
by 65 percent. This contributed further to the economic
downturn. Unemployment rates soared.
Because of war debts and dependence on American loans
and investments, Germany and Austria were particularly
hard hit. In 1931, Austrias largest bank failed. This started a
nancial panic in central European countries and sent their
economies plunging.
In Asia, the Japanese economy also slumped. Japanese
farmers suffered greatly during the Depression. In the rice-
growing areas of the northeast, crop failures in 1931 led to
famine. Starving families ate tree bark and the roots of wild
plants. City workers suffered, too, as the value of exports
fell by half between 1929 and 1931. As many as 3 million
workers lost their jobs, forcing many to go back to their
rural villages.
The economic crisis fell heavily in Latin America as well.
Many of its nations were tied to the global economy by trade
in such cash crops or raw materials as sugar, beef, copper,
and tin. During the 1920s, world prices and market demand
for these products were already dropping. As European and
U.S. demand for Latin American products dried up in the
1930s, prices for these goods collapsed. At the same time,
the cost of imported goods rose, pushed up by high tariffs.
Latin American nations that had borrowed heavily from other nations could not repay
their debts. The worldwide crisis spread rapidly.
The World Responds to the Crisis
The Depression confronted democracies with a serious challenge to their economic
and political systems. Each country met the crisis in its own way.
Britain Takes Steps to Improve Its Economy Because its economy depended on
foreign trade, the Depression hit Britain severely. To meet the emergency, British vot-
ers elected a multi-party coalition known as the National Government. This govern-
ments policies were designed to rescue the nation from economic calamity. It passed
high protective tariffs, increased taxes, and regulated the currency. It also lowered
interest rates to encourage industrial growth. These measures brought about a slow but
steady recovery. By 1937, unemployment had been cut in half, and production had
risen above 1929 levels. Britain avoided political extremes and preserved democracy.
France Responds to Economic Crisis Unlike Britain, France had a more self-suf-
cient economy. In 1930, it was still heavily agricultural and less dependent on foreign
trade. Thus, France was somewhat cushioned against the Depression. Nevertheless,
by 1935, one million French workers were unemployed.
The economic crisis contributed to political instability. In 1933, ve coalition gov-
ernments formed and fell. Many political leaders were frightened by the growth of
anti-democratic forces both in France and in other parts of Europe. So in 1936, mod-
erates, Socialists, and Communists formed a coalition. The Popular Front, as it was
called, passed a series of reforms to help the workers. These reforms included pay
increases, holidays with pay, and a 40-hour work week. Unfortunately, price increases
quickly offset wage gains. Unemployment remained high. Yet France also preserved
democratic government.
Socialist Governments Find Solutions The Socialist governments in the
Scandinavian countries of Denmark, Sweden, and Norway also met the challenge of
economic crisis successfully. They built their recovery programs on an existing
Years of Crisis 805
THINK THROUGH HISTORY
D. Synthesizing
What problems did
the collapse of the
American economy
cause in other
countries?
D. Possible
Answers Their
economies slumped,
trade dropped, unem-
ployment soared, and
a nancial panic
started.
Background
Scandinavia, in north-
ern Europe, includes
Sweden, Norway, and
Denmark. Finland and
Iceland are often also
included in the region.
Unemployment Rate, 19281938
Sources: European Historical Statistics: 17501970;
Historical Statistics of the United States: Colonial Times to 1970.
P
e
r
c
e
n
t

o
f

W
o
r
k

F
o
r
c
e
Germany Great Britain United States
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
1938 1936 1934 1932 1930 1928
Roosevelt
begins
New Deal
Hitler comes
to power
Stock market
crashes
SKI LLBUI LDER: Interpreting
Graphs
1. What nation had the highest rate of
unemployment? How high did it reach?
2. When did unemployment begin to
decrease in the United States?
Germany? Great Britain?
801-806-0731s2 10/11/02 4:53 PM Page 805
Page 5 of 6
806 Chapter 31
2. TAKING NOTES
Using a web diagram like the one
below, show the effects of the
Great Depression in the United
States.
3. ANALYZING CAUSES
The collapse of the American
economy had a devastating effect
on the world. List one cause for
each of the following effects:
American market for European
goods dropped; unemployment
rates soared; European banks and
businesses closed.
THINK ABOUT
economic conditions in the
United States
the interdependence of the
economies of the world
4. ANALYZING THEMES
Economics What actions did
the United States, Britain, France,
and the Scandinavian countries
take to try to recover from the
Great Depression? Give specic
examples for each country.
THINK ABOUT
Roosevelt and the New Deal
coalition governments in Britain
and France
traditional community cooperative
action in Scandinavia
1. TERMS & NAMES
coalition government
Weimar Republic
Great Depression
Franklin D. Roosevelt
New Deal
Section Assessment 2
tradition of cooperative community action. In Sweden the government sponsored
massive public works projects that kept people employed and producing. All the
Scandinavian countries raised pensions for the elderly and increased unemployment
insurance, subsidies for housing, and other welfare benets. To pay for these benets,
the governments taxed all citizens. Under this program, both private and cooperative
businesses prospered. Democracy remained intact.
Recovery in the United States In 1932, in the rst presidential election after the
Depression had begun, U.S. voters elected Franklin D. Roosevelt. His condent
manner appealed to millions of Americans who felt bewildered by the Depression. On
March 4, 1933, the new president sought to restore Americans faith in their nation.
A V O I C E F R O M T H E P A S T
This great Nation will endure as it has endured, will revive and will prosper. . . . let me
assert my rm belief that the only thing we have to fear is fear itselfnameless, unrea-
soning, unjustied terror which paralyzes needed efforts to convert retreat into
advance.
FRANKLIN ROOSEVELT, First Inaugural Address
Roosevelt immediately began a program of reform that he called the New Deal.
Large public works projects helped to provide jobs for the unemployed. New govern-
ment agencies gave nancial help to businesses and farms. Large amounts of public
money were spent on welfare and relief
programs. Roosevelt and his advisers
believed that government spending
would create jobs and start a
recovery. Regulations were
imposed to reform the stock mar-
ket and the banking system.
Despite these efforts, recov-
ery was slow.
The New Deal did eventually
reform the American economic sys-
tem. Roosevelts leadership pre-
served the countrys faith in its
democratic political system. It also
established him as a leader of
democracy in a world threatened by
ruthless dictators, as you will read
about in Section 3.
The Great Depression
Governments
responded to
widespread
unemployment
by creating jobs.
Here is a group
of young men
employed by the
U.S. Civilian
Conservation Corps.
801-806-0731s2 10/11/02 4:53 PM Page 806
Page 6 of 6
Years of Crisis 807
SETTING THE STAGE Many democracies, including the United States, Britain, and
France, remained strong despite the economic crisis caused by the Great Depression.
However, millions of people lost faith in democratic government. In response, they
turned to an extreme system of government called fascism.
Fascist Beliefs and Policies
This new, militant political movement called fascism (FASHihz
uhm) emphasized loyalty to the state and obedience to its leader.
Fascists promised to revive the economy, punish those responsible
for hard times, and restore national pride. Their message attracted
many people who felt frustrated and angered by the peace treaties
that followed World War I and by the Great Depression.
Unlike communism, fascism had no clearly dened theory or
program. Nevertheless, most Fascists shared several ideas. They
preached an extreme form of nationalism, or loyalty to ones country.
Fascists believed that nations must strugglepeaceful states were
doomed to be conquered. They pledged loyalty to an authoritarian
leader who guided the state. In each nation, Fascists wore uniforms
of a certain color, used special salutes, and held mass rallies.
In some ways, fascism was similar to communism. Both systems
were ruled by dictators who allowed only their political party (one-party
rule). Both denied individual rights. In both, the state was supreme.
Neither practiced any kind of democracy. However, unlike Com-
munists, Fascists did not seek a classless society. Rather, they believed
that each class had its place and function. Communism claimed to be a
dictatorship of the working class. In most cases, fascist parties were
made up of aristocrats and industrialists, war veterans, and the lower
middle class. Also, Fascists were nationalists, and Communists were
internationalists, hoping to unite workers worldwide.
Mussolini Comes to Power in Italy
Fascisms rise in Italy was fueled by bitter disappointment over the
failure to win large territorial gains at the 1919 Paris Peace Con-
ference. Rising ination and unemployment also contributed to
widespread social unrest. Italys upper and middle classes feared a
Communist revolution, as in Russia. To growing numbers of Italians,
their democratic government seemed helpless to deal with the coun-
trys problems. They wanted a leader who would take action.
The Rise of Mussolini A newspaper editor and politician named
Benito Mussolini boldly promised to rescue Italy by reviving its
Background
The term fascism was
intended to recall
memories of ancient
Rome. In Latin, fasces
is the word for a bun-
dle of wooden rods
tied around an ax
handlea symbol of
authority for Roman
officials.
A. Possible
Answers Italians
felt betrayed by the
Paris Peace Confer-
ence, faced rising
ination and unem-
ployment and social
unrest.
THINK THROUGH HISTORY
A. Analyzing
Causes What fac-
tors led to the rise of
fascism in Italy?
Fascism Rises
in Europe
3
TERMS & NAMES
fascism
Benito Mussolini
Adolf Hitler
Nazism
Mein Kampf
lebensraum
MAIN IDEA
In response to political turmoil and
economic crises, Italy and Germany
turned to totalitarian dictators.
WHY IT MATTERS NOW
These dictators changed the course of
history, and the world is still
recovering from their abuse of power.
Benito Mussolini
18831945
Mussolini was a dazzling orator.
Because he was of modest height,
he usually chose a location for his
speeches where he towered above
the crowdsoften a balcony high
above a public square. He then
roused audiences with his emo-
tional speeches and theatrical
gestures and body movements.
Vowing to lead Italy back to
her ways of ancient greatness,
Mussolini peppered his speeches
with aggressive words such as
war and power.
Mussolini wanted to win
support for an overseas empire in
Africa and a militaristic state at
home. So he often used settings
and symbols from the period of
Italys glorythe Roman Empire.


HISTORYMAKERS
807-810-0731s3 10/11/02 4:54 PM Page 807
Page 1 of 4
economy and rebuilding its armed forces. He vowed to give Italy strong leadership.
Mussolini had founded the Fascist Party in 1919. At rst, he failed to win widespread
support. As economic conditions worsened, however, his popularity rapidly increased.
Finally, Mussolini publicly criticized Italys government. Groups of Fascists wearing
black shirts attacked Communists and Socialists on the streets. This campaign of terror
weakened his opponents. Because Mussolini played on the fear of a workers revolt, he
began to win support from the middle classes, the aristocracy, and industrial leaders.
In October 1922, about 30,000 Fascists marched on Rome. They demanded that
King Victor Emmanuel III put Mussolini in charge of the government. The king
decided that Mussolini was the best hope for his dynasty to survive, so he let
Mussolini form a government. Thus, after widespread violence and a threat of armed
uprising, Mussolini took power legally. At the time, a foreign diplomat described
him as an actor, a dangerous rascal, and possibly slightly off his head.
Il Duces Leadership Mussolini was now Il Duce (ihl DOOchay), or the leader. He
abolished democracy and outlawed all political parties except the Fascists. Secret police
jailed his opponents. Government censors forced radio stations and publications to
broadcast or publish only Fascist doctrines. Mussolini outlawed strikes. He sought to
control the economy by allying the Fascists with the industrialists and large landowners.
Under his leadership, Italy became the model for Fascists in other
countries. However, Mussolini never had the total control achieved by
Joseph Stalin in the Soviet Union or Adolf Hitler in Germany.
Hitler Takes Control in Germany
When Mussolini became dictator of Italy in the mid-1920s, Adolf
Hitler was a little-known political leader whose early life had been
marked by disappointment. Born in a small town in Austria in 1889,
he dropped out of high school and failed as an artist. When World
War I broke out, Hitler found a new beginning. He would ght to
defend Germany and crush its opponents. He volunteered for the
German army and was twice awarded the Iron Cross, a medal for
bravery.
The Rise of the Nazis At the end of the war, Hitler settled in
Munich. In early 1920, he joined a tiny right-wing political group.
This group shared his belief that Germany had to overturn the Treaty
of Versailles and combat communism. The group later named itself
the National Socialist German Workers Party, called Nazi for short.
Its policies, supported by people in the middle and lower middle
classes, formed the German brand of fascism known as Nazism. The
party adopted the swastika, or hooked cross, as its symbol. The Nazis
also set up a private militia called the storm troopers or Brownshirts.
Within a short time, Hitlers success as an organizer and speaker led
him to be chosen der Fhrer (duhr FYUR
uhr), or the leader, of the Nazi
Heil Hitler! Hitler
Youth members
salute their Fhrer
at a rally in the
1930s. Hitler
skillfully used mass
rallies to generate
enthusiasm.
808 Chapter 31
Adolf Hitler
18891945
Like Mussolini, Hitler could manipu-
late huge audiences with his ery
oratory. Making speeches was
crucial to Hitler. He believed: All
great world-shaking events have
been brought about . . . by the
spoken word!
Because he appeared awkward
and unimposing, Hitler rehearsed
his speeches. Usually he began a
speech in a normal voice.
Suddenly, he spoke louder as his
anger grew. His voice rose to a
screech, and his hands ailed the
air. Then he would stop, smooth his
hair, and look quite calm.
In the 1930s, a foreign diplomat
described Hitler: . . . he was all
violence . . . with a erce energy
ready at no provocation to pull
down the universe. . . . [His] face
was the face of a lunatic.


HISTORYMAKERS
The swastika,
which means
well-being in
Sanskrit, was an
ancient good-luck
symbol. Forms of it
had been used by
Hindus, Buddhists,
early Christians,
and Native
Americans.
807-810-0731s3 10/11/02 4:54 PM Page 808
Page 2 of 4
Years of Crisis 809
party. These skills also helped make the Nazis a growing political force. Inspired by
Mussolinis march on Rome, Hitler and the Nazis plotted to seize power in Munich in
1923. The attempt failed, and Hitler was arrested. He was tried for treason, but sympa-
thetic judges sentenced him to only ve years in prison. He served less than nine months.
While in jail, Hitler wrote Mein Kampf (My Struggle). This book set forth his beliefs
and his goals for Germany. It became the blueprint, or plan of action, for the Nazis.
Hitler asserted that the Germans, especially those who were blond and blue-eyed
whom he incorrectly called Aryanswere a master race. He declared that non-
Aryan racessuch as Jews, Slavs, and Gypsieswere inferior or subhuman. He called
the Versailles Treaty an outrage and vowed to regain the lands taken from Germany.
Hitler also declared that Germany was overcrowded and needed more lebensraum, or
living space. He promised to get that space by conquering eastern Europe and Russia.
After leaving prison in 1924, Hitler revived the Nazi party. Most Germans ignored
him and his angry message until the Depression ended the nations brief postwar
recovery. When American loans stopped, the German economy collapsed. Factories
ground to a halt and banks closed. Nearly six million people, about 30 percent of Ger-
manys work force, were unemployed in 1932. Civil unrest broke out. Frightened and
confused, Germans now turned to Hitler, hoping for security and rm leadership.
Hitler Becomes Chancellor The Nazis had become the largest polit-
ical party by 1932. Conservative leaders mistakenly believed they could
control Hitler and use him for their purposes. In January 1933, they
advised President Paul von Hindenburg to name Hitler chancellor.
Only Hitler, they said, could stand up to the strong Communist party
in Germany. Thus Hitler came to power legally. Soon after, General
Erich Ludendorff, a former Hitler ally, wrote to Hindenburg:
A V O I C E F R O M T H E P A S T
By naming Hitler as Reichschancellor, you have delivered up our holy
Fatherland to one of the greatest [rabblerousers] of all time.
I solemnly [predict] that this accursed man will plunge our Reich into
the abyss and bring our nation into inconceivable misery.
ERICH LUDENDORFF, from a letter to President Hindenburg, February 1, 1933
Once in office, Hitler acted quickly to strengthen his position. He
called for new elections, hoping to win a parliamentary majority. Six
days before the election, a re destroyed the Reichstag building where
parliament met. The Nazis blamed the Communists. By stirring up
fear of the Communists, the Nazis and their allies won a slim majority.
With majority control, Hitler demanded dictatorial, or absolute,
power for four years. Only one deputy dared to speak against the result-
ing Enabling Act. Hitler used his new power to turn Germany into a
totalitarian state. He banned all other political parties and had oppo-
nents arrested. Meanwhile, an elite, black-uniformed unit called the SS
(Schutzstaffel, or protection squad) was created. It was loyal only to
Hitler. In 1934, the SS arrested and murdered hundreds of Hitlers
enemies. This brutal action and the terror applied by the Gestapo, the
Nazi secret police, shocked most Germans into total obedience.
The Nazis quickly took command of the economy. New laws banned
strikes, dissolved independent labor unions, and gave the government
authority over business and labor. Hitler put millions of Germans to work. They con-
structed factories, built highways, manufactured weapons, and served in the military. As a
result, unemployment dropped from about 6 to 1.5 million in 1936.
The Fhrer Is Supreme Hitler wanted more than just economic and political power
he wanted control over every aspect of German life. To shape public opinion and to win
THINK THROUGH HISTORY
B. Summarizing
What were the key
ideas and goals that
Hitler presented in
Mein Kampf?
B. Answer Germans
were a master race,
other races were
inferior, Versailles
Treaty was an out-
rage, Germany
needed more living
space.
Vocabulary
chancellor: the prime
minister in certain
countries
Fascism to Argentina
Juan Pern served as Argentinas
president from 1946 to 1955 and
again in 1973 and 1974. The two
years he spent in Europe before
World War II greatly inuenced his
strong-man rule.
A career army officer, Pern
went to Italy in 1939 for military
training. He then served at the
Argentine embassy in Rome. A visit
to Berlin gave Pern a chance to
see Nazi Germany. The ability of
Hitler and Mussolini to manipulate
their citizens impressed Pern.
When Pern himself gained
power, he patterned his military
dictatorship on that of the European
Fascists. Like them, he restrained his
opponents through press censorship
and suppression of civil rights. But
he never achieved the same total
control as his fascist role models.
GlobalImpact
C. Possible
Answers Because he
restored pride in
Germany, cut unem-
ployment, repudiated
the hated Versailles
Treaty, and promised
to regain lost German
lands
THINK THROUGH HISTORY
C. Making
Inferences Why did
Germans at rst
support Hitler?
807-810-0731s3 10/11/02 4:54 PM Page 809
Page 3 of 4
praise for his leadership, Hitler turned the press, radio, literature, painting,
and lm into propaganda tools. Books that did not conform to Nazi beliefs
were burned in huge bonres. Churches were forbidden to criticize the
Nazis or the government. Schoolchildren had to join the Hitler Youth (for
boys) or the League of German Girls. Hitler was greatly inuenced by
Social Darwinism. (See page 679.) He believed that a continuous struggle brought
victory to the strong. He twisted the philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche to support
his use of brute force to maintain power and his glorication of war.
Hitler Makes War on the Jews Hatred of Jews, or anti-Semitism, was a key part of
Nazi ideology. Although Jews were less than one percent of the population, the Nazis
used them as scapegoats for all Germanys troubles since the war. This
led to a wave of anti-Semitism across Germany. Beginning in 1933, the
Nazis passed laws depriving Jews of most of their rights. Violence
against Jews mounted. On the night of November 9, 1938, Nazi mobs
attacked Jews in their homes and on the streets and destroyed thou-
sands of Jewish-owned buildings. This rampage, called Kristallnacht
(Night of the Broken Glass), signaled the real start of the process of
eliminating the Jews from German life. (See Chapter 32.)
Other Countries Fall to Dictators
While Fascists took power in Italy and Germany, the nations formed
in eastern Europe after World War I also were falling to dictators.
The parliamentary governments that had been set up in these coun-
tries rarely lasted. In Hungary in 1919, after a brief Communist
regime, military forces and wealthy landowners joined to make
Admiral Mikls Horthy the rst European postwar dictator. In
Poland, Marshal Joseph Pilsudski (pihl
SOOTskee) seized power in
1926. In Yugoslavia, Albania, Bulgaria, and Romania, kings turned to
strong-man rule. They suspended constitutions and silenced foes. In
1935, one democracy, Czechoslovakia, remained in eastern Europe.
Elsewhere in Europe, only in nations with strong democratic tradi-
tionsBritain, France, and the Scandinavian countriesdid democracy survive. With no
democratic experience and severe economic problems, many Europeans saw dictatorship
as the only way to prevent instability. Although all of these dictatorships restricted civil
rights, none asserted control with the brutality of the Russian Communists or the Nazis.
By the mid-1930s, the powerful nations of the world were split into two antagonis-
tic campsdemocratic and totalitarian. And to gain their ends, the Fascist dictator-
ships had indicated a willingness to use military aggression.
810 Chapter 31
Background
The term anti-
Semitism is derived
from the fact that the
earliest Jews were
Semites (people who
spoke a Semitic
language).
2. TAKING NOTES
Draw a chart like the one below.
Compare Mussolini and Hitler by
completing the chart.
Were the two more alike or
different? Explain why.
3. DRAWING CONCLUSIONS
Why did a movement like fascism
and leaders like Mussolini and
Hitler come to power during a
period of crisis?
THINK ABOUT
what problems Italy and
Germany faced
political traditions in each
country
the state of the world at the time
4. THEME ACTIVITY
Power and Authority Reread
the History Makers on pages 807
and 808. What biases in the
speeches of Mussolini are
mentioned? What techniques did
each leader use to appear
powerful and capable to their
listeners?
1. TERMS & NAMES
Identify
fascism
Benito Mussolini
Adolf Hitler
Nazism
Mein Kampf
lebensraum
Section Assessment 3
The 1936 Olympics
The 1936 Summer Olympics were
held in Berlin, Nazi Germanys
capital. Hitler built a new $30 million
stadium for the Games. To hide from
the world his persecution of Jews,
he took down all anti-Semitic signs
in Berlin.
Prior to the Olympics opening,
Hitler announced that the Games
would show the world Aryan superi-
ority and the inferiority of Jews and
blacks. Hitlers plan failed, however,
in part because of the successes of
African-American runner Jesse
Owens. A sprinter and long jumper,
Owens won four gold medals.
When Owens or other black
athletes won medals, Hitler left the
reviewing stand. He did not want to
be seen congratulating them.
SPOTLIGHTON
Hitler Mussolini
Method of
taking power
Style of
leadership
Handling of
economic crisis
Goals
807-810-0731s3 10/11/02 4:54 PM Page 810
Page 4 of 4
Years of Crisis 811
SETTING THE STAGE By the mid-1930s, Germany and Italy seemed bent on military
conquest. The major democraciesBritain, France, and the United Stateswere
distracted by economic problems at home and longed to remain at peace. The Soviet
Union was not committed to either camp. With the world moving toward war, many
people pinned their hopes for peace on the League of Nations.
World Drifts Toward War
As fascism spread in Europe, a powerful nation in Asia moved toward a similar system.
Following a period of reform and progress in the 1920s, Japan fell under military rule.
Democracy Struggles in Japan During the 1920s, the
Japanese government became more democratic. In 1922,
Japan signed an international treaty agreeing to respect Chinas
borders. In 1928, it signed the Kellogg-Briand Pact renounc-
ing war. Japans parliamentary system had several weaknesses,
however. Its constitution put strict limits on the powers of the
prime minister and the cabinet. Most importantly, civilian
leaders had little control over the armed forces. Military lead-
ers reported only to the emperor.
Militarists Take Control of Japan As long as Japan re-
mained prosperous, the civilian government kept power. When
the Great Depression struck in 1930, the government was
blamed. Military leaders gained support and soon won control
of the country. Unlike the Fascists in Europe, the militarists
did not try to establish a new system of government. They
wanted to restore traditional control of the government to the
military. Instead of a forceful leader like Mussolini or Hitler,
the militarists made the emperor the symbol of state power.
Keeping Emperor Hirohito as head of state won popular
support for the army leaders who ruled in his name. Like
Hitler and Mussolini, Japans militarists were extreme nation-
alists. They wanted to solve the countrys economic problems
by foreign expansion. They planned a Pacific empire that
included a conquered China. The empire would provide Japan with raw materials and
markets for its goods. It would also give Japan room for its rising population.
Japan Invades Manchuria Japanese businesses had invested heavily in Chinas north-
east province, Manchuria. It was an area rich in iron and coal. In 1931, the Japanese
army seized Manchuria, despite objections from the Japanese parliament. The army then
set up a puppet government. Japanese engineers and technicians began arriving in large
numbers to build mines and factories.
Background
The control of the
government by the mil-
itary had centuries-old
roots in Japanese his-
tory. The shoguns had
been military leaders.
Victorious
Japanese troops
march through the
streets after
occupying
Manchuria in 1931.
Aggressors on
the March
4
TERMS & NAMES
appeasement
Axis Powers
Francisco Franco
isolationism
Third Reich
Munich
Conference
MAIN IDEA
As Germany, Italy, and Japan con-
quered other countries, the rest of the
world did nothing to stop them.
WHY IT MATTERS NOW
Many nations today take a more active
and collective role in world affairs, as
in the United Nations.
THINK THROUGH HISTORY
A. Comparing
Compare the mili-
tarists in Japan with
the European Fascists.
A. Possible
Answers Both were
extremely nationalistic,
wanted to solve eco-
nomic problems by
expanding. European
fascists wanted a new
government; Japanese
wanted to return to tra-
ditional military con-
811-815-0731s4 10/11/02 4:54 PM Page 811
Page 1 of 5
The Japanese attack on Manchuria was the first direct challenge to the League of
Nations. In the early 1930s, the Leagues members included all major democracies
except the United States. Also members were the three countries that posed the
greatest threat to peaceGermany, Japan, and Italy. When Japan seized Manchuria,
many League members vigorously protested. The League condemned Japanese
aggression, but it had no power to enforce its decisions. Japan
ignored the protests and withdrew from the League in 1933.
Japan Invades China Four years later, a border incident touched
off a full-scale war between Japan and China. On July 7, 1937, the
Japanese and the Chinese exchanged shots at a railroad bridge near
Beijing. Japanese forces then swept into northern China. Despite
having a million soldiers, Chinas army led by Jiang Jieshi was no
match for the better equipped and trained Japanese.
Beijing and other northern cities as well as the capital, Nanjing,
fell to the Japanese in 1937. Japanese troops killed tens of thousands
of captured soldiers and civilians in Nanjing. Forced to retreat west-
ward, Jiang Jieshi set up a new capital at Chongqing. At the same
time, Chinese guerrillas led by Chinas Communist leader, Mao
Zedong, continued to fight in the conquered area.
Mussolini Attacks Ethiopia The Leagues failure to stop the
Japanese encouraged Mussolini to plan aggression of his own.
Mussolini dreamed of building a colonial empire in Africa like that of
Britain and France. He bitterly complained that Britain and France
had left only a collection of deserts from which to choose.
Ethiopia was one of Africas four remaining independent nations.
The Ethiopians had successfully resisted an Italian attempt at con-
quest during the 1890s. To avenge that defeat, Mussolini ordered a
massive invasion of Ethiopia in October 1935. The spears and swords
of the Ethiopians were no match for Italian airplanes, tanks, guns,
and poison gas. In May 1936, Mussolini told a cheering crowd that
Italy has at last her empire . . . a Fascist empire.
The Ethiopian emperor Haile Selassie urgently appealed to the
League for help. Although the League condemned the attack, its
members did nothing. Britain continued to let Italian troops and
supplies pass through the British-controlled Suez Canal on their way
to Ethiopia. By giving in to Mussolini in Africa, Britain and France
hoped to keep peace in Europe.
Hitler Defies Versailles Treaty Hitler had long pledged to undo
the Versailles Treaty. Among its provisions, the treaty limited the size
of Germanys army. In March 1935, the Fhrer announced that Germany would not
obey these restrictions. In fact, Germany had already begun rebuilding its armed
forces. The League issued only a mild condemnation. Banners throughout Germany
announced, Today Germany! Tomorrow the World!
THINK THROUGH HISTORY
B. Making
Inferences What
was the major weak-
ness of the League
of Nations? Why?
B. Possible
Answers The United
States was not a
memberLeagues
actions did not have
as much authority
without the worlds
largest democracy.
League had no
enforcement
powercould not
make nations follow
its decrees.
Haile Selassie
18921975
Haile Selassie, the emperor of
Ethiopia, belonged to a dynasty that
traced its roots back to King
Solomon and the Queen of Sheba.
When he became emperor in 1930,
he was hailed as the 111th descen-
dant of Solomon and Sheba to rule.
Five years after he took the
throne, his country was invaded by
Italy. Selassie was forced into exile.
On June 30, 1936, he appeared
before the League of Nations to
plead for its help.
He warned League members that
if they failed to impose military sanc-
tions on Italy, God and history will
remember your judgment. . . . It is us
today. It will be you tomorrow. The
League did not heed his warning.


HISTORYMAKERS
1930 1935 1939
September 1931 Japan
invades Manchuria.
July 1937 Japan
invades China.
March 1936 Germany
occupies Rhineland.
Aggression in Europe and Asia, 19301939
October 1935 Italy
attacks Ethiopia.
September 1938 Germany
takes Sudetenland.
March 1938 Germany
annexes Austria.
March 1939
Germany seizes
Czechoslovakia.
April 1939
Italy conquers
Albania
812 Chapter 31
811-815-0731s4 10/11/02 4:54 PM Page 812
Page 2 of 5
The Leagues failure to stop Germany from rearming convinced Hitler to take even
greater risks. The treaty had forbidden German troops to enter a 30-mile-wide zone on
either side of the Rhine River. Known as the Rhineland, it formed a buffer zone
between Germany and France. It was also an important industrial area. On March 7,
1936, German troops moved into the Rhineland. Stunned, the French were unwilling to
risk war. The British urged appeasement, giving in to an aggressor to keep peace.
Hitler later admitted that he would have backed down if the French and British had
challenged him. The German reoccupation of the Rhineland marked a turning point in
the march toward war. First, it strengthened Hitlers power and prestige within
Germany. Cautious generals who had urged restraint now agreed to follow him.
Second, the balance of power changed in Germanys favor. France and Belgium were
now open to attack from German troops. Finally, the weak response by France and
Britain encouraged Hitler to speed up his military and territorial expansion.
Hitlers growing strength convinced Mussolini that he should seek an alliance with
Germany. In October 1936, the two dictators reached an agreement that became
known as the Rome-Berlin Axis. A month later, Germany also made an agreement with
Japan. Germany, Italy, and Japan came to be called the Axis Powers.
Civil War Erupts in Spain Hitler and Mussolini again tested the will of the democracies
of Europe in the Spanish civil war. Spain had been a monarchy until 1931, when a repub-
lic was declared. The government, run by liberals and socialists, held office amid many
crises. In July 1936, army leaders, favoring a Fascist-
style government, joined General Francisco
Franco in a revolt. Thus began a civil war that
dragged on for three years.
Hitler and Mussolini sent troops, tanks, and
airplanes to help Francos forces, which were
called the Nationalists. The armed forces of
40N
0

GERMANY
RHINELAND
SUDETENLAND
POLAND
E. PRUSSIA
(GER.)
MEMEL
ALBANIA
FRANCE
AUSTRIA
SPAIN
(Civil War,
19361939)
ITALY
UNITED
KINGDOM
ATLANTIC
OCEAN
North
Sea
M
e di t e rrane an Se a
B
a
l
t
i
c
S
e
a
C
Z
E
C
H
O
S
LOVAKIA
40N
0 Equator
1
2
0

E
8
0

E
8
0

W
4
0

E
4
0

W
0

Tropic of Cancer
Arctic Circle
ATLANTIC
OCEAN
INDIAN OCEAN
PACIFIC
OCEAN
M
ed
iterranean Sea
Bay of
Bengal
Sea of
Japan
LIBYA
ETHIOPIA
SOMALIA
ERITREA
CHINA
JAPAN
MANCHURIA
KOREA
S O V I E T
U N I O N
0
0
3,000 Miles
6,000 Kilometers
0
0
500 Miles
1,000 Kilometers
Italy
Italian colony
Taken by Italy
Sudetenland
Germany
Taken by Germany
Japan
Taken by Japan
Aggression in Europe,
Africa and Asia, 19301939
MDL8 7.31.4.1
First proof
Black Cyan Magenta Yellow
Years of Crisis 813
Vocabulary
axis: a straight line
around which an
object rotates. Hitler
and Mussolini expect-
ed their alliance to
become the axis
around which Europe
would rotate.
GE OGRAP HY
S KI L L BUI L DE R:
Interpreting Maps
1. Location What countries were
aggressors in this period?
2. Movement Aggression
occurred on what three
continents?
811-815-0731s4 10/11/02 4:54 PM Page 813
Page 3 of 5
the Republicans, as supporters of Spains elected government were known, received
little help from abroad. The Western democracies remained neutral. Only the Soviet
Union sent equipment and advisers. An International Brigade of volunteers fought on
the Republican side but had little chance against a professional army. Early in 1939,
Republican resistance collapsed. Franco became Spains Fascist dictator.
Western Democracies Fail to Halt Aggression
Instead of taking a stand against Fascist aggression in the 1930s, Britain and France
repeatedly made concessions, hoping to keep peace. Both nations were dealing with
serious economic problems as a result of the Great Depression. In addition, the
horrors of World War I had created a deep desire to avoid war. Allowing Hitler and
Mussolini small territorial gains seemed a small price to pay for peace.
United States Follows an Isolationist Policy Many Americans resisted accepting
the nations new position as a world leader. Isolationismthe belief that political ties
to other countries should be avoidedwon wide support. Isolationists argued that
entry into World War I had been a costly error. They were determined to prevent a
repeat of this mistake. Beginning in 1935, Congress passed three Neutrality Acts.
These laws banned loans and the sale of arms to nations at war. The isolationists
believed this action would keep the United States out of another foreign war.
The German Reich Expands On November 5, 1937, Hitler announced to his advis-
ers his plans to absorb Austria and Czechoslovakia into the Third Reich (ryk), or
German Empire. The Germans would then expand into Poland and Russia. Hitlers
first target was Austria. The Treaty of Versailles prohibited Anschluss (AHN
shlus),
or a union between Austria and Germany. However, many Austrians supported unity
with Germany. In March 1938, Hitler sent his army into Austria and annexed it.
France and Britain ignored their pledge to protect Austrian independence.
Hitler next turned to Czechoslovakia. After World War I, Czechoslovakia had devel-
oped into a prosperous democracy with a strong army and a defense treaty with France.
About 3 million German-speaking people lived in the western border regions of
Czechoslovakia called the Sudetenland. (See map, page 813.) This heavily fortified area
formed the Czechs main defense against Germany. The Anschluss raised pro-Nazi
feelings among Sudeten Germans. In September 1938, Hitler demanded that the
Sudetenland be given to Germany. The Czechs refused and asked France for help.
Background
According to Hitler,
there were three
great German
empires. They were
the Holy Roman
Empire; the German
Empire of 18711918;
and the Third Reich,
ruled by the Nazis.
The Third Reich, Hitler
believed, would last
1,000 years.
814 Chapter 31
The Spanish artist Pablo Picasso painted Guernica shortly after
Nazi planes destroyed the ancient Basque city of Guernica in 1937.
The air attacks killed a thousand people, one out of every eight
residents. At left, a mother cries over her dead child. In the center, a
horse screams and a soldier lies dead. At right, a woman falls from
a burning house. The canvas is huge11 feet high and 25 feet long.
HISTORY THROUGH ART: Fine Art
Analyzing Visuals How does
Picassos use of image and color
depict the horrors of the Spanish
Civil War?
SEE SKILLBUILDER
HANDBOOK, PAGE R20
Research Research the civil war
in Bosnia. Collect different types
of visuals that show the horror of
that war. Describe your selections.
Connect to Today
THINK THROUGH HISTORY
C. Summarizing
What foreign coun-
tries were involved in
the Spanish Civil
War?
C. Answer Germany
and Italy on the side
of Franco; the Soviet
Union in support
of the Spanish
government.
Connect to History
811-815-0731s4 10/11/02 4:54 PM Page 814
Page 4 of 5
Britain and France Again Choose Appeasement France and Britain were prepar-
ing for war when Mussolini proposed a meeting of Germany, France, Britain, and
Italy in Munich, Germany. The Munich Conference was held on September 29,
1938. The Czechs were not invited. British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain
believed that he could preserve peace by giving in to Hitlers demand. The next morn-
ing, a tense world learned that the crisis was over. Britain and France
agreed that Hitler could take the Sudetenland. In exchange, Hitler
pledged to respect Czechoslovakias new borders.
Chamberlains policy of appeasement seemed to have prevented
war. When he returned to London, Chamberlain told cheering
crowds, I believe it is peace for our time. Winston Churchill, then
a member of the British Parliament, strongly disagreed. He opposed
the appeasement policy and gloomily warned of its consequences.
A V O I C E F R O M T H E P A S T
We are in the presence of a disaster of the first magnitude. . . . we have
sustained a defeat without a war. . . . And do not suppose that this is
the end. . . . This is only the first sip, the first foretaste of a bitter cup
which will be proffered to us year by year unless, by a supreme recov-
ery of moral health and martial vigor, we arise again and take our stand
for freedom as in the olden time.
WINSTON CHURCHILL, speech before the House of Commons, October 5, 1938
Less than six months after the Munich meeting, Hitlers troops took
Czechoslovakia. Soon after, Mussolini seized nearby Albania. Then
Hitler demanded that Poland return the former German port of
Danzig. The Poles refused and turned to Britain and France for aid.
Both countries said they would guarantee Polish independence. But
appeasement had convinced Hitler that neither nation would risk war.
Nazis and Soviets Sign Nonaggression Pact Britain and France
asked the Soviet Union to join them in stopping Hitlers aggression.
Negotiations proceeded slowly. The two democracies distrusted the
Communist government, and Stalin resented having been left out of
the Munich Conference. As the Soviet leader talked with Britain and
France, he also bargained with Hitler. The two dictators reached an
agreement. Once bitter enemies, fascist Germany and communist Russia now publicly
committed never to attack one another. On August 23, 1939, a nonaggression pact was
signed. As the Axis Powers moved unchecked at the end of the decade, the whole
world waited to see what would happen next. War appeared inevitable.
2. TAKING NOTES
Trace the movement of Japan
from democratic reform in the
1920s to military aggression in the
1930s by supplying the events
following the dates shown on the
time line below.
What event was the most
significant? Why?
3. DRAWING CONCLUSIONS
Review Germanys aggressive
actions after Hitler defied the
Versailles Treaty by rebuilding
Germanys armed forces. At what
point do you think Hitler concluded
that he could take any territory
without being stopped? Why?
THINK ABOUT
Hitlers goals
responses of the democracies to
his statements and actions
the role of the League of Nations
4. ANALYZING THEMES
Power and Authority After
World War I, many Americans
became isolationists. Do you
recommend that America practice
isolationism today? Why or why
not?
THINK ABOUT
Americas role as world leader
the global economy
Americas domestic problems
the economic and political goals
of other countries
Years of Crisis 815
THINK THROUGH HISTORY
D. Recognizing
Effects What were
the effects of isola-
tionism and
appeasement?
D. Answer
Aggressor nations
continued their
aggressions
unchecked.
Aggression in the Persian Gulf
After World War II, the Munich
Conference of 1938 became a
symbol for surrender. Leaders of
democracies vowed never again to
appease a ruthless dictator. U.S.
President George Bush used
Munich as an example when
responding to aggression in the
Persian Gulf in 1990.
When troops of Iraqi dictator
Saddam Hussein invaded nearby
Kuwait, the United States
responded to Kuwaits call for help
by forming a coalition of forces to
fight the Persian Gulf War. In
explaining why, Bush noted how
Britains Neville Chamberlain failed
to help Czechoslovakia after Hitler
claimed the Sudetenland. Bush said:
The world cannot turn a blind
eye to aggression. You know
the tragic consequences when
nations, confronted with
aggression, choose to tell
themselves it is no concern of
theirs, just a quarrel [as
Chamberlain said] in a faraway
country between people of
whom we know nothing.
CONNECT to TODAY
1. TERMS & NAMES
Identify
appeasement
Axis Powers
Francisco Franco
isolationism
Third Reich
Munich Conference
Section Assessment 4
1922 1930 1936
1928 1931 1937
811-815-0731s4 10/11/02 4:54 PM Page 815
Page 5 of 5
Nazis take control in Germany.
Fascists come to power in other countries.
Democracies try social welfare programs.
Japan expands in East Asia.
World War II breaks out.
Long-Term Effects
31
1. Albert Einstein
2. Sigmund Freud
3. Weimar Republic
4. New Deal
5. fascism
6. Benito Mussolini
7. Adolf Hitler
8. appeasement
9. Francisco Franco
10. Munich Conference
REVIEW QUESTIONS
SECTION 1 (pages 795800)
An Age of Uncertainty
11. What effect did Einsteins theory of relativity and Freuds theory of the
unconscious have on the public?
12. What advances were made in transportation and communication in the
1920s and 1930s?
SECTION 2 (pages 801806)
A Global Depression
13. List three reasons the Weimar Republic was considered weak.
14. What was the Dawes Plan? How did it affect the German economy?
15. What caused the stock market crash of 1929?
SECTION 3 (pages 807810)
Fascism Rises in Europe
16. List three political and economic reasons the Italians turned to
Mussolini.
17. List three of Hitlers beliefs and goals presented in Mein Kampf.
SECTION 4 (pages 811815)
Aggressors on the March
18. Explain how Japan planned to solve its economic problems.
19. Why was Germanys reoccupation of the Rhineland a signicant turning
point toward war?
20. Briey describe the Spanish Civil War. Include when it occurred, who
fought, and who won.
The Great Depression
Long-Term Causes
World economies are connected.
Some countries have huge war debts from
World War I.
Europe relies on American loans and
investments.
Prosperity is built on borrowed money.
Wealth is unequally distributed.
Chapter Assessment
TERMS & NAMES
Briey explain the importance of each of the following during the years
1919 to 1939.
Visual Summary
Interact with History
On page 794, you chose a candi-
date to support in German elections
in the early 1930s. Now that you
have read the chapter, did what you
read conrm your decision? Why or
why not? Would the candidate you
selected have a good or bad effect
on the rest of the world? Discuss
your opinions with a small group.
816 Chapter 31
Immediate Causes
U.S. stock market crashes.
Banks demand repayment of loans.
Farms fail and factories close.
Americans reduce foreign trade to protect
economy.
Americans stop loans to foreign countries.
American banking system collapses.
Millions become unemployed worldwide.
Businesses go bankrupt.
Governments take emergency measures to
protect economies.
Citizens lose faith in capitalism and democracy.
Nations turn toward authoritarian leaders.
Immediate Effects
Worldwide Economic
Depression
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CHAPTER ACTIVITIES
1. LIVING HISTORY: Unit Portfolio Project
Your unit portfolio project focuses on the
impact of scientic and technological innovation on history. For chapter 31,
you might select one of the following ideas to add to your portfolio.
Study the style of an architect, artist, author, or musician in this chapter.
Compose or create your own work imitating this persons style. For example,
design a functional building like Wright or a cubist painting like Picasso.
Give a demonstration speech on an invention, tool, or other device from
this time period. While showing the class how it works, explain its social,
political, or economic effects.
With a small group, invent a weapon to be used for peaceful purposes by
the League of Nations, and rewrite history. Choose an incident of aggression
that you read about and write a ctional account headlined Leagues New
Weapon Halts Fascists. Read your version of history to the class.
2. CONNECT TO TODAY: Cooperative Learning
After World War I, authoritarian leaders came
to power in many countries during times of crisis. Could a Hitler or Mussolini
come to power now in any country? Work with a small group. Select a
country to research.
Using the Internet and library sources, investigate your chosen
countrys political and economic condition today. Review its history.
Use information from your research to prepare a scenario, or situation,
where a dictator could take power in that country. Present your results.
3. INTERPRETING A TIME LINE
Review the unit time line on page 739. Which three events most seriously
deed the peace treaties of this time period? In a short paragraph, explain
why. Share your paragraph with another student.
CRITICAL THINKING
1. THE STOCK MARKET CRASH
In 1929, the economy was like
a delicately balanced house of cards. Use a sequence
graphic like the one below to identify the events that
led to the stock market collapse.
2. SUPPORT FOR FASCISM
Millions of people were attracted to fascist principles
and leaders following World War I. What conditions
made them give their support to these authoritarian
doctrines? What were the advantages and
disadvantages of being under fascist rule?
3. THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS
What weaknesses made the League of Nations an
ineffective force for peace in the 1920s and 1930s?
4. ANALYZING PRIMARY SOURCES
In 1938, France, Britain, Italy, and Germany met to
discuss Hitlers demand for the Sudetenland.
Columbia Broadcasting System transmitted the
following live report on radios around the world.
A V O I C E F R O M T H E P A S T
Prague6:30 p.m. September 29
WILLIAM SHIRER: It took the Big Four just ve
hours and twenty-ve minutes here in Munich
today to dispel the clouds of war and come to
an agreement over the partition of Czechoslo-
vakia. There is to be no European war. . . the
price of that peace is, roughly, the ceding by
Czechoslovakia of the Sudeten territory to
Herr Hitlers Germany. The German Fhrer
gets what he wanted, only he has to wait a
little longer for it. . . .
His waiting ten short days has saved
Europe from a world war. . . most of the peo-
ples of Europe are happy that they wont
have to be marching off to war on Saturday.
Probably only the Czechs. . . are not too
happy. But there seems very little that they
can do about it in face of all the might and
power represented here. . .
WILLIAM SHIRER, quoted in The Strenuous Decade
Summarize the news Shirer is reporting.
What do you think is Shirers opinion about it?
Give specic examples to support your opinion.
Years of Crisis 817
THEME SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
THEME POWER AND AUTHORITY
THEME ECONOMICS
FOCUS ON CHARTS
Comparing Fascism/Nazism and Communism Fascism/Nazism and
Communism are two different totalitarian political systems with some
common characteristics.
Fascism/Nazism Communism
Basic principles
Political
Social
Cultural
Economic
Examples
Authoritarian; action-
oriented; charismatic
leader; state more
important than individual
Nationalist; racist
(Nazism); one-party rule;
supreme leader
Supported by middle
class, industrialists, and
military
Censorship; indoctrina-
tion; secret police
Private property control
by state corporations or
state
Italy, Spain, Germany
Marxist-Leninist ideas;
dictatorship of proletariat;
state more important than
individual
Internationalist; one-party
rule; supreme leader
Supported by workers
and peasants
Censorship; indoctrina-
tion; secret police
Collective ownership;
centralized state planning
U.S.S.R.
What characteristics do they have in common? How do they differ? CLASSZONE . COM
TEST PRACTICE Additional Test Practice,
pp. S1S33
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